وڪيپيڊيا sdwiki https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8F%DA%A9_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D9%88 MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.11 first-letter ذريعات خاص بحث واپرائيندڙ واپرائيندڙ بحث وڪيپيڊيا وڪيپيڊيا بحث فائل فائل بحث ذريعات وڪي ذريعات وڪي بحث سانچو سانچو بحث مدد مدد بحث زمرو زمرو بحث باب باب بحث TimedText TimedText talk ماڊيول ماڊيول بحث Event Event talk ٻٽو عددي نظام 0 1677 394812 394563 2026-07-16T11:07:29Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|ٻن بنيادن واري عددي سرشتي ۾ ظاهر ڪيل عدد}} {{Table Numeral Systems}} '''ٻٽو عدد''' ('''Binary number''') اهو [[عدد]] آهي، جيڪو '''ٻہ بنياد عددي سرشتي''' (''بيس-2 نيومرل سسٽم'') يا '''ٻٽي عددي نظام''' (''بائنري نيومرل سسٽم'') ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. هي اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قدرتي عدد]]ن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ صرف ٻه نشان استعمال ٿيندا آهن: {{char|0}} ([[ٻڙي]]) ۽ {{char|1}} ([[هڪ]]). '''ثنائي عدد''' سان اهڙي [[ناطق عدد]] (ريشنل نمبر) جي به مراد ٿي سگهي ٿي، جنهن کي ثنائي عددي سرشتي ۾ محدود (فنيٽ) صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي، يعني اهڙو عدد جيڪو ڪنهن [[صحیح عدد]] کي ٻن جي ڪنهن قوت (ٻن جي قوت) تي ورهائڻ سان حاصل ٿئي. ٻه بنياد [[عددي نظام]] هڪ [[موقعي واري لکت]] (پوزيشنل نوٽيشن) آهي، جنهن جو [[بنياد (رياضي)|بنياد]] (ريڊڪس) [[2]] هوندو آهي. هن سرشتي ۾ هر عددي ڊجٽ کي '''[[بٽ]]''' (bit) يا '''ٻہ عددي ڊجٽ''' (بائنري ڊجٽ) چيو ويندو آهي. [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽس) تي ٻڌل [[ڊجيٽل برقي سرڪٽ]]ن ۾ ان جي سادي عملدرآمد سبب، ثنائي سرشتو تقريباً سڀني جديد [[ڪمپيوٽر]]ن ۽ ڪمپيوٽر تي ٻڌل اوزارن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هي ٻولي سادي آهي ۽ ان جي جسماني عملدرآمد ۾ شور کان بچاءُ جي صلاحيت وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=3.3. Binary and Its Advantages — CS160 Reader |url=https://computerscience.chemeketa.edu/cs160Reader/Binary/Binary.html |website=computerscience.chemeketa.edu |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> '''ٻٽن انگن وارو نظام''' يا '''ٻہ انگي سرشتو''' يا '''انگن جو ڏونائي سرشتو''' {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Binary number '''}} اهڙو سرشتو آھي، جنهن ۾ فقط ٻہ عدد يعني ٻُڙِي ('''0''') ۽ هڪ ('''1''') ٿين ٿا. تنهنڪري انهن انگن جو بنياد ٻہ يا ”ڏُون“ آهي. جيتوڻيڪ اهي انگ انسان لکي پڙهي ۽ سمجهي سگهي ٿو، مگر انسان لاءِ اهڙا انگ [[ڏهائي نظام|ڏهائي سرشتي]] جي انگن کان نسبتاَ تمام گهڻا ڏکيا آهن. اهڙا انگ ڪلُون يا مشينون، يعني [[ڪمپيوٽر]] آسانيءَ سان سمجهي سگهن ٿا. جيئن ڏهائي سرشتي ۾ ساڄي پاسي کان پهريون عدد ايڪا، ٻيون ڏهاڪا، ٽيون سَوَ، چوٿون هزار، وغيره وغيره ٿي ٿو، يعني 10 جِي سگهہ مطابق ملهہ رکي ٿو، تيئن ڏونائي يا ٻٽن انگن جو زيرو برابر ايڪا ھوندو آھي ۽ پوءِ پھريون ٻيڻي ، ٻيون چئوڻي، ٽيون اٺوڻي، چوٿون سورھونڻي، پنجون ٻٽيھونڻي سگھ جو ملھ رکي ٿو. مطلب تہ ٻڙي کي ڇڏي هر عدد پوئين عدد جي سگھ جي ٻيڻ واري سگهہ مطابق ملهہ رکي ٿو. [[File:Binary counter.gif|thumb|ھي ڳاڻيٽو ٻٽن انگن جي 0 کان 30 تائين ڳڻپ جو طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو.]] ٻٽن انگن جي ڳڻپ ۾ رڳو 0 ۽ 1 استعمال ٿيندا آهن. اھا ڏھائي واري عام طريقي جي ڳڻپ جي ڀيٽ ۾ ھيٺين طرح ڪئي ويندي آهي: {{Aligned table |class=wikitable |cols=2 |style=float:right; |rowstyle=text-align:right; |row1header=y | ڏھائي انگن<br> واري ڳڻپ | ٻٽن انگن <br>واري ڳڻپ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 10 | 3 | 11 | 4 | 100 | 5 | 101 | 6 | 110 | 7 | 111 | 8 | 1000 | 9 | 1001 | 10 | 1010 | 11 | 1011 | 12 | 1100 | 13 | 1101 | 14 | 1110 | 15 | 1111 }} {{Clear}} انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا مطابق '''ٻه انگي سرشتو''' يا ٻن انگن وارو حسابي سرشتو اھڙو سرشتو آهي جنهن ۾ ٻڙي ۽ هڪ جو استعمال ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور [[ڪمپيوٽر]] جي ٻٽي، اعداد نظام ۾ 3 لکڻا آهن ته لکبو ”1100“ ڏهائي سرشتي لاءِ ”10“ جو استعمال ٿئي. مثال 25. 6 لکڻا آهن ته لکبو ”01. 110“ اڄ اسان جيڪو ڪمپيوٽر هلايون ٿا اهو ان ٻه انگي سرشتي ٿي هلي ٿو.<ref>[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Binary%20system.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117081507/http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Binary%20system.php |date=2020-01-17 }} پاران سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد</ref> [[فائل:Integer representation 4bit.png|تصغیر|400بك|مثال ۾ -8 ۽ +8 جي انگن جون ٻٽن انگن جي نظام ۾ مختلف حالتون ڏيکاريل آهن.]] ٻٽن عددن جي نظام جي مدد سان گھٽ ۾ گھٽ 7 يا 8 ٻٽا انگ ملائڻ سان ڪمپيوٽر ٻوليءَ جو ھڪ حرف يا اکر يا علامت ٺاھيندو آھي ۽ انھن ٺھيل اکرن مان لفظ ٺھندا آھن. انگريزي لفظ وڪيپيڊيا ۾ انگريزي جا 9 اکر شامل آهن جيڪي: W-I-K-I-P-E-D-I-A آھن. ھيٺ مثال ۾ ٻٽن انگن جي گروپن مان انھن اکرن جو ٺھي لفظ وڪيپيڊيا ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ڏيکاريل آھي: [[فائل:Wikipedia in binary.gif|تصغير|]] == تاريخ == جديد ٻٽي عددي سرشتي جو اڀياس يورپ ۾ پهريون ڀيرو 16هين ۽ 17هين صديءَ دوران [[ٿامس هيريئٽ]] ڪيو، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪجهه ڏهاڪن کان پوءِ [[گوٽفريڊ لائپنيٽز]] ان تي وڌيڪ ڪم ڪيو، جنهن کي هن سرشتي جي ايجاد جو اعزاز پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web | title=Why Did Thomas Harriot Invent Binary? |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00283-023-10271-9 | website=springer.com | access-date=17 April 2026}}</ref> تنهن هوندي به، ٻٽن عددن سان لاڳاپيل سرشتا ان کان اڳ به قديم مصر، چين، يورپ ۽ هندستان سميت ڪيترين ثقافتن ۾ موجود هئا، مثال طور [[فال ڪڍڻ]] لاءِ [[ٻٽي ڪُڻي]]ن جي استعمال سان لاڳاپيل طريقن ۾.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of The Binary Number System |url=https://www.convertbinary.com/blog/binary-number-system-history/ | website=convertbinary.com | access-date=17 April 2026}}</ref> === مصر === {{See also|قديم مصري رياضيات}} [[File:Oudjat.SVG|thumb|left|اهي حسابي قدر، جيڪي خيال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته [[هورس جي اک]] جي حصن وسيلي ظاهر ڪيا ويندا هئا]] قديم مصر جا ڪاتب ڀاڱن لاءِ ٻه مختلف سرشتا استعمال ڪندا هئا: [[مصري ڀاڱا]]، جيڪي ٻٽي عددي سرشتي سان لاڳاپيل نه هئا، ۽ [[هورس جي اک|هورس جي اک جا ڀاڱا]]. پوئين سرشتي کي اهو نالو ان ڪري ڏنو ويو، جو رياضيءَ جي ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال هو ته ان ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ نشانين کي [[هورس]] جي اک جي شڪل ٺاهڻ لاءِ ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ هن راءِ تي اختلاف پڻ ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{citation|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Mathematics|editor1-first=Eleanor|editor1-last=Robson|editor1-link=Eleanor Robson|editor2-first=Jacqueline|editor2-last=Stedall|editor2-link=Jackie Stedall|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780199213122|page=790|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZMSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA790|contribution=Myth No. 2: the Horus eye fractions}}</ref> هورس جي اک جا ڀاڱا اناج، مايع شين يا ٻين ماپن جي ڀاڱائي مقدار لاءِ ٻٽي ڳڻپ جو سرشتو هئا. هن سرشتي ۾ هڪ [[هيڪٽ]] جي ڪنهن ڀاڱي کي {{frac|1|2}}، {{frac|1|4}}، {{frac|1|8}}، {{frac|1|16}}، {{frac|1|32}} ۽ {{frac|1|64}} جهڙن ٻٽن ڀاڱن جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪيو ويندو هو. هن سرشتي جون شروعاتي صورتون [[مصر جو پنجون خاندان|مصر جي پنجين خاندان]]، تقريباً 2400 ق م، جي دستاويزن ۾ ملن ٿيون، جڏهن⁠تہ ان جي مڪمل ترقي يافته هيروگليفي صورت [[مصر جو اوڻيهون خاندان|مصر جي اوڻيهين خاندان]]، تقريباً 1200 ق م، سان واسطو رکي ٿي.<ref>{{citation|title=Numerical Notation: A Comparative History|first=Stephen|last=Chrisomalis|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780521878180|pages=42–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ux--OWgWvBQC&pg=PA42}}.</ref> [[قديم مصري ضرب]] ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ طريقو پڻ ٻٽن عددن سان ويجهو لاڳاپو رکي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ هڪ عدد کي ٻئي عدد سان ضرب ڪرڻ لاءِ مرحلن جو هڪ سلسلو اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن قدر، جيڪو شروعات ۾ ٻن عددن مان پهريون عدد هوندو هو، کي يا ته ٻيڻو ڪيو ويندو هو يا ان ۾ پهريون عدد ٻيهر شامل ڪيو ويندو هو. اهي مرحلا ڪهڙي ترتيب سان ڪرڻا آهن، اهو ٻئي عدد جي ٻٽي اظهار مان طئي ٿيندو هو. هي طريقو مثال طور [[رائنڊ رياضي پيپرس]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو تقريباً 1650 ق م جو آهي.<ref>{{citation|title=How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years|first=Peter Strom|last=Rudman|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2007|isbn=9781615921768|pages=135–136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtcQq4RUfkUC&pg=PA135}}.</ref> === چين === [[File:Bagua-name-earlier.svg|thumb|دائوي باگوا]] چين ۾ ''[[آئي چنگ]]'' جو زمانو نائين صدي ق م تائين پهچي ٿو.<ref name="HackerMoore2002">{{cite book|author1=Edward Hacker|author2=Steve Moore|author3=Lorraine Patsco|title=I Ching: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5hLpfFiMCQC&pg=PR13|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-93969-0|page=13}}</ref> ''آئي چنگ'' ۾ ٻٽي لکت کي ان جي [[چوٿائي عددي سرشتو|چوٿائي]] [[آئي چنگ وسيلي فال ڪڍڻ|فال ڪڍڻ واري طريقي]] جي تشريح لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name=redmond-hon/> اهو [[ين ۽ يانگ]] جي دائوي ٻٽوائي تصور تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="scientific">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan Shectman|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 18th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsbChdIiflsC&pg=PA29|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-32015-6|page=29}}</ref> [[باگوا|اٺ ٽرائگرام]] ۽ [[هيڪساگرام (آئي چنگ)|64 هيڪساگرام]]، جيڪي ترتيبوار ٽن بٽن ۽ ڇهن بٽن وارن ٻٽن عددن سان مشابهت رکن ٿا، گهٽ ۾ گهٽ قديم چين جي [[ژو خاندان]] جي دور کان استعمال ۾ هئا.<ref name="HackerMoore2002"/> [[سونگ خاندان]] جي عالم [[شائو يونگ]] (1011–1077ع) هيڪساگرامن کي اهڙي صورت ۾ ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنو، جيڪا جديد ٻٽن عددن سان مشابهت رکي ٿي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس مقصد ان ترتيب کي رياضيائي استعمال لاءِ پيش ڪرڻ نه هو.<ref name=redmond-hon>{{cite book|last1=Redmond|first1=Geoffrey|last2=Hon|first2=Tze-Ki|title=Teaching the I Ching|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-976681-9|page=227}}</ref> شائو يونگ جي چورس ترتيب ۾ هر هڪ هيڪساگرام جي مٿان موجود [[گهٽ اهم بٽ]] کي ڏسندي،<ref name="Marshall"> {{cite web |url= http://www.biroco.com/yijing/sequence.htm |title= Yijing hexagram sequences: The Shao Yong square (Fuxi sequence) |last= Marshall |first= Steve |date= |website= |publisher= |access-date=2022-09-15 |quote="You could say [the Fuxi binary sequence] is a more sensible way of rendering hexagram as binary numbers .... The reasoning, if any, that informs [the King Wen] sequence is unknown." }} </ref> ۽ قطارن کي يا ته هيٺئين ساڄي پاسي کان مٿئين کاٻي پاسي پڙهندي، جتي سڌيون ليڪون 0 ۽ ٽٽل ليڪون 1 هجن، يا مٿئين کاٻي پاسي کان هيٺئين ساڄي پاسي پڙهندي، جتي سڌيون ليڪون 1 ۽ ٽٽل ليڪون 0 هجن، هيڪساگرامن کي 0 کان 63 تائين جي سلسلي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="Shao Yong’s ”Xiantian Tu'‘">{{cite book|last1=Zhonglian|first1=Shi|last2=Wenzhao|first2=Li|last3=Poser|first3=Hans|title=Leibniz' Binary System and Shao Yong's "Xiantian Tu" in :Das Neueste über China: G.W. Leibnizens Novissima Sinica von 1697 : Internationales Symposium, Berlin 4. bis 7. Oktober 1997|date=2000| publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|location=Stuttgart|isbn=3515074481|pages=165–170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkIpP2SsGlIC&pg=PA165|ref=ID3515074481}}</ref> === قديم ڪلاسيڪي دور === [[اٽرسڪن تهذيب|اٽرسڪن ماڻهن]] فال ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ [[فال ڪڍندڙ پادري|جگرن]] جي ٻاهرئين ڪناري کي سورهن حصن ۾ ورهايو هو. هر حصي تي ڪنهن ديوتا ۽ آسمان ۾ ان سان لاڳاپيل علائقي جو نالو لکيل هوندو هو. جگر جي هر حصي مان هڪ ٻٽو نتيجو حاصل ٿيندو هو، جنهن کي ٻين نتيجن سان گڏائي آخري فال تيار ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Derek |date=2008 |title=Mapping the Entrails: The Practice of Greek Hepatoscopy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27566714 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=319–345 |jstor=27566714 |issn=0002-9475}}</ref> قديم يونان جي [[ڊوڊونا]] واري پيشگوئي مرڪز ۾ فال ڪڍڻ لاءِ جدا جدا ٿانون مان سوالن واريون تختيون ۽ "ها" يا "نه" وارا ڪنڪرا ڪڍيا ويندا هئا. پوءِ انهن نتيجن کي گڏ ڪري آخري پيشگوئي تيار ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=Sarah Iles |title=Ancient Greek divination |date=2008 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1573-5 |edition=1. publ |series=Blackwell ancient religions |location=Malden, Mass.}}</ref> === هندستان === هندستاني عالم [[پنگلا]]، تقريباً ٻي صدي ق م، [[عروض (شاعري)|شاعراڻي وزن]] جي وضاحت لاءِ هڪ ٻٽو سرشتو تيار ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sanchez|first1=Julio|last2=Canton|first2=Maria P.|title=Microcontroller programming: the microchip PIC|year=2007|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9|page=37}}</ref><ref>W. S. Anglin and J. Lambek, ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, 1995, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> هن شاعراڻن وزنن کي ننڍين ۽ ڊگهن ماترائن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪيو، جن مان ڊگهي ماترا ڊيگهه ۾ ٻن ننڍين ماترائن جي برابر هئي.<ref>[http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf Math for Poets and Drummers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616225617/http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf |date=16 June 2012 }} (pdf, 145KB)</ref> انهن کي ترتيبوار ''لگهو''، يعني هلڪي ماترا، ۽ ''گرو''، يعني ڳري ماترا، چيو ويندو هو. پنگلا جي هندو ڪلاسيڪي ڪتاب ''[[چندهه شاستر]]'' (8.23) ۾ هر وزن کي هڪ الڳ قدر ڏيڻ لاءِ هڪ ماترائي جدول ٺاهڻ جو طريقو بيان ٿيل آهي. سنسڪرت ۾ ''چندهه شاستر'' جي لفظي معنيٰ "وزنن جو علم" آهي. پنگلا جي سرشتي ۾ ٻٽو اظهار ساڄي پاسي وڌندو هو، جڏهن⁠تہ جديد [[موقعي واري لکت]] ۾ ٻٽا عدد کاٻي پاسي وڌندا آهن.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The mathematics of harmony: from Euclid to contemporary mathematics and computer science|first1=Alexey|last1=Stakhov|author1-link=Alexey Stakhov|first2=Scott Anthony|last2=Olsen|isbn=978-981-277-582-5|year=2009|publisher=World Scientific |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6fac9RxXREC}}</ref> پنگلا جي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ صفر بدران هڪ کان شروع ٿيندي هئي. چار ننڍيون ماترائون "0000" پهريون نمونو هيون ۽ انهن جو قدر هڪ هو. عددي قدر [[موقعي واري قيمت]]ن جي مجموعي ۾ هڪ شامل ڪري حاصل ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref>B. van Nooten, "Binary Numbers in Indian Antiquity", Journal of Indian Studies, Volume 21, 1993, pp. 31–50</ref> === اولهه آفريڪا === [[اِفا]] اولهه آفريڪا جو هڪ فال ڪڍڻ وارو سرشتو آهي، جيڪو پراڻي [[اويو سلطنت]] جي يوروبا قبيلي ۾ مشهور هو. اهو ''آئي چنگ'' سان مشابهت رکي ٿو، پر ''آئي چنگ'' جي 64 نشانين جي ڀيٽ ۾ ان ۾ 256 تائين ٻٽيون نشانيون هونديون آهن.{{sfn|Landry|2019|p=25}} اهو عدد 16 جي چورس مان حاصل ٿئي ٿو ۽ اٺ بٽن واري سلسلي جي ڪل ممڪن ترتيبن جي برابر آهي. اِفا وسيلي فال ڪڍڻ ۾ اهي ممڪن نتيجا ''[https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2025/08/22/what-ifa-an-indigenous-binary-knowledge-system-can-teach-us-about-ai/ اودو]'' سڏجن ٿا. اهي ''اودو'' هڪ ''اوپيلي'' زنجير وسيلي طئي ڪيا وڃن ٿا، جنهن ۾ اٺ ٻج هوندا آهن. هر ٻج ٻن مان ڪنهن هڪ حالت، کليل يا بند، ۾ ڪري سگهي ٿو، جنهن سان سڀ ممڪن ترتيبون ٺهن ٿيون. اِفا جو آغاز 15هين صديءَ ۾ اولهه آفريڪا جي [[يوروبا ماڻهو|يوروبا ماڻهن]] ۾ ٿيو. 2008ع ۾ [[يونيسڪو]] اِفا کي "[[انسانيت جي زباني ۽ غير مادي ورثي جا شاهڪار|انسانيت جي زباني ۽ غير مادي ورثي جي شاهڪارن]]" واري فهرست ۾ شامل ڪيو.{{sfn|Landry|2019|p=154}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ifa Divination System |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/ifa-divination-system-00146 |access-date=5 July 2017}}</ref> === ٻيون ثقافتون === [[فرانسيسي پولينيشيا]] جي [[مانگاريوا]] ٻيٽ جا رهواسي 1450ع کان اڳ هڪ گڏيل ٻٽي-[[عشري عددي سرشتو|عشري]] سرشتو استعمال ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bender|first1=Andrea|last2=Beller|first2=Sieghard|title=Mangarevan invention of binary steps for easier calculation|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=111|issue=4|date=16 December 2013|doi=10.1073/pnas.1309160110|pages=1322–1327|pmid=24344278|pmc=3910603|doi-access=free}}</ref> آفريڪا ۽ ايشيا ۾ ٻٽن سُرن وارا [[چيريل ڍول]] پيغامن کي ڪوڊ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا.<ref name="scientific"/> ''آئي چنگ'' جهڙيون ٻٽيون ترتيبون روايتي آفريڪي فال ڪڍڻ وارن سرشتن، جهڙوڪ [[اِفا]]، ۽ [[وچيون دور|وچئين دور]] جي اولهه واري [[نقطي فال]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿينديون هيون. [[آسٽريليا جون مقامي ٻوليون|آسٽريليا جي گهڻين مقامي ٻولين]] ۾ بنياد-2 وارو سرشتو استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bowern |first1=Claire |last2=Zentz |first2=Jason |date=2012 |title=Diversity in the Numeral Systems of Australian Languages |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23621076 |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=133–160 |jstor=23621076 |issn=0003-5483}}</ref> === لائپنيٽز کان اڳ اولهه جون ڪوششون === 1605ع ۾ [[فرانسس بيڪن]] هڪ اهڙي سرشتي جو ذڪر ڪيو، جنهن ۾ الفابيٽ جي اکرن کي ٻٽن عددن جي سلسلن ۾ بدلائي سگهجي ٿو، ۽ پوءِ انهن سلسلن کي ڪنهن به متن ۾ اکرن جي شڪل جي تمام هلڪن ۽ مشڪل سان ڏسڻ ۾ ايندڙ فرقن وسيلي ڳجهي نموني لڪائي سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="Bacon1605" /> ٻٽي رمزنگاريءَ جي عام نظريي لاءِ اهم ڳالهه اها هئي ته بيڪن وڌيڪ چيو ته هي طريقو ڪنهن به اهڙين شين سان استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي رڳو ٻن هڪٻئي کان ڌار حالتن ۾ هجن: ”بشرطيڪ اهي شيون رڳو ٻٽي فرق جي لائق هجن؛ جيئن گهنڊن، بگلَن، روشنين ۽ مشعلن، بندوقن جي ٺڪائن، يا ساڳئي نوعيت جي ٻين اوزارن وسيلي.“<ref name="Bacon1605">{{Cite web |last=Bacon |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Bacon |title=The Advancement of Learning |url=http://home.hiwaay.net/~paul/bacon/advancement/book6ch1.html |year=1605 |volume=6 |location=London |pages=Chapter 1 }} </ref> {{Further|بيڪن جو ڳجهو رمز}} 1617ع ۾ [[جان نيپيئر]] هڪ اهڙو سرشتو بيان ڪيو، جنهن کي هن [[هنڌي حساب]] جو نالو ڏنو. هن ۾ اکرن جي غير موقعي واري اظهار وسيلي ٻٽو حساب ڪيو ويندو هو. [[ٿامس هيريئٽ]] ٻٽي سرشتي سميت ڪيترن موقعي وارن عددي سرشتن جو اڀياس ڪيو، پر پنهنجا نتيجا شايع نه ڪيائين؛ اهي پوءِ سندس ڪاغذن مان هٿ آيا.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shirley|first=John W.|title=Binary numeration before Leibniz|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=19|year=1951|issue=8|pages=452–454|doi=10.1119/1.1933042|bibcode=1951AmJPh..19..452S}}</ref> ممڪن آهي ته يورپ ۾ هن سرشتي بابت پهرين اشاعت [[خوان ڪارامويل ي لوبڪووٽز]] 1700ع ۾ ڪئي هجي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ineichen|first=R.|title=Leibniz, Caramuel, Harriot und das Dualsystem|language=de|journal=Mitteilungen der deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung|volume=16|year=2008|issue=1|pages=12–15|doi=10.1515/dmvm-2008-0009|s2cid=179000299|url=http://page.math.tu-berlin.de/~mdmv/archive/16/mdmv-16-1-12-ineichen.pdf|archive-date=28 December 2021|access-date=15 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228024010/http://page.math.tu-berlin.de/~mdmv/archive/16/mdmv-16-1-12-ineichen.pdf|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228024010/http://page.math.tu-berlin.de/~mdmv/archive/16/mdmv-16-1-12-ineichen.pdf |date=28 December 2021 }}</ref> === لائپنيٽز === [[File:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg|thumb|upright|گوٽفريڊ لائپنيٽز]] لائپنيٽز ٻٽي سرشتي بابت هڪ سئو کان وڌيڪ مسودا لکيا، جن مان گهڻا اڻڇپيل رهيا.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Strickland |first=Lloyd |chapter=Leibniz on Number Systems |date=2020 |title=Handbook of the History and Philosophy of Mathematical Practice |pages=1–31 |editor-last=Sriraman |editor-first=Bharath |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-19071-2_90-1 |access-date=2024-08-20 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-19071-2_90-1 |isbn=978-3-030-19071-2|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> 1679ع ۾ ٻٽي سرشتي بابت پنهنجي پهرين مخصوص لکڻي کان اڳ پڻ سندس ڪيترن مسودن ۾ ٻٽن تصورن جي ابتدائي جاچ جا مثال ملن ٿا، جن ۾ عددن جون جدولون ۽ بنيادي حساب شامل هئا. اهي نوٽ اڪثر رياضيءَ سان اڻلاڳاپيل لکڻين جي حاشين تي لکيل هئا.<ref name=":0" /> 1679ع ۾ ٻٽي سرشتي بابت سندس پهرين ڄاتل لکڻي ''ٻٽي واڌ بابت'' ۾ لائپنيٽز عشري ۽ ٻٽي عددن جي وچ ۾ تبديليءَ جا طريقا بيان ڪيا. هن ٻٽن عددن سان جمع، ڪٽ، ضرب ۽ ونڊ جهڙن بنيادي حسابي عملن لاءِ قاعدا پڻ پيش ڪيا. ان کان سواءِ، هن ڇهن عددن واري عدد جو چورس ڳڻڻ ۽ چورس پاڙ ڪڍڻ لاءِ ٻٽي الجبرا جي هڪ صورت تيار ڪئي.<ref name=":0" /> سندس سڀ کان مشهور ڪم 1703ع ۾ ڇپيل مقالي ''Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire'' ۾ ملي ٿو. هن مقالي جي مڪمل عنوان جو انگريزي ترجمو هن ريت آهي: ''ٻٽي حساب جي وضاحت، جيڪو رڳو 1 ۽ 0 نشانن کي استعمال ڪري ٿو، ان جي فائدن بابت ڪجهه ويچارن ۽ انهن روشنين سميت، جيڪي اهو [[فو شي]] جي قديم چيني شڪلين تي وجهي ٿو''.<ref name="lnz">Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7, p.223; Engl. transl.[https://www.leibniz-translations.com/binary]</ref> لائپنيٽز جو سرشتو جديد ٻٽي عددي سرشتي وانگر 0 ۽ 1 استعمال ڪري ٿو. سندس ٻٽي عددي سرشتي جو هڪ مثال هيٺ ڏجي ٿو:<ref name="lnz" /> : 0 0 0 1 &nbsp; عددي قدر 2<sup>0</sup> : 0 0 1 0 &nbsp; عددي قدر 2<sup>1</sup> : 0 1 0 0 &nbsp; عددي قدر 2<sup>2</sup> : 1 0 0 0 &nbsp; عددي قدر 2<sup>3</sup> 1700ع ۾ لائپنيٽز جي يسوعي پادري [[يواخيم بووي]] سان خط و ڪتابت ٿي، جيڪو چين ۾ تبليغي خدمتن دوران ''آئي چنگ'' جو ماهر بڻجي چڪو هو. لائپنيٽز کيس پنهنجي ٻٽي لکت جي وضاحت ڏني، جڏهن⁠تہ بووي 1701ع جي خطن ۾ ڏيکاريو ته ''آئي چنگ'' ۾ ٻٽي لکت جو هڪ آزاد ۽ متوازي نمونو اڳ ئي موجود هو. لائپنيٽز ۽ بووي ان لاڳاپي کي چيني فلسفياتي [[رياضي]] جي اهم ڪاميابيءَ جو ثبوت سمجهيو.<ref>[https://gwern.net/doc/cs/1980-swiderski.pdf#page=8 "Bouvet and Leibniz: A Scholarly Correspondence"], Swiderski 1980</ref> لائپنيٽز پنهنجي ''ٻٽي حساب جي وضاحت'' ۾ هن متوازي ايجاد بابت لکيو ته ”ايتري ڊگهي عرصي کان پوءِ انهن نشانين جي معنيٰ جي هيءَ بحالي اڃا وڌيڪ حيرت انگيز لڳندي.“<ref>[https://www.leibniz-translations.com/binary.htm لائپنيٽز]: "چينين شايد هڪ هزار ورهيه کان به اڳ فو شي جي ''ڪووا'' يا ليڪائي نشانين جي معنيٰ وساري ڇڏي هئي. هنن ان موضوع تي اهڙيون شرحون لکيون، جن ۾ مون کي خبر ناهي ته ڪهڙيون پري جون معنائون ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي، تنهنڪري انهن نشانين جي سچي وضاحت هاڻي يورپين وٽان اچڻي هئي. اهو هن ريت ٿيو: رڳو ٻه سال کن اڳ مون پيڪنگ ۾ رهندڙ نامياري فرانسيسي يسوعي پادري، معزز فادر بووي،<sup>3</sup> ڏانهن 0 ۽ 1 وسيلي ڳڻپ ڪرڻ جو پنهنجو طريقو موڪليو. کيس رڳو ايترو ڏسڻ جي دير هئي ته هن سڃاڻي ورتو ته اهو ئي فو شي جي شڪلين جي ڪنجي آهي. 14 نومبر 1701ع تي مون ڏانهن لکيل خط ۾ هن مون کي ان فلسفي شهزادي جي وڏي شڪل موڪلي، جيڪا 64 تائين پهچي ٿي، ۽ ان کان پوءِ اسان جي تشريح جي درست هجڻ بابت ڪنهن به شڪ جي گنجائش نه رهي. ايتري قدر جو چئي سگهجي ٿو ته هن پادريءَ، مون پاران کيس ڏنل ڄاڻ جي مدد سان، فو شي جي ڳجهارت کي سلجهائي ڇڏيو. ۽ جيئن اهي شڪليون شايد دنيا ۾ موجود سائنس جي سڀ کان آڳاٽي يادگار آهن، [GM VII، ص 227] تنهنڪري ايتري ڊگهي عرصي کان پوءِ انهن جي معنيٰ جي هيءَ بحالي اڃا وڌيڪ حيرت انگيز لڳندي."</ref> هي لاڳاپو لائپنيٽز جي هڪ عالمگير ٻولي يا ''[[عالمگير علامتي ٻولي]]'' واري تصور جو مرڪزي حصو هو. اهو خيال پوءِ [[گوٽلوب فريگه]] ۽ [[جارج بول]] جهڙن سندس جانشينن ۾ پڻ مقبول ٿيو ۽ [[قضيائي حساب|جديد علامتي منطق]] جي جوڙجڪ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيائين.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiton |first=Eric J. |title=Leibniz: A Biography |year=1985 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=0-85274-470-6 |pages=245–8 }}</ref> لائپنيٽز کي ''[[آئي چنگ]]'' بابت پهريون ڀيرو فرانسيسي يسوعي [[يواخيم بووي]] معرفت ڄاڻ ملي، جيڪو 1685ع ۾ تبليغي مقصد سان چين ويو هو. لائپنيٽز ''آئي چنگ'' جي هيڪساگرامن کي هڪ مسيحي جي حيثيت ۾ پنهنجي مذهبي عقيدن جي [[عالمگيريت]] جي تصديق طور ڏٺو.<ref name="smith">{{cite book|author1=J.E.H. Smith|title=Leibniz: What Kind of Rationalist?: What Kind of Rationalist?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Da_oP3sJs1oC&pg=PA4153|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8668-7|page=415}}</ref> ٻٽا عدد لائپنيٽز جي الاهي فڪر ۾ مرڪزي حيثيت رکندا هئا. سندس خيال هو ته اهي مسيحي تصور ''[[عدم مان تخليق]]'' جي علامت آهن.<ref name="lniz">{{cite book|author1=Yuen-Ting Lai|title=Leibniz, Mysticism and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U9dOmVt81UAC&pg=PA149|year=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-5223-5|pages=149–150}}</ref> {{blockquote|اهڙو تصور، جيڪو غير مسيحن کي سمجهائڻ سولو ناهي، اهو خدا جي ڪامل قدرت سان عدم مان تخليق آهي. هاڻي اهو چئي سگهجي ٿو ته دنيا ۾ ٻي ڪا به شيءِ هن قدرت کي عددن جي ابتدا کان وڌيڪ چڱيءَ ريت ظاهر ۽ ثابت نٿي ڪري، جيئن هتي هڪ ۽ صفر يا عدم جي سادي ۽ بنا سينگار واري صورت ۾ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي.|لائپنيٽز جو [[روڊولف آگسٽس، برنزوڪ-لونبرگ جو ڊيوڪ|برنزوڪ جي ڊيوڪ]] ڏانهن خط، جنهن سان ''آئي چنگ'' جا هيڪساگرام پڻ شامل هئا<ref name="smith"/>}} === پوءِ جون اڳڀرايون === [[File:George Boole color.jpg|thumb|left|جارج بول]] 1854ع ۾ برطانوي رياضيدان [[جارج بول]] هڪ تاريخي اهميت وارو مقالو ڇپرايو، جنهن ۾ [[منطق]] جي هڪ [[الجبرا]]ئي سرشتي جي وضاحت ڪئي وئي، جيڪو پوءِ [[بولي الجبرا]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. سندس منطقي حساب ڊجيٽل برقي سرڪٽن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ بنيادي اهميت اختيار ڪئي.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boole |first=George |orig-year=1854 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15114 |title=An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=Macmillan, Dover Publications, reprinted with corrections [1958] |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-108-00153-3}}</ref> 1937ع ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] [[ميساچوسٽس انسٽيٽيوٽ آف ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۾ پنهنجي ماسٽر جي مقالي ۾ تاريخ ۾ پهريون ڀيرو برقي رلي ۽ سوئچ استعمال ڪندي بولي الجبرا ۽ ٻٽي حساب کي عملي صورت ڏني. ''[[رلي ۽ سوئچنگ سرڪٽن جو علامتي تجزيو]]'' نالي هن مقالي عملي [[ڊجيٽل سرڪٽ]] جي جوڙجڪ جو بنياد وڌو.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits |last=Shannon |first=Claude Elwood |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |location=Cambridge |year=1940 |hdl=1721.1/11173 |type=Thesis }}</ref> نومبر 1937ع ۾ [[جارج اسٽيبيٽز]]، جيڪو ان وقت [[بيل ليبارٽريز]] ۾ ڪم ڪندو هو، رلي تي ٻڌل هڪ ڪمپيوٽر مڪمل ڪيو، جنهن کي هن ”ماڊل ڪي“ نالو ڏنو. نالي ۾ ”ڪي“ سندس رڌڻي ڏانهن اشارو هو، جتي هن اهو اوزار گڏ ڪيو هو. هي ڪمپيوٽر ٻٽي جمع وسيلي حساب ڪندو هو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/140.html |title=National Inventors Hall of Fame – George R. Stibitz |date=20 August 2008 |access-date=5 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709213530/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/140.html |archive-date=9 July 2010}}</ref> 1938ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ بيل ليبارٽريز اسٽيبيٽز جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ مڪمل تحقيقي پروگرام منظور ڪيو. سندن ''مرڪب عدد ڪمپيوٽر'' 8 جنوري 1940ع تي مڪمل ٿيو ۽ [[مرڪب عدد]]ن تي حساب ڪري سگهندو هو. 11 سيپٽمبر 1940ع تي [[ڊارٽمائوٿ ڪاليج]] ۾ [[آمريڪي رياضياتي سوسائٽي]] جي گڏجاڻيءَ دوران اسٽيبيٽز ٽيليفون لائين وسيلي [[ٽيلي پرنٽر]] کان مرڪب عدد ڳڻپيندڙ ڏانهن پري کان حڪم موڪليا. اهو ٽيليفون لائين وسيلي پري کان استعمال ٿيندڙ دنيا جو پهريون حسابي اوزار هو. هن مظاهري جي شاهدن ۾ [[جان فون نيومن]]، [[جان ماڪلي]] ۽ [[نوربرٽ وينر]] شامل هئا، جن مان وينر بعد ۾ پنهنجي يادگيرين ۾ ان جو ذڪر ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stibitz.denison.edu/bio.html |title=George Stibitz : Bio |publisher=Math & Computer Science Department, Denison University |date=30 April 2004 |access-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/stibitz.htm |title=Pioneers – The people and ideas that made a difference – George Stibitz (1904–1995) |publisher=Kerry Redshaw |date=20 February 2006 |access-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Stibitz.html |title=George Robert Stibitz – Obituary |publisher=Computer History Association of California |date=6 February 1995 |access-date=5 July 2010}}</ref> [[زيڊ 1 ڪمپيوٽر]]، جنهن کي [[ڪونراڊ زوزه]] 1935ع کان 1938ع جي وچ ۾ جوڙيو ۽ تيار ڪيو، [[بولي منطق]] ۽ ٻٽا [[سچل نقطي وارو حساب|سچل نقطي وارا عدد]] استعمال ڪندو هو.<ref name="zuse">{{cite journal |title=Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3 |author-last=Rojas |author-first=Raúl |author-link=Raúl Rojas |journal=[[آئي ٽرپل اي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي تاريخ جا ساليانا]] |volume=19 |number=2 |date=April–June 1997 |pages=5–16 |doi=10.1109/85.586067 |url=http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/Zuse_Z1_and_Z3.pdf |access-date=2022-07-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703082408/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/Zuse_Z1_and_Z3.pdf |archive-date=2022-07-03}} (12 صفحا)</ref> == ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ == ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ ڪرڻ جو طريقو ٻين عددي سرشتن وانگر ئي آهي. هڪ هنج کان شروعات ڪندي، هر هنج کي وڌندڙ ترتيب سان تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي. ٻٽي يا ٻٽي ڳڻپ کي سمجهڻ کان اڳ، حوالو طور وڌيڪ مشهور [[ڏھائي عددي سرشتو|ڏھائي سرشتي]] ۾ ڳڻپ تي مختصر نظر وجهڻ مفيد آهي. === ڏھائي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ === [[ڏھائي عددي سرشتو|ڏھائي]] سرشتو ڏهن نشانين '''0''' کان '''9''' تائين استعمال ڪري ٿو. ڳڻپ سڀ کان گهٽ اهميت واري هنج (ساڄي پاسي واري عدد)، جنهن کي اڪثر ''پهريون ڊجٽ'' چيو ويندو آهي، کي وڌائڻ سان شروع ٿيندي آهي. جڏهن ان هنڌ تي موجود سڀئي نشانيون استعمال ٿي وڃن ٿيون، ته اهو عدد يا ھنج ٻيهر '''0''' ٿي وڃي ٿو ۽ ان جي کاٻي پاسي واري وڌيڪ اهم عدد ۾ هڪ واڌ (''اوورفلو'') ڪئي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کان پوءِ وري ساڄي پاسي واري عدد ۾ ڳڻپ جاري رهندي آهي. اهو عمل هر وڌيڪ اهم عدد لاءِ ورجايو ويندو آهي. ڳڻپ هن ريت اڳتي وڌندي آهي: :000، 001، 002، ... 007، 008، 009، (ساڄي پاسي وارو عدد ٻيهر ٻڙي يا صفر ٿئي ٿو ۽ ان جي کاٻي پاسي وارو عدد هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو) :0'''1'''0، 011، 012، ... :&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;... :090، 091، 092، ... 097، 098، 099، (ساڄي پاسي جا ٻئي عدد ٻيهر ٻڙي ٿين ٿا ۽ ايندڙ عدد هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو) :'''1'''00، 101، 102، ... === ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ === [[File:Binary counter.gif|thumb|هي ڳڻپيندڙ ڏيکاري ٿو ته ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ ٻڙي کان 31 تائين ڪيئن ڳڻپ ڪئي وڃي ٿي.]] [[File:Binary_guess_number_trick_SMIL.svg|thumb|upright|link={{filepath:binary_guess_number_trick_SMIL.svg}}|هڪ مشهور راند، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عدد جو اندازو انهن ڪارڊن جي بنياد تي لڳايو ويندو آهي، جن تي اهو عدد موجود هجي. اها ٻٽي اظهار جي بٽن تي ٻڌل آهي. SVG فائيل ۾ ڪارڊ تي ڪلڪ ڪرڻ سان ان جي حالت تبديل ٿيندي.]] ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ ڳڻپ به ساڳئي اصول تي ٻڌل آهي. هتي به واڌ سڀ کان گهٽ اهميت واري ٻٽي عدد، يعني [[بٽ]] (ساڄي پاسي وارو يا پهريون بٽ)، کان شروع ٿيندي آهي، پر هتي رڳو ٻه نشانيون '''0''' ۽ '''1''' موجود هونديون آهن. تنهنڪري جڏهن ڪنهن بٽ جي قيمت '''1''' تائين پهچي ٿي، ته ايندڙ واڌ سان اهو ٻيهر '''0''' ٿي وڃي ٿو ۽ ساڳئي وقت ان جي کاٻي پاسي وارو بٽ هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو: :0000، :000'''1'''، (ساڄي پاسي وارو بٽ ٻيهر شروع ٿئي ٿو ۽ ايندڙ بٽ هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو) :00'''1'''0، 0011، (ساڄي پاسي جا ٻئي بٽ ٻيهر شروع ٿين ٿا ۽ ايندڙ بٽ هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو) :0'''1'''00، 0101، 0110، 0111، (ساڄي پاسي جا ٽي بٽ ٻيهر شروع ٿين ٿا ۽ ايندڙ بٽ هڪ وڌي وڃي ٿو) :'''1'''000، 1001، 1010، 1011، 1100، 1101، 1110، 1111 ... ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ هر بٽ، 2 جي وڌندڙ قوت جي نمائندگي ڪندو آهي. سڀ کان ساڄي پاسي وارو بٽ 2<sup>0</sup>، ان کان کاٻي وارو 2<sup>1</sup>، پوءِ 2<sup>2</sup>، ۽ اهڙي طرح اڳتي وڌندو آهي. ڪنهن ٻٽي عدد جي قيمت انهن سڀني قوتن جي مجموعي جي برابر هوندي آهي، جن جي لاڳاپيل بٽن جي قيمت '''1''' هجي. مثال طور، ٻٽي عدد '''100101''' کي ڏھائي صورت ۾ هن ريت تبديل ڪيو وڃي ٿو: :100101<sub>2</sub> = [ ( '''1''' ) × 2<sup>5</sup> ] + [ ( '''0''' ) × 2<sup>4</sup> ] + [ ( '''0''' ) × 2<sup>3</sup> ] + [ ( '''1''' ) × 2<sup>2</sup> ] + [ ( '''0''' ) × 2<sup>1</sup> ] + [ ( '''1''' ) × 2<sup>0</sup> ] :100101<sub>2</sub> = [ '''1''' × 32 ] + [ '''0''' × 16 ] + [ '''0''' × 8 ] + [ '''1''' × 4 ] + [ '''0''' × 2 ] + [ '''1''' × 1 ] :'''100101<sub>2</sub> = 37<sub>10</sub>''' == ٻٽو حساب == ٻٽن عددن ۾ [[حساب]] جو طريقو ٻين [[عددي سرشتو|عددي سرشتن]] جي [[موقعي واري لکت]] ۾ ٿيندڙ حساب سان گهڻو مشابهت رکي ٿو. ٻٽن عددن تي جمع، ڪٽ، ضرب ۽ ونڊ ڪري سگهجي ٿي. === جمع === {{main|جمع ڪندڙ (برقيات)}} [[Image:Half Adder.svg|thumbnail|ٻٽي [[جمع ڪندڙ (برقيات)|اڌ جمع ڪندڙ]] جو [[برقي سرڪٽ جو خاڪو]]، جيڪو ٻن بٽن کي پاڻ ۾ جمع ڪري حاصل ۽ اڳتي کڻڻ وارو بٽ پيدا ڪري ٿو]] ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ سڀ کان سادو حسابي عمل جمع آهي. ٻن هڪ-عددي ٻٽن عددن کي جمع ڪرڻ نسبتاً سولو آهي ۽ ان ۾ اڳتي کڻڻ جو طريقو استعمال ٿيندو آهي: :0 + 0 → 0 :0 + 1 → 1 :1 + 0 → 1 :1 + 1 → 0، اڳتي 1 کڻو (ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ 1 + 1 = 2 = 0 + (1 × 2<sup>1</sup>)) ٻن '''1''' عددن کي جمع ڪرڻ سان '''0''' لکبو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''1''' کي ايندڙ خاني ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ اڳتي کنيو ويندو آهي. اهو عمل عشري سرشتي ۾ ٿيندڙ جمع سان مشابهت رکي ٿو؛ جڏهن ٻن هڪ-عددي انگن جو مجموعو بنياد، يعني 10، جي برابر يا ان کان وڌيڪ ٿئي، ته کاٻي پاسي واري عدد ۾ هڪ واڌ ڪئي ويندي آهي: :5 + 5 → 0، اڳتي 1 کڻو (ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ 5 + 5 = 10 = 0 + (1 × 10<sup>1</sup>)) :7 + 9 → 6، اڳتي 1 کڻو (ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ 7 + 9 = 16 = 6 + (1 × 10<sup>1</sup>)) هن عمل کي '''اڳتي کڻڻ''' چيو ويندو آهي. جڏهن جمع جو نتيجو ڪنهن هڪ عدد جي ممڪن قيمت کان وڌي وڃي، ته واڌو مقدار کي عددي سرشتي جي بنياد سان ورهائي کاٻي پاسي واري خاني ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ان کي ايندڙ موقعي واري قيمت ۾ شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهو صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ايندڙ خاني جي وزن ۾ بنياد جيترو واڌارو هوندو آهي. ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ پڻ اڳتي کڻڻ ساڳيءَ ريت ڪم ڪري ٿو: {{brown|1 1 1 1 1 (اڳتي کنيل عدد)}} 0 1 1 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 1 ------------- = 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36 هن مثال ۾ ٻه عدد، 01101<sub>2</sub> يعني 13<sub>10</sub>، ۽ 10111<sub>2</sub> يعني 23<sub>10</sub>، پاڻ ۾ جمع ڪيا ويا آهن. مٿين قطار اڳتي کنيل بٽ ڏيکاري ٿي. سڀ کان ساڄي پاسي واري خاني کان شروع ڪندي، 1 + 1 = 10<sub>2</sub>. ان مان '''1''' کاٻي پاسي کنيو وڃي ٿو ۽ '''0''' ساڄي پاسي واري خاني جي هيٺان لکيو وڃي ٿو. ساڄي پاسي کان ٻئي خاني ۾ 1 + 0 + 1 = 10<sub>2</sub> ٿئي ٿو؛ وري '''1''' اڳتي کنيو وڃي ٿو ۽ '''0''' هيٺ لکيو وڃي ٿو. ٽئين خاني ۾ 1 + 1 + 1 = 11<sub>2</sub> ٿئي ٿو. هن ڀيري '''1''' اڳتي کنيو وڃي ٿو ۽ '''1''' هيٺين قطار ۾ لکيو وڃي ٿو. اهڙيءَ طرح اڳتي وڌڻ سان آخري جواب 100100<sub>2</sub> يعني 36<sub>10</sub> ملي ٿو. جڏهن ڪمپيوٽرن کي ٻن عددن کي جمع ڪرڻو پوي ٿو، ته هي قاعدو پڻ تيز ڳڻپ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو: :x [[خاص يا|اڪس-يا]] y = (x + y) [[باقي وارو عمل|باقي]] 2 جتي x ۽ y ٻه بٽ آهن. ==== ڊگهي اڳتي کڻڻ جو طريقو ==== ٻٽي جمع جي ڪيترن سوالن لاءِ هڪ سادو طريقو '''ڊگهي اڳتي کڻڻ جو طريقو''' يا '''بروڪ هائوس ٻٽي جمع جو طريقو''' آهي. هي طريقو خاص طور تڏهن ڪارائتو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ڪنهن عدد ۾ لڳاتار ڪيترائي '''1''' موجود هجن. هن جو بنيادي اصول اهو آهي ته ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ {{varserif|n}} عددن تي مشتمل لڳاتار '''1'''ن جي قطار ۾ 1 شامل ڪرڻ سان هڪ '''1''' ۽ ان کان پوءِ {{varserif|n}} صفر حاصل ٿيندا آهن. اهو ئي اصول عشري سرشتي ۾ {{varserif|n}} لڳاتار '''9'''ن ۾ 1 جمع ڪرڻ سان لاڳو ٿئي ٿو: ٻٽو عشري 1 1 1 1 1 9 9 9 9 9 + 1 + 1 ——————————— ——————————— 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ اهڙيون ڊگهيون قطارون عام آهن. تنهنڪري وڏن ٻٽن عددن کي گهڻن اڳتي کڻڻ وارن مرحلن کانسواءِ ٻن سادن قدمن ۾ جمع ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هيٺين مثال ۾ 1110111110<sub>2</sub> يعني 958<sub>10</sub> ۽ 1010110011<sub>2</sub> يعني 691<sub>10</sub> کي کاٻي پاسي روايتي اڳتي کڻڻ واري طريقي سان، ۽ ساڄي پاسي ڊگهي اڳتي کڻڻ واري طريقي سان، جمع ڪيو ويو آهي: روايتي اڳتي کڻڻ وارو طريقو ڊگهي اڳتي کڻڻ وارو طريقو بمقابله {{brown|1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (اڳتي کنيل عدد) 1 ← 1 ←}} 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 <s>1 1 1</s> 0 <s>1 1 1 1 1</s> 0 + 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 + 1 0 <s>1</s> 0 1 1 0 0 <s>1</s> 1 ——————————————————————— —————————————————————— = 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 مٿين قطار اڳتي کنيل بٽ ڏيکاري ٿي. هڪ خاني کان ٻئي خاني تائين روايتي نموني اڳتي کڻڻ بدران، هيٺين ساڳئي موقعي واري خاني ۾ '''1''' سان ملندڙ سڀ کان گهٽ درجي واري '''1''' کي جمع ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ۽ هڪ '''1''' کي لڳاتار قطار جي پڄاڻيءَ کان هڪ خانو اڳتي کنيو وڃي ٿو. جيڪي عدد استعمال ٿي چڪا هجن، تن کي ليڪ ڏئي ختم ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي اڳ ۾ ئي جمع ٿي چڪا آهن. ساڳئي طريقي سان ٻين ڊگهن قطارن کي به ختم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. پوءِ باقي عددن کي عام طريقي سان جمع ڪيو وڃي ٿو. اهڙي عمل سان آخري جواب 11001110001<sub>2</sub> يعني 1649<sub>10</sub> ملي ٿو. هن ننڍڙي مثال ۾ روايتي طريقي کي اٺ اڳتي کڻڻ وارا مرحلا گهربل هئا، جڏهن⁠تہ ڊگهي اڳتي کڻڻ واري طريقي ۾ فقط ٻه مرحلا گهربل ٿيا. ==== جمع جي جدول ==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! style="width:1.5em" | ! style="width:1.5em" | 0 ! style="width:1.5em" | 1 |- ! 0 | 0 | 1 |- ! 1 | 1 | 10 |} ٻٽي جمع جي جدول [[منطقي يا#سچائي جدول|منطقي يا]] واري عمل <math>\lor</math> جي سچائي جدول سان مشابهت رکي ٿي، پر بلڪل ساڳي ناهي. فرق اهو آهي ته <math>1 \lor 1 = 1</math>، جڏهن⁠تہ <math>1+1=10</math>. === ڪٽ === {{further|نشان وارو عددي اظهار|ٻن جو پورائو}} [[ڪٽ]] جو عمل به گهڻو ڪري ساڳئي نموني ڪم ڪري ٿو: :0 − 0 → 0 :0 − 1 → 1، 1 اوڌر وٺو :1 − 0 → 1 :1 − 1 → 0 '''0''' مان '''1''' ڪٽڻ سان '''1''' لکيو وڃي ٿو، پر ايندڙ کاٻي خاني مان '''1''' اوڌر وٺڻو پوي ٿو. هن عمل کي '''اوڌر وٺڻ''' چيو ويندو آهي. اصول اڳتي کڻڻ جهڙو ئي آهي. جڏهن ڪٽ جو نتيجو صفر کان گهٽ ٿئي، ته کوٽ کي عددي سرشتي جي بنياد سان ورهائي کاٻي پاسي واري خاني مان اوڌر ورتو وڃي ٿو ۽ ان کي ايندڙ موقعي واري قيمت مان ڪٽيو وڃي ٿو. * * * * (تارن وارن خانن مان اوڌر ورتو ويو آهي) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 − 1 0 1 1 1 ---------------- = 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 * (تارن واري خاني مان اوڌر ورتو ويو آهي) 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 – 1 0 1 0 1 1 ---------------- = 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 ڪنهن مثبت عدد کي ڪٽڻ، ساڳئي [[مطلق قدر]] واري [[ناڪاري عدد]] کي جمع ڪرڻ جي برابر آهي. ڪمپيوٽر ناڪاري عددن کي سنڀالڻ لاءِ [[نشان وارو عددي اظهار]] استعمال ڪندا آهن، جن مان سڀ کان عام [[ٻن جو پورائو]] آهي. اهڙن اظهارَن سان الڳ ڪٽ واري عمل جي ضرورت ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. ٻن جي پورائي ۾ ڪٽ کي هن فارمولي سان بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو: :{{math|1=A − B = A + not B + 1}} === ضرب === <!-- هي ڀاڱو [[ٻٽي ڪوڊ ڪيل عشري]] سان ڳنڍيل آهي --> ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ [[ضرب]] عشري ضرب سان مشابهت رکي ٿي. ٻن عددن {{varserif|A}} ۽ {{varserif|B}} کي جزوي حاصلن وسيلي ضرب ڪري سگهجي ٿو. {{varserif|B}} جي هر عدد لاءِ ان عدد ۽ {{varserif|A}} جو حاصل ڳڻيو وڃي ٿو ۽ نئين قطار ۾ لکيو وڃي ٿو. هر قطار کي ايترو کاٻي پاسي سرڪايو وڃي ٿو، جو ان جو ساڄو عدد {{varserif|B}} جي استعمال ڪيل عدد سان هڪ قطار ۾ اچي. سڀني جزوي حاصلن جو مجموعو آخري جواب ڏئي ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ فقط ٻه عدد آهن، تنهنڪري هر جزوي ضرب جا رڳو ٻه ممڪن نتيجا آهن: * جيڪڏهن {{varserif|B}} جو عدد 0 هجي، ته جزوي حاصل به 0 هوندو. * جيڪڏهن {{varserif|B}} جو عدد 1 هجي، ته جزوي حاصل {{varserif|A}} جي برابر هوندو. مثال طور، ٻٽن عددن 1011 ۽ 1010 کي هن ريت ضرب ڪيو وڃي ٿو: 1 0 1 1 ({{varserif|A}}) × 1 0 1 0 ({{varserif|B}}) --------- 0 0 0 0 ← {{varserif|B}} جي ساڄي پاسي واري صفر لاءِ + 1 0 1 1 ← {{varserif|B}} جي ايندڙ هڪ لاءِ + 0 0 0 0 + 1 0 1 1 --------------- = 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 ٻٽن عددن کي [[ٻٽو نقطو|ٻٽي نقطي]] کان پوءِ موجود بٽن سميت پڻ ضرب ڪري سگهجي ٿو: 1 0 1 . 1 0 1 {{varserif|A}} (عشري سرشتي ۾ 5.625) × 1 1 0 . 0 1 {{varserif|B}} (عشري سرشتي ۾ 6.25) ------------------- 1 . 0 1 1 0 1 ← {{varserif|B}} جي هڪ لاءِ + 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 ← {{varserif|B}} جي صفر لاءِ + 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 + 1 0 1 1 . 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 0 . 1 --------------------------- = 1 0 0 0 1 1 . 0 0 1 0 1 (عشري سرشتي ۾ 35.15625) پڻ ڏسو: [[بوٿ جو ضرب وارو قاعدو]]. ==== ضرب جي جدول ==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! style="width:1.5em" | ! style="width:1.5em" | 0 ! style="width:1.5em" | 1 |- ! 0 | 0 | 0 |- ! 1 | 0 | 1 |} ٻٽي ضرب جي جدول [[منطقي ۽#سچائي جدول|منطقي ۽]] واري عمل <math>\land</math> جي سچائي جدول جي برابر آهي. === ونڊ === {{See also|ونڊ جو قاعدو#باقي سميت صحيح عددي ونڊ}} ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ [[ڊگهي ونڊ]] پڻ عشري سرشتي واري ڊگهي ونڊ سان مشابهت رکي ٿي. هيٺين مثال ۾ [[ورهائيندڙ]] 101<sub>2</sub>، يعني عشري سرشتي ۾ 5، آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ [[ونڊ (رياضي)|ورهائجندڙ]] 11011<sub>2</sub>، يعني عشري سرشتي ۾ 27، آهي. طريقو عشري ڊگهي ونڊ جهڙو آهي. هتي ورهائيندڙ 101<sub>2</sub>، ورهائجندڙ جي پهرين ٽن عددن 110<sub>2</sub> ۾ هڪ ڀيرو اچي ٿو، تنهنڪري مٿين قطار ۾ '''1''' لکيو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ هن نتيجي کي ورهائيندڙ سان ضرب ڪري، ورهائجندڙ جي پهرين ٽن عددن مان ڪٽيو وڃي ٿو. ان کان پوءِ ايندڙ عدد '''1''' کي هيٺ لاٿو وڃي ٿو ته جيئن نئون ٽن-عددي سلسلو ٺهي: 1 ___________ 1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 0 0 1 پوءِ ساڳيو عمل نئين سلسلي سان ورجايو وڃي ٿو ۽ ورهائجندڙ جا سڀ عدد ختم ٿيڻ تائين جاري رهي ٿو: 1 0 1 ___________ 1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 1 1 1 − 1 0 1 ----- 0 1 0 تنهنڪري 11011<sub>2</sub> کي 101<sub>2</sub> سان ورهائڻ جو [[حاصل ونڊ]] 101<sub>2</sub> آهي، جيڪو مٿين قطار ۾ ڏيکاريل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هيٺين قطار ۾ ڏيکاريل باقي 10<sub>2</sub> آهي. عشري سرشتي ۾ اهو 27 کي 5 سان ورهائڻ جي برابر آهي، جنهن جو حاصل 5 ۽ باقي 2 آهي. ڊگهي ونڊ کانسواءِ اهڙا طريقا پڻ ترتيب ڏئي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ هر مرحلي تي جزوي باقي مان ضرورت کان وڌيڪ ڪٽ ڪيو وڃي. اهڙا طريقا گهٽ باقاعده، پر وڌيڪ لچڪدار هوندا آهن. === چورس پاڙ (اسڪوائر روٽ) === [[چورس پاڙ ڳڻڻ جا طريقا#ٻٽو عددي سرشتو (بنياد 2)|ٻٽي چورس پاڙ]] عدد بہ عدد ڪڍڻ جو عمل بنيادي طور عشري چورس پاڙ جهڙو آهي، پر ٻٽي سرشتي سبب گهڻو سادو آهي. پهرين عددن کي ساڄي پاسي کان جوڙن ۾ ورهايو وڃي. جيڪڏهن عددن جو تعداد اڻپورو هجي، ته شروع ۾ هڪ صفر وڌو وڃي. پوءِ هر مرحلي تي هيل تائين حاصل ٿيل جواب کي '''01''' سان وڌائي ڏٺو وڃي ٿو. جيڪڏهن اهو موجوده باقي مان ڪٽي سگهجي، ته ڪٽ ڪيو وڃي. پوءِ باقي سان ايندڙ عددي جوڙو شامل ڪيو وڃي. جيڪڏهن ڪٽ ٿيو هجي ته جواب جو ايندڙ عدد '''1'''، ٻي حالت ۾ '''0''' هوندو. 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- √ 10 10 10 01 √ 10 10 10 01 √ 10 10 10 01 √ 10 10 10 01 √ 10 10 10 01 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 - 1 01 - 1 01 - 1 01 ------- ------- ------- 1 10 1 10 01 1 10 01 - 1 10 01 ---------- 0 پهرين مرحلي ۾ هيل تائين جواب 0 آهي. ان کي '''01''' سان وڌائڻ سان 001 ملي ٿو، جيڪو پهرين جوڙي 10 مان ڪٽي سگهجي ٿو؛ تنهنڪري جواب جو پهريون عدد 1 آهي. ٻئي مرحلي ۾ هيل تائين جواب 1 آهي. ان کي '''01''' سان وڌائڻ سان 101 ملي ٿو، جيڪو باقي 110 مان ڪٽي سگهجي ٿو؛ تنهنڪري جواب جو ايندڙ عدد پڻ 1 آهي. ٽئين مرحلي ۾ هيل تائين جواب 11 آهي. ان کي '''01''' سان وڌائڻ سان 1101 ملي ٿو، جيڪو باقي 110 مان ڪٽڻ لاءِ تمام وڏو آهي؛ تنهنڪري جواب جو ايندڙ عدد 0 آهي. چوٿين مرحلي ۾ هيل تائين جواب 110 آهي. ان کي '''01''' سان وڌائڻ سان 11001 ملي ٿو، جيڪو باقي 11001 مان ڪٽي سگهجي ٿو؛ تنهنڪري جواب جو ايندڙ عدد 1 آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح آخري جواب 1101 حاصل ٿئي ٿو. == ڀاڱا == ٻٽي حساب ۾ ڪنهن [[ڀاڱو|ڀاڱي]] جي ٻٽي توسيع رڳو تڏهن [[ورجندڙ عشري|ختم ٿيندي]] آهي، جڏهن ان جو [[مخرج]] 2 جي ڪنهن [[قوت]] جي برابر هجي. تنهنڪري 1/10 جي ڪا محدود ٻٽي صورت ناهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ 10 جا اولي جزا 2 ۽ 5 آهن. انهيءَ سبب ٻٽي [[سچل نقطي وارو حساب|سچل نقطي واري حساب]] ۾ 10 × 1/10 جو نتيجو بلڪل 1 جي برابر نه ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، 1/3 جي ٻٽي توسيع .010101... آهي، جنهن جو مطلب آهي: :<math>\frac 13 = 0 \times 2^{-1} + 1 \times 2^{-2} + 0 \times 2^{-3} + 1 \times 2^{-4} + \cdots.</math> ٻن جي ابتڙ قوتن جي محدود مجموعي وسيلي ان جي بلڪل صحيح قيمت حاصل نٿي ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ 1/3 جي ٻٽي صورت ۾ صفر ۽ هڪ سدائين واري واري سان ورجندا رهن ٿا. {| class="wikitable" |- ! ڀاڱو ! [[بنياد 10|عشري]] ! ٻٽو ! ڀاڱائي ويجهو قدر |- | 1/1 | 1{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.999... | 1{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.{{Overline|1}} | 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8... |- | 1/2 | 0.5{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.4999... | 0.1{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.0{{Overline|1}} | 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16... |- | 1/3 | 0.333... | 0.{{Overline|01}} | 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64... |- | 1/4 | 0.25{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.24999... | 0.01{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.00{{Overline|1}} | 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32... |- | 1/5 | 0.2{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.1999... | 0.{{Overline|0011}} | 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/128... |- | 1/6 | 0.1666... | 0.0{{Overline|01}} | 1/8 + 1/32 + 1/128... |- | 1/7 | 0.142857142857... | 0.{{Overline|001}} | 1/8 + 1/64 + 1/512... |- | 1/8 | 0.125{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.124999... | 0.001{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.000{{Overline|1}} | 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64... |- | 1/9 | 0.111... | 0.{{Overline|000111}} | 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64... |- | 1/10 | 0.1{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.0999... | 0.0{{Overline|0011}} | 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256... |- | 1/11 | 0.090909... | 0.{{Overline|0001011101}} | 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/128... |- | 1/12 | 0.08333... | 0.00{{Overline|01}} | 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256... |- | 1/13 | 0.076923076923... | 0.{{Overline|000100111011}} | 1/16 + 1/128 + 1/256... |- | 1/14 | 0.0714285714285... | 0.0{{Overline|001}} | 1/16 + 1/128 + 1/1024... |- | 1/15 | 0.0666... | 0.{{Overline|0001}} | 1/16 + 1/256... |- | 1/16 | 0.0625{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.0624999... | 0.0001{{pad|0.25em}}يا{{pad|0.25em}}0.0000{{Overline|1}} | 1/32 + 1/64 + 1/128... |} == بٽ وار عمل == {{Main|بٽ وار عمل}} جيتوڻيڪ هي عمل ٻٽن نشانين جي عددي معنيٰ سان سڌيءَ طرح لاڳاپيل نه آهن، پر بٽن جي سلسلن کي [[منطقي ڳنڍيندڙ|بولي منطقي عملگرن]] وسيلي بدلائي سگهجي ٿو. جڏهن ٻٽن نشانين جي ڪنهن سلسلي تي هن طريقي سان عمل ڪيو وڃي، ته ان کي '''بٽ وار عمل''' چيو ويندو آهي. [[منطقي ۽|۽]]، [[منطقي يا|يا]] ۽ [[خاص يا|خاص يا]] جهڙا منطقي عمل ٻن ڏنل ٻٽن عددن جي هڪجهڙن هنڌن تي موجود بٽن تي لاڳو ڪري سگهجن ٿا. جڏهن⁠تہ [[منطقي نفي|نه]] وارو عمل ڪنهن هڪ ڏنل ٻٽي عدد جي هر بٽ تي الڳ الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهڙا عمل حسابي مختصر طريقن طور استعمال ٿيندا آهن ۽ ڳڻپ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ جا ٻيا فائدا پڻ ڏيندا آهن. مثال طور، ڪنهن ٻٽي عدد کي کاٻي پاسي [[حسابي سرڪاءُ]] ڏيڻ، ان عدد کي 2 جي ڪنهن مثبت صحيح قوت سان ضرب ڪرڻ جي برابر آهي. == ٻين عددي سرشتن ڏانهن ۽ انهن مان تبديلي == === ڏھائي کان ٻٽي لکت === [[File:Decimal to Binary Conversion.gif|alt=|frame|(357)<sub>10</sub> کي ٻٽي لکت ۾ بدلائڻ سان (101100101)<sub>2</sub> حاصل ٿئي ٿو]] بنياد-10 واري [[صحیح عدد (ڪمپيوٽر سائنس)|صحیح عدد]] کي ان جي بنياد-2، يعني ٻٽي، برابر ۾ بدلائڻ لاءِ عدد کي [[ٻن سان ونڊ]] ڪيو ويندو آهي. حاصل ٿيل باقي [[گهٽ اهم بٽ]] هوندو آهي. پوءِ حاصل ونڊ کي ٻيهر ٻن سان ورهايو ويندو آهي، ۽ ان جو باقي ايندڙ گهٽ اهم بٽ بڻجي ٿو. اهو عمل تيستائين ورجايو ويندو آهي، جيستائين حاصل ونڊ هڪ نه ٿي وڃي. باقيات جو سلسلو، آخري حاصل ونڊ 1 سميت، ٻٽي قدر ٺاهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻن سان ونڊ ڪرڻ وقت هر باقي يا ته صفر يا هڪ هوندو آهي. مثال طور، (357)<sub>10</sub> کي (101100101)<sub>2</sub> طور ظاهر ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chalkstreet.com/aptipedia/knowledgebase/base-system/|title=Base System|access-date=31 August 2016|archive-date=23 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023010521/https://www.chalkstreet.com/aptipedia/knowledgebase/base-system/|url-status=usurped}}</ref> === ٻٽي کان ڏھائي واري لکت=== بنياد-2 کان بنياد-10 ۾ تبديلي اڳئين قاعدي جو ابتڙ عمل آهي. ٻٽي عدد جا بٽ هڪ هڪ ڪري، سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهم، يعني کاٻي پاسي واري بٽ، کان شروع ڪري استعمال ڪيا وڃن ٿا. شروعاتي قدر 0 رکيو وڃي ٿو، پوءِ اڳئين قدر کي ٻيڻو ڪري ان ۾ ايندڙ بٽ شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سان نئون قدر حاصل ٿئي ٿو. هن عمل کي گهڻن خانن واري جدول ۾ ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، 10010101101<sub>2</sub> کي ڏھاڪي ۾ بدلائڻ لاءِ: {| style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; border-spacing: 3px; background-color: #f8f9fa; color: black; margin: 0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.5em; width:22em" ! اڳيون قدر ! style="text-align:left" | × 2 + ! ايندڙ بٽ ! = نئون قدر |- |align="right"|0 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = 1 |- |align="right"|1 ||× 2 +|| '''0''' || = 2 |- |align="right"|2 ||× 2 +|| '''0''' || = 4 |- |align="right"|4 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = 9 |- |align="right"|9 ||× 2 +|| '''0''' || = 18 |- |align="right"|18 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = 37 |- |align="right"|37 ||× 2 +|| '''0''' || = 74 |- |align="right"|74 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = 149 |- |align="right"|149 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = 299 |- |align="right"|299 ||× 2 +|| '''0''' || = 598 |- |align="right"|598 ||× 2 +|| '''1''' || = '''1197''' |} نتيجو 1197<sub>10</sub> آهي. پهريون اڳيون قدر 0 رڳو شروعاتي ڏھائي قدر آهي. هي طريقو [[هورنر جو طريقو]] لاڳو ڪري ٿو. {| ! ٻٽو&nbsp; | 1 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 1 || |- ! ڏھائي&nbsp; | 1×2<sup>10</sup> + || 0×2<sup>9</sup> + || 0×2<sup>8</sup> + || 1×2<sup>7</sup> + || 0×2<sup>6</sup> + || 1×2<sup>5</sup> + || 0×2<sup>4</sup> + || 1×2<sup>3</sup> + || 1×2<sup>2</sup> + || 0×2<sup>1</sup> + || 1×2<sup>0</sup> = || 1197 |} ڪنهن عدد جي ڀاڱائي حصن کي پڻ ساڳين طريقن سان تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي طريقا وري عدد کي ٻيڻو يا اڌ ڪرڻ سان موقعي واري سرڪاءَ جي برابريءَ تي ٻڌل آهن. 0.11010110101<sub>2</sub> جهڙي ڀاڱائي ٻٽي عدد ۾ پهريون عدد <math display="inline">\frac{1}{2}</math>، ٻيو عدد <math display="inline">(\frac{1}{2})^2=\frac{1}{4}</math>، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح اڳتي هوندو آهي. تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ڏھاڪي واري نقطي کان پوءِ پهرين هنڌ تي 1 هجي، ته عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <math display="inline">\frac{1}{2}</math> هوندو، ۽ ابتڙ حالت ۾ ائين نه هوندو. اهڙي عدد کي ٻيڻو ڪرڻ سان نتيجو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1 ٿيندو. ان مان هي قاعدو نڪري ٿو: بدلائڻ واري عدد کي بار بار ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي، نوٽ ڪيو وڃي ته نتيجو 1 جي برابر يا ان کان وڌيڪ آهي يا نه، ۽ پوءِ صحيح عددي حصو هٽايو وڃي. مثال طور، <math display="inline">(\frac{1}{3})_{10}</math> جي ٻٽي صورت هن ريت آهي: {| class="wikitable" ! تبديلي ! نتيجو |- |<math display="inline">\frac{1}{3}</math> || 0. |- |<math display="inline">\frac{1}{3}\times 2=\frac{2}{3}<1</math> || 0.0 |- |<math display="inline">\frac{2}{3}\times 2=1\frac{1}{3}\ge 1</math> || 0.01 |- |<math display="inline">\frac{1}{3}\times 2=\frac{2}{3}<1</math> || 0.010 |- |<math display="inline">\frac{2}{3}\times 2=1\frac{1}{3}\ge 1</math> || 0.0101 |} تنهنڪري ورجندڙ ڏھائي وارو ڀاڱو 0.{{overline|3}}... ورجندڙ ٻٽي ڀاڱي 0.{{overline|01}}... جي برابر آهي. ٻئي مثال طور، 0.1<sub>10</sub> جي ٻٽي صورت هن ريت آهي: {| class="wikitable" ! تبديلي ! نتيجو |- | '''0.1''' || 0. |- |0.1 × 2 = '''0.2''' < 1 || 0.0 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.00 |- |0.4 × 2 = '''0.8''' < 1 || 0.000 |- |0.8 × 2 = '''1.6''' ≥ 1 || 0.0001 |- |0.6 × 2 = '''1.2''' ≥ 1 || 0.00011 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.000110 |- |0.4 × 2 = '''0.8''' < 1 || 0.0001100 |- |0.8 × 2 = '''1.6''' ≥ 1 || 0.00011001 |- |0.6 × 2 = '''1.2''' ≥ 1 || 0.000110011 |- |0.2 × 2 = '''0.4''' < 1 || 0.0001100110 |} هي پڻ ورجندڙ ٻٽي ڀاڱو 0.0{{overline|0011}}... آهي. اها ڳالهه حيرت انگيز لڳي سگهي ٿي ته ختم ٿيندڙ ڏھائي ڀاڱن جي ٻٽي توسيع ورجندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب ڪيترن ماڻهن کي اهو ڏسي حيرت ٿيندي آهي ته 1/10 + ... + 1/10، يعني ڏهن 1/10 عددن جو مجموعو، ٻٽي [[سچل نقطي وارو حساب|سچل نقطي واري حساب]] ۾ بلڪل 1 جي برابر نه هوندو آهي. حقيقت ۾ رڳو اهي ٻٽا ڀاڱا ختم ٿيندڙ توسيع رکن ٿا، جيڪي ڪنهن صحیح عدد کي 2 جي ڪنهن قوت سان ورهائڻ جي صورت ۾ هجن؛ 1/10 اهڙي صورت ۾ ناهي. آخري تبديلي ٻٽي ڀاڱن کان ڏھائي واري ڀاڱن ڏانهن آهي. رڳو ورجندڙ ڀاڱن ۾ ڪجهه ڏکيائي پيش اچي ٿي؛ ٻي صورت ۾ ڀاڱي کي سرڪائي صحیح عدد بڻايو وڃي ٿو، ان کي مٿي بيان ڪيل طريقي سان ڏھائي ۾ بدلايو وڃي ٿو، ۽ پوءِ ڏھائي واري بنياد ۾ 2 جي مناسب قوت سان ورهايو وڃي ٿو. مثال طور: <math display="block">\begin{align} x & = & 1100&.1\overline{01110}\ldots \\ x\times 2^6 & = & 1100101110&.\overline{01110}\ldots \\ x\times 2 & = & 11001&.\overline{01110}\ldots \\ x\times(2^6-2) & = & 1100010101 \\ x & = & 1100010101/111110 \\ x & = & (789/62)_{10} \end{align}</math> ٻٽي کان ڏھائي ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو، جيڪو [[سورهنائي عددي سرشتو|سورهنائي]] سرشتي کان واقف ماڻهوءَ لاءِ اڪثر وڌيڪ تيز هوندو آهي، اڻسڌي تبديلي آهي: پهرين <math>x</math> کي ٻٽي مان سورهنائي ۾، ۽ پوءِ سورهنائي مان عشري ۾ بدلايو وڃي ٿو. تمام وڏن عددن لاءِ اهي سادا طريقا ڪارائتا ناهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙيون گهڻيون ضربون يا ونڊون ڪرڻيون پون ٿيون، جن ۾ هڪ عدد تمام وڏو هوندو آهي. [[ورهايو ۽ فتح ڪريو قاعدو|ورهايو ۽ فتح ڪريو]] وارو سادو قاعدو وڏن عددن لاءِ وڌيڪ اثرائتو آهي. ڏنل ٻٽي عدد کي 10<sup>''k''</sup> سان ورهايو وڃي ٿو، جتي ''k'' اهڙيءَ طرح چونڊيو وڃي ٿو، جو حاصل ونڊ ۽ باقي تقريباً برابر هجن. پوءِ ٻنهي حصن کي عشري ۾ تبديل ڪري پاڻ ۾ [[ڳنڍڻ|ڳنڍيو]] وڃي ٿو. اهڙيءَ طرح ڪنهن عشري عدد کي لڳ ڀڳ برابر ٻن حصن ۾ ورهايو وڃي ٿو؛ هر حصي کي ٻٽي ۾ بدلايو وڃي ٿو، پوءِ پهرين تبديل ٿيل حصي کي 10<sup>''k''</sup> سان ضرب ڪري ٻئي حصي ۾ شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جتي ''k'' تبديليءَ کان اڳ ٻئي، گهٽ اهم حصي ۾ موجود عشري عددن جو تعداد آهي. === سورهنائي === {{Main|ھيڪساڊيسيمل عددي سرشتو}} {{Hexadecimal table}} ٻٽي عددن کي سورهنائي (ھيڪساڊيسيمل) سرشتي ۾ ۽ سورهنائي مان ٻٽي ۾ آسانيءَ سان تبديل ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته سورهنائي (ھيڪساڊيسيمل) سرشتي جو [[بنياد (رياضي)|بنياد]] 16، ٻٽي سرشتي جي بنياد 2 جي قوت آهي. خاص طور 16 = 2<sup>4</sup>، تنهنڪري سورهنائي جي هڪ عدد کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ٻٽي جا چار عدد گهربل هوندا آهن، جيئن ڀر واري جدول ۾ ڏيکاريل آهي. سورهنائي (ھيڪساڊيسيمل) عدد کي ان جي ٻٽي برابر ۾ بدلائڻ لاءِ هر سورهنائي عدد جي جاءِ تي ان جا لاڳاپيل ٻٽا عدد لکجن: :3A<sub>16</sub> = 0011 1010<sub>2</sub> :E7<sub>16</sub> = 1110 0111<sub>2</sub> ٻٽي عدد کي سورهنائي (ھيڪساڊيسيمل) برابر ۾ بدلائڻ لاءِ ان کي چئن چئن بٽن جي ٽولن ۾ ورهايو وڃي. جيڪڏهن بٽن جو تعداد چئن جو پوروڻ نه هجي، ته کاٻي پاسي واڌو '''0''' بٽ وڌا وڃن، جنهن کي [[ڀرائي (رمزنگاري)#بٽ ڀرائي|ڀرائي]] چيو وڃي ٿو. مثال طور: :1010010<sub>2</sub> = 0101 0010، ڀرائي سميت ٽولا = 52<sub>16</sub> :11011101<sub>2</sub> = 1101 1101، ٽولا = DD<sub>16</sub> سورهنائي عدد کي عشري برابر ۾ بدلائڻ لاءِ هر سورهنائي عدد جي عشري برابر کي 16 جي لاڳاپيل قوت سان ضرب ڪري، حاصل ٿيل قدر پاڻ ۾ جمع ڪيا وڃن: :C0E7<sub>16</sub> = (12 × 16<sup>3</sup>) + (0 × 16<sup>2</sup>) + (14 × 16<sup>1</sup>) + (7 × 16<sup>0</sup>) = (12 × 4096) + (0 × 256) + (14 × 16) + (7 × 1) = 49,383<sub>10</sub> === اٺائي === {{Main|اٺائي عددي سرشتو}} ٻٽي عددن کي [[اٺائي عددي سرشتو|اٺائي]] سرشتي ۾ پڻ آسانيءَ سان تبديل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اٺائي سرشتي جو بنياد 8 آهي، جيڪو [[ٻن جي قوت]] آهي، يعني 2<sup>3</sup>. تنهنڪري اٺائي جي هڪ عدد کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ بلڪل ٽي ٻٽا عدد گهربل هوندا آهن. اٺائي ۽ ٻٽي عددن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو مٿي ڏنل سورهنائي جدول جي پهرين اٺن عددن جهڙو آهي. ٻٽو 000 اٺائي عدد 0 جي برابر، ٻٽو 111 اٺائي عدد 7 جي برابر، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح اڳتي آهي. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! اٺائي ! ٻٽو |- | 0 || 000 |- | 1 || 001 |- | 2 || 010 |- | 3 || 011 |- | 4 || 100 |- | 5 || 101 |- | 6 || 110 |- | 7 || 111 |} اٺائي کان ٻٽي ۾ تبديلي ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪئي وڃي ٿي، جيئن [[سورهنائي عددي سرشتو|سورهنائي]] کان ٻٽي ۾: :65<sub>8</sub> = 110 101<sub>2</sub> :17<sub>8</sub> = 001 111<sub>2</sub> ٻٽي کان اٺائي ۾: :101100<sub>2</sub> = 101 100<sub>2</sub>، ٽولا = 54<sub>8</sub> :10011<sub>2</sub> = 010 011<sub>2</sub>، ڀرائي سميت ٽولا = 23<sub>8</sub> ۽ اٺائي کان عشري ۾: :65<sub>8</sub> = (6 × 8<sup>1</sup>) + (5 × 8<sup>0</sup>) = (6 × 8) + (5 × 1) = 53<sub>10</sub> :127<sub>8</sub> = (1 × 8<sup>2</sup>) + (2 × 8<sup>1</sup>) + (7 × 8<sup>0</sup>) = (1 × 64) + (2 × 8) + (7 × 1) = 87<sub>10</sub> == حقيقي عددن جي اظهار == <!-- This section is linked from [[Chaitin's constant]] --> صحیح عددن کان سواءِ ٻين عددن کي منفي قوتن جي مدد سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جن کي ٻين عددن کان [[بنيادي نقطو|بنيادي نقطي]] ذريعي ڌار ڪيو ويندو آهي. عشري سرشتي ۾ هن نقطي کي [[ڏھائي نقطو]] چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، ٻٽو عدد 11.01<sub>2</sub> هن ريت آهي: {| |'''1''' × 2<sup>1</sup> || (1 × 2 = '''2''') || جمع |- |'''1''' × 2<sup>0</sup> || (1 × 1 = '''1''') || جمع |- |'''0''' × 2<sup>−1</sup> || (0 × {{frac|2}} = '''0''') || جمع |- |'''1''' × 2<sup>−2</sup> || (1 × {{frac|4}} = '''0.25''') |} جنهن جو ڪل عشري قدر 3.25 ٿئي ٿو. اهي سڀئي [[ٻه-قوتي ناطق ڪسر|ٻه-قوتي ناطق ڪسر]] <math>\frac{p}{2^a}</math>، جن جو مخرج 2 جي ڪنهن قوت جي برابر هجي، ٻٽي سرشتي ۾ '''ختم ٿيندڙ''' صورت رکن ٿا؛ يعني بنيادي نقطي کان پوءِ عددن جو تعداد محدود هوندو آهي. جڏهن⁠تہ ٻيا [[ناطق عدد]] ٻٽي صورت ته رکن ٿا، پر ختم ٿيڻ بدران '''ورجائتا''' هوندا آهن، يعني عددن جو هڪ محدود سلسلو لامحدود ڀيرا ورجائبو رهندو آهي. مثال طور: <math display="block">\frac{1_{10}}{3_{10}} = \frac{1_2}{11_2} = 0.01010101\overline{01}\ldots\,_2 </math> <math display="block">\frac{12_{10}}{17_{10}} = \frac{1100_2}{10001_2} = 0.10110100\,10110100\overline{10110100}\ldots\,_2 </math> اهو اصول، ته هر ناطق عدد جي ٻٽي صورت يا ته ختم ٿيندي آهي يا وري ورجائتي هوندي آهي، ٻين بنيادن وارن عددي سرشتن ۾ پڻ موجود آهي. مثال طور [[ڏھائي]] سرشتي ۾ به ساڳيو اصول لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. هڪ ٻي هڪجهڙائي اها آهي ته هر ختم ٿيندڙ صورت جي هڪ متبادل صورت به موجود هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ [[0.111... = 1 (binary)|0.111111...]] هندسي سلسلي 2<sup>−1</sup> + 2<sup>−2</sup> + 2<sup>−3</sup> + ... جي مجموعي جي برابر آهي، جنهن جو قدر 1 آهي. اهي ٻٽا عدد، جيڪي نه ختم ٿين ٿا ۽ نه وري ڪنهن مقرر سلسلي سان ورجائجن ٿا، [[غير ناطق عدد]] ظاهر ڪن ٿا. مثال طور: * 0.10100100010000100000100... ۾ هڪ نمونو موجود آهي، پر اهو مقرر ڊيگهه وارو ورجائتو نمونو ناهي؛ تنهنڪري هي هڪ غير ناطق عدد آهي. * 1.0110101000001001111001100110011111110...، <math>\sqrt{2}</math> يعني [[2 جو چورس پاڙ]] جي ٻٽي صورت آهي، جيڪو پڻ هڪ غير ناطق عدد آهي. هن ۾ ڪو واضح ورجائتو نمونو موجود ناهي. == پڻ ڏسو == {{Portal|رياضيات}} * [[ايسڪي]] * [[متوازن ٽن بنيادي سرشتو]] * [[بٽ وار عمل]] * [[ٻٽو ڪوڊ]] * [[ٻٽو-رمز عشري]] * [[ٻٽو غير موقعي ڪوڊ]] * [[آڱرين ذريعي ٻٽي ڳڻپ]] * [[گري ڪوڊ]] * [[آئي اي اي اي 754]] * [[ليڪي موٽ سان سرڪندڙ رجسٽر]] * [[آفسيٽ ٻٽو]] * [[ڪوئي ٻٽو]] * [[جمع وارن جزن جي گهٽتائي]] * [[واڌو ٻٽي اظهار]] * [[ورجائتو عشري]] * [[ٻن جو متمم]] * [[يونيڪوڊ]] == ذريعا == {{Refbegin |30em |indent=yes}} *{{cite book |last=Landry |first=Timothy R. |year=2019 |title=Vodún: Secrecy and the Search for Divine Power |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-5074-9 |edition=1st |series=Contemporary ethnography |location=Philadelphia }} {{Refend}} == حوالا == {{Reflist |30em}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{Wikibooks|Fractals/Mathematics/binary}} <!--========================================================= There are MANY web pages devoted to binary numbers. This section should not be a repository of such web pages. Before adding another external link here, make sure it provides a unique resource beyond what is already here. We do not need yet another explanation of the binary number system. ====== ====== ====== ====== ======== --> {{Commons category|Binary numeral system}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/BinaryHistory.shtml Binary System] تي [[ڪٽ-دي-ناٽ]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/frac_conv.shtml Conversion of Fractions] تي [[ڪٽ-دي-ناٽ]] * سر فرانسس بيڪن جو ''BiLiteral Cypher'' سرشتو {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923014940/http://www.baconlinks.com/docs/BILITERAL.doc |date=23 September 2016 }}، جيڪو ٻٽي عددي سرشتي کان اڳ جو آهي. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDDaEVcwIJM An analysis of binary as an efficient base] {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:ٻٽو حساب]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر حساب]] [[زمرو:ابتدائي حساب]] [[زمرو:گوٽفريڊ ولهم لائپنيٽز]] [[زمرو:ٻن جي قوت تي ٻڌل عددي سرشتا]] [[زمرو:بائنري رياضي]] [[زمرو:انگن جا نظام]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽنگ]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] srhfgv1mkzzbyr1t1mu4svcpry5z4il هسٽوگرام 0 2404 394796 368110 2026-07-16T10:38:55Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data}} {{Hatnote| ڊجيٽل تصوير پروسيسنگ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هسٽوگرام لاءِ، تصويري هسٽوگرام ۽ رنگين هسٽوگرام ڏسو}} [[File:Black_cherry_tree_histogram.svg|thumb|هن هسٽوگرام ۾ اوچائي کي برابر ويڪر (5 فوٽ) جي بِن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي.]] '''هسٽوگرام''' (Histogram) مقداري ڊيٽا جي ورڇ جي هڪ بصري نمائندگي آهي. هسٽوگرام ٺاهڻ لاءِ پهريون قدم قدرن جي حد کي "بن" (<small>Bin or Buckets</small>) ڪيو ويندو آهي، قدرن جي پوري حد کي وقفن جي هڪ سلسلي ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي ۽ پوءِ ڳڻيو ويندو آهي ته هر وقفي ۾ ڪيتريون قدرون اچن ٿيون. بن عام طور تي متغير جي مسلسل، غير اوورليپنگ وقفن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويندا آهن. بن (وقفو) ويجها هوندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي برابر سائيز جا (پر ضروري ناهي) هوندا آهن.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Howitt|first1=D.|last2=Cramer|first2=D.|year=2008|title=Introduction to Statistics in Psychology|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=Fourth|isbn=978-0-13-205161-3}}</ref> هسٽوگرام ڊيٽا جي بنيادي ورڇ جي گهاٽائي جو هڪ معمولي ۽ اڪثر ڪري گهاٽائي جي اندازي لاءِ: بنيادي متغير جي امڪاني گهاٽائي جي ڪم جو اندازو لڳائڻ جو احساس ڏين ٿا. امڪاني گهاٽائي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ هسٽوگرام جو ڪل علائقو هميشه 1 تائين نارمل ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن x-محور تي وقفن جي ڊيگهه سڀ 1 آهي، ته پوءِ هڪ هسٽوگرام هڪ لاڳاپيل فريڪوئنسي پلاٽ جي برابر آهي. هسٽوگرام ڪڏهن ڪڏهن '''<small>بار چارٽس</small>''' سان مونجهارو ڪندا آهن. هڪ هسٽوگرام ۾، هر '''بِن''' قدرن جي مختلف رينج لاءِ آهي، تنهنڪري مجموعي طور تي هسٽوگرام قدرن جي ورڇ کي بيان ڪري ٿو. پر هڪ بار چارٽ ۾، هر '''بار''' مشاهدن جي مختلف درجي لاءِ آهي (مثال طور، هر '''بار''' مختلف آبادي لاءِ ٿي سگهي ٿو)، تنهنڪري مجموعي طور تي بار چارٽ کي مختلف درجن جي مقابلي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ڪجهه ليکڪ سفارش ڪن ٿا ته بار چارٽس ۾ هميشه <small>'''بارن'''</small> جي وچ ۾ فرق هجي ته جيئن اهو واضح ٿئي ته اهي <small>'''هسٽوگرام'''</small> نه آهن.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Naomi |first1=Robbins |title=A Histogram is NOT a Bar Chart |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/naomirobbins/2012/01/04/a-histogram-is-not-a-bar-chart/#345b9c746d77 |work=Forbes |access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = M. Eileen Magnello | date = December 2006 | title = Karl Pearson and the Origins of Modern Statistics: An Elastician becomes a Statistician | journal = The New Zealand Journal for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology | volume = 1 volume | oclc = 682200824 | url = http://www.rutherfordjournal.org/article010107.html }} </ref> ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{commons}} {{Wiktionary}} *[https://tinlizzie.org/histograms/ Exploring Histograms], an essay by Aran Lunzer and Amelia McNamara * [https://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/journey.html Journey To Work and Place Of Work] ''(location of census document cited in example)'' * [http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/30480-histconnect Smooth histogram for signals and images from a few samples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107034024/http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/30480-histconnect |date=2013-01-07 }} * [http://quarknet.fnal.gov/toolkits/ati/histograms.html Histograms: Construction, Analysis and Understanding with external links and an application to particle Physics.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426230256/https://quarknet.fnal.gov/toolkits/ati/histograms.html |date=2025-04-26 }} * [https://www.neuralengine.org/res/histogram.html A Method for Selecting the Bin Size of a Histogram] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150501071703/http://www.stat.rice.edu/~scottdw/stat550/HW/hw3/c03.pdf Histograms: Theory and Practice], some great illustrations of some of the Bin Width concepts derived above. * [http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/27388-plot-and-compare-nice-histograms-by-default Matlab function to plot nice histograms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006085139/http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/27388-plot-and-compare-nice-histograms-by-default |date=2013-10-06 }} * [http://excelandfinance.com/histogram-in-excel/ Dynamic Histogram in MS Excel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801141445/http://excelandfinance.com/histogram-in-excel/ |date=2020-08-01 }} * Histogram [http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/SOCR_EduMaterials_ModelerActivities_MixtureModel_1 construction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718214758/http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/SOCR_EduMaterials_ModelerActivities_MixtureModel_1 |date=2023-07-18 }} and [http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/SOCR_EduMaterials_Activities_PowerTransformFamily_Graphs manipulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701034409/http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/SOCR_EduMaterials_Activities_PowerTransformFamily_Graphs |date=2023-07-01 }} using Java applets, and [http://www.socr.ucla.edu/htmls/SOCR_Charts.html charts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701034411/http://www.socr.ucla.edu/htmls/SOCR_Charts.html |date=2023-07-01 }} on [[SOCR]] * [http://www.ton.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~shino/histograms/ Toolbox for constructing the best histograms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024205314/http://www.ton.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~shino/histograms/ |date=2017-10-24 }} {{Quality Tools}} {{Statistics|descriptive}} [[زمرو:شماريات]] [[زمرو:انگ اکر]] [[زمرو:شمارياتي چارٽ ۽ ڊاگرام]] [[زمرو:معيار ڪنٽرول جا اوزار]] [[زمرو:گهاٽائي جو اندازو]] [[زمرو:غير پيراميٽرڪ انگ اکر]] [[زمرو:فريڪوئنسي جي ورڇ]] erekj1j9i70bifuvfoor90init0ptj4 اروڙ 0 2598 394722 369928 2026-07-16T01:01:38Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{بهترين مضمون|مارچ 2021}} {{Infobox ancient site |name =اروڙ |native_name= |alternate_name = الور |image = Sukkur 4.jpg |alt = |caption =اروڙ جي قديم '''عالمگير مسجد''' |map_type = Sindh#Pakistan |map_alt = |coordinates = |location = روھڙي جي ڀرسان |region = سکر |type = قديم ڦٽل شھر |part_of = |length = |width = |area = |height = |builder = |material = |built = |abandoned = |epochs = سنڌ م عربن جي آمد ۽ ان کان اڳ وارو زمانو |cultures = ھندو ۽ ٻڌ ثقافت |dependency_of = سنڌ جي راجائن جي حڪومت |occupants = سنڌي |event = زلزلي ۽ دريائي وھڪري جي تبديلي جي ڪري |excavations = |archaeologists = |condition = |ownership = |public_access = |website = |notes = }} {{TAFI}} '''اروڙ''' (<small>Aror</small>) [[راء گهراڻو|راءِ گهراڻي]] (<small>494ع-622</small>ع) ۽ [[سنڌ تي عربن جا حملا|برهمڻ گهراڻي]] (<small>622-712</small>ع) جي دور ۾ [[سنڌ]] جي [[راڄڌاني]] ھو.<ref>{{Citation |title=الور : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1 |access-date=2019-12-17 |archive-date=2020-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616095228/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://affairnews.com/2019/03/%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%88%da%99-%d9%82%d8%af%d9%8a%d9%85-%d8%b3%d9%86%da%8c-%db%be-%d8%b9%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d9%86-%db%bd-%d8%b3%d8%a7%d8%a6%d9%86%d8%b3%d8%af%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%86-%d8%ac%d9%88-%d8%ae/|title=اروڙ: قديم سنڌ ۾ عالمن ۽ سائنسدانن جو خوشحال شهر II|last=ايڊيٽر|website=Affair - افيئر|language=en-US|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.punjnud.com/PageList.aspx?BookID=16840&BookTitle=Na-Si-Sirh-Sakan|title=نه سي سڙه سکاڻ|access-date=2020-06-15|archive-date=2020-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615134221/https://www.punjnud.com/PageList.aspx?BookID=16840&BookTitle=Na-Si-Sirh-Sakan|dead-url=yes}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615134221/https://www.punjnud.com/PageList.aspx?BookID=16840&BookTitle=Na-Si-Sirh-Sakan |date=2020-06-15 }}</ref> ھي شھر (ستين صدي عيسويءَ ۾) راءِ ۽ برهمڻ جي راڄڌاني هو. سنڌ جو هي قديم تخت گاهه/قلعو/بندر [[روھڙي]]، [[سکر ضلعو|ضلعي سکر]] کان پنج ميل پري ڏکڻ اوڀر ۾ ٽڪريءَ تي ٺهيل آهي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=اروڙ%20الور|title=اروڙ الور : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)|website=www.encyclopediasindhiana.org|language=sd|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref> ھي ماڳ اتر ′27◦40 ۽ اوڀر ′68◦ 50 ڊگرين ڦاڪ تي آهي. ماڳ جو دور پراچين اتھاس کان چوٿين صدي ھجريءَ تائين آهي. [[ٻُڌ ڌرم]] وارن جو ھتي گهڻو زور ھو. هتي ئي ان کان اڳ واري [[نئين پٿر واري زماني جا سنڌ ۾ نشان|نئين پٿر جي دور]] جا آثار به ملن ٿا. [[ويد|ويدن]] واري زماني ۾ به ھي شھر چڱو آباد ھو. اروڙ تي [[چندرونسي گھراڻو|چندر ونسي]] راجائن 450ع کان 642ع تائين راڄ ڪيو. جن کي [[راء گهراڻو|راءِ گھراڻو]] سڏيو وڃي ٿو. [[چندرونش|چندر ونسي گھراڻي]] 1100 ق.م ۾ به ھن شھر تي راڄ ڪيو. [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي [[سڪندر اعظم خلاف ملتانين جي تاريخ مزاحمت|ملتان تي ڪاهه]] مھل ھتي جو راجا [[موسيڪانوس]] ھو. [[راء سھاسي پھريون|راءِ سھاسي]] جي وقت ۾ [[نمرود|نيمروز]] ايرانيءَ ڪاھيو. ھي ھڪ وڏو [[بندرگاھ|بندرگاهه]] ھو، جنھن کي مضبوط ڀت ڏنل ھو. [[سنڌ تي عربن جا حملا|سنڌ تي عربن جي حملن]] جي وقت به ھي شھر اوج تي ھو. عربن جي وقت ۾ توڙي جو ھي شھر تختگاهه نه رھيو، پر وڏو بندرگاهه ضرور ھو. ھي [[سنڌو درياھ|سنڌو]]ءَ جي ھاڪڙي ڪپ تي ٻڌل ھو. چوٿين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ ھاڪڙي جي رخ مٽائڻ ڪري ھي بندر ڦٽڻ لڳو. ھاڻي ھي بندر، تختگاهه، قلعو، ھڪ ننڍي ڳوٺ جي شڪل ۾ موجود آھي. اروڙ ماضيءَ جو بهشت برين ھو، جنھن جي ساراهه [[ابن خردازبه]] (250ھ)، [[ابو الحسن مسعودي|مسعودي]]ءَ (942ع)، [[ابن حوقل]] (343ھ) ۽ ٻين ڪئي آھي. ننڍي کنڊ جي پھرين مسجد [[محمد بن قاسم|ابن قاسم]] جي وقت ۾ ھتي ٺھرائي وئي.<ref>http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=اروڙ%20الور {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615200512/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1 |date=2020-06-15 }} انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا جلد پھريون</ref> <ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://altafshaikh.com.pk/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%AC%D9%8A-%D8%A2%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%DB%BE/ |accessdate=2019-12-17 |archive-date=2021-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415050933/https://altafshaikh.com.pk/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%AC%D9%8A-%D8%A2%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%DB%BE/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> اروڙ [[سنڌ]] جي هن قديم [[گاديءَ جو هنڌ|تختگاهہ]] کي [[سنڌي ماڻھو|سنڌي ڳوٺاڻن]], ڪن روايتن ۽ تاريخن اروڙ سڏيو آهي، جو ستين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ راءِ برهمڻ جي راڄڌاني هو. هيءَ ڳالھہ تحقيق گھربل آهي تہ اروڙ جو پايو ڪڏهن پيو؟ پر جئن تہ [[مسلمان|مسلمانن]] جي اچڻ (96ھہ : 811ع) بعد بہ هي شهر هڪ ــ ٻن صدين لاءِ آباد رهيو، سو هي اندازو ڪري سگهجي ٿو تہ اهو شهر ڇهن صدين جي عرصي لاءِ هن فاني [[دنيا]] جي پردهء سمين تي وجود ۾ رهيو، ۽ سندس بناءَ هڪ سؤ ۽ ٻن سؤ عيسوي سنن جي وچ ۾ ٿي هوندي. تختگاهہ اروڙ بابت [[چچ نامو|چچنامہ]] جو بيان هن ريت آهي تہ ”هن شهر ۾ هر ڪنهن قسم جون شاهاڻيون محلاتون، ٿنڀا، [[باغ]]، چشما،نهرون، پارڪ ۽ وڻ هئا، ۽ مهراڻ جي ڪناري تي واقع هو.<ref>http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=اروڙ%20الور {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615200512/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1 |date=2020-06-15 }} انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا جلد پھريون</ref> تاريخ معصومي پٽاندڙ:اروڙ مهراڻ نديءَ جي ڪناري تي هڪ نهايت وڏو شهر هو، جنهن ۾ بلند عمارتون،مضبوط محلاتون، ميويدار وڻن سان ڀريل باغ ۽ تمدن ۽ شهرت جو اهو سڀ سامان موجود هو، جنهن جي رھواسي، توڙي مسافر کي خواهش ٿي سگهي ٿي <ref name=""> ڪتاب جو نالو ؛ تاريخ مَعصُومي مصنف؛ مير محمد معصوم بکري ايڊيشن؛ ٽيون 2006ع ڇپائيندڙ؛ سنڌيڪا اڪيڊمي </ref> هيءُ قديم شهر هندو راجائن جي ڏينهن ۾ سنڌ جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ هو ۽ منجهس وڏو ڪوٽ هو. [[راجا ڏاهر]] انهيءَ ۾ رهندو هو ۽ محمد قاسم به انهي کي گهيرو ڪري ورتو. پوءِ اتي ابو عاف بن قيس اسديءَ کي حاڪم مقرر ڪيائين ۽ پاڻ [[ملتان]] ويو ۽ اتان پوءِ قنوج ڏي ٿي ويو، پر حڪم ملڻ تي [[بغداد]] ڏي موٽيو. بني اُميه خليفن جي وقت ۾ هندو راجا [[دلوراءِ|دلو راءِ]] اروڙ جو حاڪم هو، ۽ اروڙ کي دلوُر به سڏيندا هئا. اُهو ڏاڍو ظالم هو ۽ انهيءَ جي ڏينهن ۾ شهر غرق ٿيو ۽ ناس ٿيو.{{حوالو گهربل}} ڄام فتح خان سمي جي ڏينهن ۾ جڏهن مرزا پير محمد بکر جي ماڻهن کي سزا ڏيڻ لاءِ آيو، تڏهن اتي جي سيد ابوالغيث جي منت آزيءَ تي ماڻهن کي معافي ڏنائين ۽ اروڙ جو پرڳڻو(صوبو) سيد کي جاگير ڪري ڏنائين، جڏهن [[شاھ بيگ ارغون|شاهه بيگ]] [[سکر]] ورتو ۽ اتي جو قلعو جوڙائڻ لڳو، تڏهن اروڙ جي ڪوٽ جون سرون کڻائي انهيءَ ڪم ۾ آندائين. وري سنه 930ھ (سنه 1523ع) ۾ [[سلطان محمود خان|سلطان محمود]] خان مبارڪ خان کي اروڙ جو حاڪم بڻايو، جو اڳي ماٿيلي جو حاڪم هو.<ref>قديم سنڌ -ان جا مشهور شهر ۽ ماڻهو. مصنف: [[مرزا قليچ بيگ]]. ايڊيشن: چوٿون 1999ع. ڇپائيندڙ: [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]] ڄام شورو</ref> == نالي جو بڻ بڻياد == {{اصل مضمون|روهڙا راڄ}} راءِ گهراڻي وارا ”سوام“ جا پوڄاري هئا ۽ سندن گاديءَ جو هنڌ هو ”آليدور“، جو ڦري ”اليور“ ۽ ”الور“ 'اروڙ' ٿيو، جو سنڌ جي گادي مشهور آهي.<ref>سماٽ قوم جا اصل نسل؛ علي محمد سيال؛مھراڻ رسالو؛ جلد 35؛ 1966؛ سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄامشورو </ref> عرب جاگرافي نويس اروڙ کي ”الرور“ ڏيکاريو آهي، جنھن ۾ ”ال“ عربي علت آهي ته باقي ”رور“ وڃي بچندو.<ref name=":0">{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/6682/|title=کپر يا اروڙ|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref>. اروڙ پوءِ ”روهڙيءَ“ جي نالي سان سڏيو ويو.<ref name=":0" /> عربن ھن شھر کي ”لوهري“ به ڄاڻايو آهي.<ref name=":0" /> قديم هندستان ڪتابن ۾ ھن شهر کي اروڙ پورا، روڙ نگرا سڏيو ويو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhsamaachar.com/ur/%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%88%da%99-%d8%b3%d8%a7%d9%86-%d9%85%d9%86%d9%87%d9%86%d8%ac%d9%88-%d8%b9%d8%b4%d9%82-%d8%a2%d9%87%d9%8a-%d8%ae%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%af-%d9%bb%d8%a7%d9%86%da%80%da%bb/|title=اروڙ سان منهنجو عشق آهي – خالد ٻانڀڻ|last=Azad|first=Asghar|date=2017-05-29|website=سنڌسماءَچار|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref> يوناني جاگرافي دانن جي دستاويزن ۾ ھن شهر کي ”موسيڪانوس“ لکيو آهي.<ref name=":1">{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.abbaskorejo.com/%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%88%da%99-%d9%8a%d8%a7-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%88%d8%b1/|title=اروڙ يا الور {{!}} عباس ڪوريجو ڊاٽ ڪام|last=adminkhan|language=ur|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref> == تاريخ == عرب جغرافيدانن اروڙ کي ”الرور“ ڏيکاريو آهي. جيڪڏهن ال عربي علت آهي تہ باقي رور وڃي بچندو. هن مان اندازو لڳايو ويو آهي تہ اروڙ جي باشندن رڙهي اچي نئون ”رور“ آباد ڪيو، جنهن کي ”الرور“ نالو ڏنو ويو، ۽ بعد ۾ [[روهڙي]]ءَ جي نالي سان معروف ٿيو. عربن هن کي لوهري بہ ڄاڻايو آهي. نديءَ جي وهڪري مَٽائڻ بعد بہ پراڻي پيٽ ۾ پاڻي رهيو، ان ڪري اروڙ جي اردگرد بستيون آباد رهيون. هڪ مسجد جا آثار آهن، جيڪا [[محمد بن قاسم]] ڏانهن منسوب ڪئي وڃي ٿي. هندستان جي قديم آثار وارن ۽ ڊاڪٽر سورلي هن مسجد کي [[اورنگزيب عالمگير]] جي نالي منسوب ڪيو آهي؛ پر هي صحيح نہ آهي. اتي ٻن بزرگن جون مزارون بہ آهن ـــ هڪ شاھہ شڪر گنج، [[لعل شهباز قلندر]] جي معاصرجي، ۽ ٻي مخدوم جھانيان جي مريد، شيخ مخدوم قطب جي. هن شيخ جي ويجهو ٻئي ننڍي [[مسجد]] ٺهيل آهي، جا شايد اورنگزيب عالمگير جي جوڙايل هجي. ان کان سواءِ هندن جي '''[[ڪالڪا ديوي مندر، اروڙ|ڪالنڪا ديويءَ جو وڏو مندر]]''' بہ آهي. === اروڙ ميساريل نديءَ جي ڪناري === ڊاڪٽر سورلي پنهنجي شهره آفاق [[گزيٽيئر]] ۾ ٿامس پيننٽ جي قديم هندستان جي نقشي 1798ع ڏانهن اشارو ڪيو آهي، جنهن ۾ [[سنڌو]] نديءَ کي هماليہ جبل مان نڪري، ستلج جي اُڀرندي کان وهي، هيٺ [[عمرڪوٽ|عمر ڪوٽ]] کي عبور ڪري، [[ڪڇ|ڪَڇ]] جي نار ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي. اتي هن کي گهاگهر ندي سڏيو ويو وڃي ٿو، جا ڊاڪٽر جي راءِ مطابق هاڪڙا لفظ جي بگڙيل صورت آهي. اروڙ واريءَ پراڻي نديءَ کي هاڪڙا جي نالي سان سڏجي ٿو. ڪافي وقت گذرڻ بعد هيءَ ندي هڪ نارو ٿي وهي، ۽ [[سنڌو]] نديءَ جي اٿل جو پاڻي ان ذريعي پراڻي ڍوري ۾ پوندو هو ۽ ڪورِي ڇوڙ ۾ وڃي ڇوڙ ڪندو هو. اروڙ جا کنڊرات روهڙيءَ کان پنج ميل پَري ڏکڻ اوڀر طرف، اڀرندي ناري، ناروا واهه يا هاڪڙو درياھ جي پيٽ مٿان آھن.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/index.php?txtsrch=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99|title=اروڙ {{!}} Online Sindhi Dictionaries {{!}} آن لائين سنڌي ڊڪشنريون|website=dic.sindhila.edu.pk|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> === اروڙ جا قديم آثار === عربن جي فتح وقت اروڙ راجا ڏاهر جي مهاراڄڌاني هو. عربن پنهنجي گادي [[منصوره (قديم شھر)|منصوره]] ۾ شروع ڪئي، تہ بہ اروڙ هندن جي حڪومتگاه جي صورت ۾ ٻن صدين کان وڌيڪ رهيو ۽ پوءِ ناپيد ٿيو. هن جي ناس ٿيڻ جي حڪايت [[براهمڻ آباد (منصوره)|برهمڻ آباد]] جي راجا [[دلوراءِ]] جي ڏاڍ سان لاڳياپيل آهي. پر ان ۾ ايتري حقيقت نہ آهي، ڇو تہ اٺين صدي عيسويءَ جي وچ ڌاريءَ جڏهن سنڌو نديءَ پنهنجو وهڪرو ڦيرايو تہ هي شهر اجڙي ويو. نديءَ جي وهڪري ۾ ڦيرو 341ھہ : 962ع ڌاري آيو، جڏهن سنڌ ۾ هڪ وڏو زلزلو آيو ۽ ڌرتي ڌُٻي هئي. === تحفته الڪرام === مطابق، هندو راجائن اروڙ ۾ 130 سال حڪومت ڪئي. ان وقت تائين، جڏهن چچ، برهمڻ ۽ اروڙ جو رهواسي، جو [[راء سھاسي ٻيون|راءِ سهاسي ٻئي]] وٽ نوڪريءَ ۾ گھڙيو، ۽ هُشياري سبب سندس وزير بنيو، ۽ راجا جي مهاراڻيءَ، سُهاندي (سونهن ديوي) جي زلفن جي پيچ ۾ ڦاٿو ۽ راجا کي قتل ڪرايو، بعد ۾ پاڻ زوريءَ اروڙ جو حاڪم بنيو. ”[[تحفته الڪرام]]“ مطابق، هي 1ھہ : 622ع جو سمو هو. [[چچ نامو]] ۾ سنڌ جي قديم تاريخ جو احوال ان وقت کان وٺي هندو حڪومت جي زوال تائين آهي. === جنت السنڌ پٽاندڙ === اروڙ، سنڌ جي قديم تختگاه، روهڙيءَ کان ستن ميلن جي پنڌ تي، مهراڻ جي هڪڙيءَ شاخ جي اولهندي ڪپ تي، هڪ ڪشادو شهر هو، جو قدامت جي لحاظ کان آرياورت جي قديم شهرن هستناپور، اندر پرسا (دهلي) ۽ پتاليپترا (پاٽنا) جو ثاني هو. يوناني جاگرافي دانن مٿس ’موسيڪانوس‘ نالو رکيو هو. سندس ڀروارين ٽڪرين ۾ سون ۽ چانديءَ جون کاڻيون هيون. هوئن ٽسانگ شهر کي ’پيشان پوپولو‘ ۽ جنرل [[اليگزينڊر ڪننگھام|اليگزينڊر ڪننگهام]] ’رور پورا‘ (روڙانگر) جي نالن سان لکن ٿا.<ref name = " جنت السنڌ "> ڪتاب جو نالو ؛ جنت السنڌ، باب ٻيون، تصنيف؛ رحيمداد خان مولائي شيدائي، ايڊيشن؛ پهريون 2000، ٻيون 2006ع ڇپائيندڙ؛ سنڌيڪا اڪيڊمي ڪراچي </ref><ref name="Cunningham">Cunningham, A: The Ancient Geography of India, Buddhist Period, London, 1871. </ref> هن شهر کي چوڌاري مضبوط عالم پناه ڏنل هئي ۽ باغ ۽ محلاتن ڪري مشهور هو. شهر جي وچ ۾ ٻڌ جو مشهور مندر هو. عرب سياح ۽ جاگرافي دان پنهنجي پنهنجي لهجي ۾ هن شهر جا جدا جدا نالا لکن ٿا؛ مثلا: مسعودي، جنهن هن شهر کي 942ع ۾ مهراڻ جي اوڀرندي واريءَ شاخ تي ڏٺو هو، سو ’الرور‘ لکي ٿو. ابن خردازبه سنه 250ھ ڌاري ’رور‘ سڏيس ٿو؛ ابن حوقل واري نقشي ۾ سندس نالو ’الرور‘ ڏنل آهي، سيوطي پنهنجي ڪتاب ’مراصدالاطلاع‘ ۾ هن کي اهو ساڳيو نالو ڏنو آهي، شريف ادريسي، مشهور جاگرافي دان، سنه 560ھ (1165ع) ۾ الور کي ’رور‘ لکي ٿو. هن شهر جو هندي نالو ’اروڙ‘ آهي. ڇاڪاڻ جو هتي جا راجائون اروڙ ونسي خاندان مان هئا. مهراڻ جي شاخ جي مٽجڻ کان پوءِ، هي شهر، جو ڪنهن وقت واپار ڪري ديسان ديس مشهور هو، تنهن جو اقبال مٽجي ويو، سندس کنڊر اڄ خاموسيءَ سان عبرت وٺڻ لاءِ اشارو ڪري رهيا آهن.<ref name = "جنت السنڌ "/> === نديءَ === جي پيٽ ۾، اروڙ جي ڀر ۾، ٻہ پٿر پسجن ٿا، جي شايد مهراڻ جي قديم وهڪري جا نشان ڏيکارين ٿا. جيتوڻيڪ اروڙ صدين تائين هندو راجائن جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ رهيو، پر اُتي هندو صنعت ۽ ڪاريگريءَ جا اهڃاڻ بلڪل ڪين ٿا ملن. === عربن جي قبضي کانپوءِ === جڏهن محمد بن قاسم اروڙ 93ھہ : 711ع ۾ فتح ڪيو تہ اُتي ابو [[عاف بن قيس اسدي]] کي حاڪم مقرر ڪيائين. ڄام فتح خان سمي جي ڏينهن ۾، [[مرزا پير محمد بکر]] جي ماڻهن کي سزا ڏيڻ لاءِ آيو، تڏهن اتي جي هڪ ڀليمانس سيد ابوالغيث جي منٿ آزيءَ تي ماڻهن کي معافي ڏنائين ۽ اروڙ جو پرڳڻو سيد صاحب کي جاگير طور ڏنائين. جڏهن [[شاھ بيگ ارغون|مرزا شاھہ بيگ]] [[سکر]] ورتو ۽ اتي قلعو جوڙائڻ لڳو، تہ اروڙ جي ڪوٽ جون سرون کڻائي انهيءَ ڪم ۾ آندائين. وري سن 930ھہ : 1523ع ۾ [[سلطان محمود بکري]] [[مبارڪ خان]] کي اروڙ جو حاڪم مقرر ڪيو، جو اڳ [[ميرپور ماٿيلو|ماٿيلي]] جو حاڪم هو. == اروڙ جي باري ۾ سفرياتي رپورٽون == [[اين. جي. مجمدار|مسٽر اين . جي . مجمدر]]، سال 1929 ــــ 1930ع جي [[قديم آثار]]ن جي رپورٽ (Explorations in Sindh) ۾ لکيو آهي: ”اروڙ جي اتر ــ اوڀر پاسي، ڏاکِڻيو روڊ تي، ننڍڙن دڙن جو جھڳٽو آهي، جنهن کي ”ڳڙهي گور“ سڏين ٿا. انهن جي اوچائي اٺن فوٽن کان مٿي نہ آهي. جڏهن هڪ دڙي کي کوٽيو ويو تہ ان مان ستينءَ يا اٺينءَ صديءَ جي سمي جون ڪيئين منقش سرون نظر آيون، جن هن حقيقت جي ترجماني ڪئي تہ عربن کان اڳ اروڙ ۾ هندو حڪومت رائج هئي. [[روهڙي|روهڙيءَ]] جي ڏکڻ ۾، ساڍن ٽن ميلن جي مفاصلي تي هاڪڙي جو ڳوٺ آهي، جنهن جي ۽ اروڙ جي وچ ۾ ناري کي پيارڻ لاءِ کاري آهي“. 1855ع ۾، ڪيپٽن ڪربي هن ناري کي کوٽيندي لکيو آهي ”وڏي ناري کي کوٽيندي اسان کي سرن جي ڪم جو وڏو مقدار نظر آيو ۽ ڏهن فوٽن جي سطح هيٺان گهڻن گهرن جي بنياد جا آثار نظر آيا. انهن ڦٽل آثارن مان ٺڪر جي نموني نموني جو سامان نظر آيو، جنهن ۾ پاڻي پيئڻ جا پيالا، کجيون، پاڻي لاءِ پاٽيون ۽ ٻارن جا [[رانديڪو|رانديڪا]] هئا. ان ۾ ڪو شڪ نہ آهي جو اڃا بہ ڪنهن ويجھيءَ ڇڪ ۾ اهڙي کوٽائي ٿئي جا ڪنهن قديم اوائلي تواريخي بيٺڪ جو نمونو پيش ڪري“. ڊاڪٽر سورلي بہ 1956ع ۾ اروڙ ويو ڊاڪٽر سورلي اروڙ ۾ ور وڪڙ ڏنگا دڙا ڏٺا، جن ۾ برتنن جا بيشمار ذرا ۽ ڪي ٽامي جا سڪا مليا. پاڪستان جي [[قديم آثار]]ن واري کاتي اروڙ جي باري ۾ پنهنجي 1964ع جي شماري ۾ هيئن لکيو آهي . ”قديم منارو ۽ اروڙ جا آثار [[روهڙي]] شهر جي ڏکڻ ـــ اوڀر، چئن ميلن تي، [[سنڌوندي|سنڌو نديءَ]] جي اڀرندي ڪناري پسجن ٿا. اهي [[ديبل]]، [[نيرون ڪوٽ|نيرون]]، [[منصوره]]، محفوظہ وغيره وانگر اسلامي سرزمين جو منظر ڏيکارين ٿا، جو عربن اٺين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ قائم ڪيو. سرزمين کي خزاني جي مهوسين ۽ مٽيءَ جي کوٽيندڙن ڏاڍو ولوڙي ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ هر هنڌ کڏون آهن، جن مان سڙيل سرون پسجڻ ۾ پيون اچن. اهو بنياد، جنهن تي مسلمانن پنهنجو شهر ٺاهيو، سو ڪچين سرن جو ٺهيل آهي ۽ ان جو گارو ٺڪرن جي ذرن ۽ ٻين شين جو ٺهيل آهي. جو اسلامي دور جو مواد هٿ ڪيو يو آهي سو [[ڀنڀور]] جي اوائلي اسلامي سطح سان برابري ڪري ٿو“. == اروڙ وٽان سنڌو درياءَ تي بند == چوٿين صدي هجريءَ ۾ [[سنڌو]] درياهه، هاڪڙي وٽان وهندو هئو. جڏھن اروڙ وٽان مٿس ٻنڌ ٻڌائون ته منھن مٽائي ويو. هاڪڙي واري پاسي بدران، ٺٽي واري پاسي ڏانھن وهڻ لڳو. درياھ جي رخ مٽائڻ سببان، درياھ جي پاڻيءَ تي ٿيندڙ سموريون رونقون اوڏانھن ڦري ويون. خاص طور تي بھ، مڇي ۽ لوڙھ وغيره ٺٽي طرف ٿيڻ لڳا. اڳي اھي اروڙ وارن وٽان کين سوکڙيءَ طور ملندا ھيا، جنھنڪري موٽ ۾ پاڻ به اروڙ وارن جي مزماني ڪندا ھيا. ان ڪري ماموئين هن بيت اندر پيشن گوئيءَ طور چيو آهي ته، شال اروڙ جو بند ٽٽندو ۽ درياءُ وري هاڪڙي واري پاسي ڏانھن سير ڪري وهندو. پوءِ ٺٽي واري پاسي، جتي سمن جي حڪومت آهي، پاڻي نه وڃڻ سبب بھه، مڇي ۽ لوڙهه نه ٿيندا، جيڪي حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، کين وري هاڪڙي وارن ڏانھن، واجھائڻو پوندو ۽ لاڳاپا وڌائڻا پوندا. <ref>{{Citation |title=ماڳن مڪانن جي نالن تي مشتمل پهاڪا ۽ چوڻيون (انجنيئر عبدالوھاب سھتو) {{!}} سنڌ سلامت ڪتاب گهر<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://books.sindhsalamat.com/book.php?book_id=366 |accessdate=2016-11-22 |archive-date=2017-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912111700/http://books.sindhsalamat.com/book.php?book_id=366 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == * [http://www.rohri.net ڀلي ڪري آيا روهڙي شهر]{{Castles in Pakistan}} {{سنڌ جو برهمڻ گهراڻو}} {{سنڌ جي تاريخ}} {{coord|27.65|N|68.9833|E|source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title}} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:قديم آثار]] [[زمرو:سکر ضلعو]] [[زمرو:سنڌ ۾ قديم آثار]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ قديم آثار]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ قديم آثار جا ماڳ]] [[زمرو:سنڌ جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:آڳاٽي سنڌ]] qt9854zi9mwm57ru2gk6dgimed6eh0u بنگلاديش 0 3235 394738 388433 2026-07-16T02:57:40Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|ڏکڻ ايشيا جو ملڪ}} {{About|ملڪ بابت}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = عوامي جمهوريه بنگلاديش | common_name = بنگلاديش | native_name = {{native name|bn|গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ}}<br />{{resize|90%|{{nobold|{{transliteration|bn|Gôṇôprôjātôntrī Bāṅlādēś}}}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Bangladesh.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Bangladesh.svg | symbol_type = [[بنگلاديش جو قومي نشان|نشان]] | other_symbol = {{unbulleted list |[[File:Government Seal of Bangladesh.svg|100px|بنگلاديش حڪومت جي مهر]]}} | other_symbol_type = [[بنگلاديش حڪومت جي مهر|حڪومتي مهر]] | national_anthem = {{lang|bn|আমার সোনার বাংলা}} ([[بنگالي ٻولي|بنگالي]])<br />{{transliteration|bn|[[امار شونار بنگلا]]}}<br />"منهنجو سونهري بنگال"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Amar Sonar Bangla instrumental by US Navy Band.oga|center]]</div> | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Bangladesh (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|گلوب ڏيکاريو|[[File: Bangladesh rel location map.svg |upright=1.15|frameless]]|بنگلاديش جو نقشو ڏيکاريو|default=1}} | capital = [[ڍاڪا]] | coordinates = {{Coord|23|45|50|N|90|23|20|E|type:city_region:BD|display=inline}} | largest_city = capital | languages_type = سرڪاري ٻولي<br />{{nowrap|{{nobold|۽ قومي ٻولي}}}} | languages = [[بنگالي ٻولي|بنگالي]]<ref name="bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd">{{cite web |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-367.html |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh |website=[[قانون، انصاف ۽ پارلياماني معاملن واري وزارت]] |access-date=1 February 2017 |archive-date=10 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110101626/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-367.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-705.html |script-title=bn:বাংলা ভাষা প্রচলন আইন, ১৯৮৭ |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd |publisher=[[قانون، انصاف ۽ پارلياماني معاملن واري وزارت]] |trans-title=بنگالي ٻولي لاڳو ڪرڻ جو ايڪٽ، 1987ع |language=bn |access-date=7 January 2024 |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107175804/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-705.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | languages2_type = ٻي عام ٻولي | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |91.04% [[بنگلاديش ۾ اسلام|اسلام]] ([[رياستي مذهب|سرڪاري]])|7.94% [[بنگلاديش ۾ هندو ڌرم|هندو ڌرم]] |0.60% [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٻڌمت|ٻڌمت]] |0.30% [[بنگلاديش ۾ عيسائيت|عيسائيت]]|0.12% [[بنگلاديش ۾ مذهب|ٻيا]]}} | religion_year = 2022 | languages2 = [[بنگلاديشي انگريزي|انگريزي]]<ref>{{cite journal |id={{ERIC|EJ1249887}} |last1=Ara |first1=Rowshon |title=A Foreign Language or the Second Language: The Future of English in Bangladesh |journal=International Journal of Language Education |date=March 2020 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=81–95 |doi=10.26858/ijole.v4i2.10458 |doi-broken-date=9 January 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Mohammad Nurul |last2=Hashim |first2=Azirah |title=Historical Evolution of English in Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Language Teaching and Research |date=2019 |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=247 |doi=10.17507/jltr.1002.05 }}</ref> | ethnic_groups = 99% [[بنگالي ماڻهو|بنگالي]]<!--Do not modify to "Bengalis". The name of the ethnic group is "Bengali" and the people who belong to Bengali ethnicity are called "Bengalis".--> {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%; | title = 1% [[بنگلاديش جا مقامي ماڻهو|ٻيا]] | hlist = on | [[چڪما ماڻهو|چڪما]] | [[گارو ماڻهو|گارو]] | [[خاصي ماڻهو|خاصي]] | [[خومي ماڻهو|خومي]] | [[ميتي ماڻهو|منيپوري]] | [[مرما ماڻهو|مرما]] | [[ميزو ماڻهو|ميزو]] | [[رخائن ماڻهو|اراڪاني]] | [[مرو ماڻهو|مرو]] | [[سنتال ماڻهو|سنتال]] | [[تنچانگيا ماڻهو|تنچانگيا]] | [[ترپوري ماڻهو|ترپوري]] | [[بشنوپريا ماڻهو|بشنوپريا]] }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Ethnic population in 2022 census |url=https://sid.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sid.portal.gov.bd/publications/01ad1ffe_cfef_4811_af97_594b6c64d7c3/PHC_Preliminary_Report_(English)_August_2022.pdf |access-date=9 June 2024 |archive-date=8 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708004426/https://sid.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sid.portal.gov.bd/publications/01ad1ffe_cfef_4811_af97_594b6c64d7c3/PHC_Preliminary_Report_(English)_August_2022.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2022 | religion_ref = <ref name="census"/> | demonym = [[بنگلاديشي ماڻهو|بنگلاديشي]] | government_type = [[وحداني پارلياماني جمهوريه]] | leader_title1 = [[بنگلاديش جو صدر|صدر]] | leader_name1 = [[محمد شهاب الدين]] | leader_title2 = [[بنگلاديش جو وزيراعظم|وزيراعظم]] | leader_name2 = [[طارق رحمان]] | leader_title3 = [[جاتيا سنگساد جو اسپيڪر|اسپيڪر]] | leader_name3 = [[حفيظ الدين احمد]] | leader_title4 = [[بنگلاديش جو چيف جسٽس|چيف جسٽس]] | leader_name4 = [[زبير رحمان چوڌري]] | legislature = [[جاتيا سنگساد]] | sovereignty_note = [[پاڪستان]] کان | sovereignty_type = [[بنگلاديش جي آزادي|آزادي]] | established_event1 = [[اوڀر بنگال]] | established_date1 = 15 آگسٽ 1947ع | established_event2 = [[اوڀر پاڪستان]] | established_date2 = 29 فيبروري 1956ع | established_event3 = [[بنگلاديشي آزادي جو اعلان|آزاديءَ جو اعلان]] | established_date3 = 26 مارچ 1971ع | established_event4 = [[بنگلاديش جي عارضي حڪومت|عارضي حڪومت]] | established_date4 = 10 اپريل 1971ع | established_event5 = [[پاڪستاني هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ جو دستاويز|فتح]]، [[بنگلاديش آزادي جنگ|آزادي جنگ]] ۾ | established_date5 = 16 ڊسمبر 1971ع | established_event6 = [[بنگلاديش جو آئين|موجوده آئين]] | established_date6 = 16 ڊسمبر 1972ع | area_km2 = 148,460<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangladesh country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12650940|website=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] |date=4 March 2011 |access-date=18 February 2025}}</ref> | area_rank = 93هون | area_sq_mi = 57320 | area_label2 = زميني پکيڙ | area_data2 = 130,170&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><ref name="cia">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Bangladesh|access-date=13 November 2021|year=2021}}</ref> | area_label3 = آبي پکيڙ | area_data3 = 18,290&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><ref name="cia"/> | percent_water = 6.4 | population_estimate = 175,423,000<ref name=IMF/> | population_census = 169,828,911<ref name="populationcensus2022">{{cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2022: Post Enumeration Check (PEC) Adjusted Population |url=http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2023-04-18-08-42-4f13d316f798b9e5fd3a4c61eae4bfef.pdf |date=18 April 2023 |website=[[بنگلاديش شماريات بيورو]] |access-date=30 May 2023 |archive-date=30 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530205648/http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2023-04-18-08-42-4f13d316f798b9e5fd3a4c61eae4bfef.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Report: 68% Bangladeshis live in villages |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/332419/report-68%25-bangladeshis-live-in-villages |work=[[ڍاڪا ٽربيون]] |date=28 November 2023 |access-date=6 February 2024 |archive-date=6 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206021005/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/332419/report-68%25-bangladeshis-live-in-villages |url-status=live }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2026 | population_estimate_rank = 8هون | population_census_year = 2022 | population_census_rank = 8هون | population_density_km2 = 1,165 | population_density_sq_mi = 3,020 | population_density_rank = 13هون | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.922 ٽرلين<ref name="IMFWEO.BD">{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=[[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=19 April 2026}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2026 | GDP_PPP_rank = 25هون | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $10,955<ref name="IMFWEO.BD" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 127هون | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $510.705 بلين<ref name="IMFWEO.BD" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2026 | GDP_nominal_rank = 36هون | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,911<ref name="IMFWEO.BD" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 142هون | Gini = 30.9 | Gini_year = 2022 | Gini_change = decrease | Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gini index - Bangladesh |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BD |access-date=2026-03-31 |website=World Bank}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.685 | HDI_year = 2023 | HDI_change = increase | HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[گڏيل قومن جو ترقياتي پروگرام]] |language=en}}</ref> | HDI_rank = {{ordinal|130}} | currency = [[بنگلاديشي ٽڪا|ٽڪا]] ({{lang|bn|[[৳]]}}) | currency_code = BDT | time_zone = [[بنگلاديش معياري وقت|بي ايس ٽي]] | utc_offset = +6 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | calling_code = [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٽيليفون نمبر|+880]] | cctld = {{ubl|[[.bd]]|{{lang|bn|[[.bangla|.বাংলা]]}}}} | area_magnitude = | footnote = | today = }} {{Contains special characters|بنگالي}} '''بنگلاديش'''،{{efn|{{IPAc-en|%|b|ae|N|g|l|@|"|d|E|S|,_|%|b|A:|N|-|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Bangladesh.wav}}; {{langx|bn|বাংলাদেশ|Bāṅlādēś|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|bn|ˈbaŋlaˌdeʃ|pron|Bn-বাংলাদেশ.oga}}}} سرڪاري طور '''عوامي جمهوريه بنگلاديش'''،{{efn|{{langx|bn|গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ|Gôṇôprôjātôntrī Bāṅlādēś|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|bn|ɡɔnopɾodʒat̪ɔnt̪ɾi‿baŋlad̪eʃ|pron|}}}} [[ڏکڻ ايشيا]] جو هڪ ملڪ آهي. اهو دنيا جو [[آبادي جي لحاظ کان ملڪن ۽ تابع علائقن جي فهرست|اٺون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ملڪ]] آهي ۽ [[آباديءَ جي گهاٽائي جي لحاظ کان ملڪن ۽ تابع علائقن جي فهرست|سڀ کان وڌيڪ گنجان آباد ملڪن]] مان هڪ آهي، جتي لڳ ڀڳ 176 ملين آبادي {{convert|148461|km2|sqmi}} ايراضيءَ ۾ رهي ٿي.<ref name=IMF>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh and the IMF |url=https://www.imf.org/en/countries/bgd |access-date=2026-05-02 |website=IMF}}</ref> بنگلاديش جون زميني سرحدون اتر، اولهه ۽ اوڀر ۾ [[ڀارت]] سان ۽ ڏکڻ اوڀر ۾ [[ميانمار]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان جي ڏکڻ ۾ [[بنگال جي نار]] سان سامونڊي ڪنارو آهي. اهو [[ڀوٽان]] ۽ [[نيپال]] کان [[سليگڙي لنگهه]] وسيلي الڳ آهي، ۽ اتر طرف [[چين]] کان [[ڀارت جون رياستون|ڀارتي رياست]] [[سڪم]] وسيلي جدا آهي. [[ڍاڪا]]، ملڪ جو گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ [[بنگلاديش جا شهر ۽ ڳوٺ|سڀ کان وڏو شهر]]، ملڪ جو سياسي، مالي ۽ ثقافتي مرڪز آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sinardaily.my/article/728620/culture/travel-amp-food/bangladesh-may-not-have-a-mega-monument-but-what-it-has-is-captivating|title=Bangladesh may not have a mega monument but what it has is captivating|first=S. D.|last=Reporter|date=12 July 2025|website=Sinar Daily}}</ref> [[چٽاگانگ]] ملڪ جو ٻيو وڏو شهر ۽ [[چٽاگانگ بندرگاهه|ملڪ جو سڀ کان مصروف بندرگاهه]] آهي. هاڻوڪي بنگلاديش جو علائقو قديم تاريخ ۾ ڪيترين [[هندو سلطنتن ۽ گهراڻن جي فهرست|هندو]] ۽ [[ٻڌ ڌرم جي بادشاهتن ۽ سلطنتن جي فهرست|ٻڌ]] گهراڻن جو مضبوط مرڪز رهيو. 1204ع ۾ [[بنگال تي غوري فتح|مسلمانن جي فتح]] کان پوءِ، هن علائقي ۾ [[بنگال سلطنت|سلطنتي]] ۽ [[مغل سلطنت|مغل]] حڪمراني قائم ٿي. [[بنگال صوبو|مغل سلطنت جي سڀ کان وڏي صوبي]] طور [[بنگال]] دنيا جي سڀ کان خوشحال ۽ واپاري طور سرگرم علائقن مان هڪ بڻجي اڀريو، جيڪو پنهنجي [[بنگال ۾ ململ جو واپار|ترقي يافته ڪپڙي جي صنعت]] ۽ زرعي پيداوار لاءِ مشهور هو. 1757ع ۾ [[پلاسي جي جنگ]] ايندڙ ٻن صدين لاءِ [[بنگال پريزيڊنسي|برطانوي نوآبادياتي حڪمراني]] جي شروعات ثابت ٿي. هن دور ۾ سرمائي جي وڏي پيماني تي ٻاهر منتقلي ٿي، جنهن کي برطانيا ۾ صنعتي انقلاب جي مالي مدد لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته بنگال موتمار ڏڪارن جي دورن سبب تباهه ٿيو. 1947ع ۾ [[برطانوي هندستان جي ورهاڱي|هندستان جي ورهاڱي]] کان پوءِ، [[اوڀر بنگال]] نئين ٺهيل [[پاڪستان جي ڊومينين]] جو اوڀر ۽ سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو حصو بڻيو، جنهن کي پوءِ [[اوڀر پاڪستان]] جو نالو ڏنو ويو. [[اولهه پاڪستان]] ۾ قائم حڪومت طرفان ٻن ڏهاڪن کان وڌيڪ سياسي دٻاءُ ۽ [[ادارتي نسل پرستي|نظامي نسل پرستي]] کان پوءِ، [[اوڀر پاڪستان]] ۾ [[عدم تعاون تحريڪ (1971)|1971ع جي عدم تعاون تحريڪ]] سان شهري بيچيني پيدا ٿي، جيڪا حڪومت جي پرتشدد [[آپريشن سرچ لائيٽ|فوجي ڪارروائي]] کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش آزادي جنگ]] جو سبب بڻي. [[مڪتي باهني]]، [[1971ع جي هندستان-پاڪستان جنگ|ڀارتي فوجن جي مدد ۽ سهڪار]] سان، هڪ ڪامياب [[انقلاب|هٿياربند انقلاب]] وڙهيو؛ ۽ پاڪستان طرفان ڪيل [[بنگلاديش نسل ڪشي]] جي باوجود، بنگلاديش 16 ڊسمبر 1971ع تي هڪ [[خودمختيار قوم]] بڻجي ويو. آزاديءَ کان پوءِ [[شيخ مجيب الرحمان]] ملڪ جي اڳواڻي ڪئي، جيستائين 1975ع ۾ سندس [[شيخ مجيب الرحمان جو قتل|قتل]] ٿيو. پوءِ صدارت [[ضياءُ الرحمان]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جنهن کي پاڻ به 1981ع ۾ [[ضياءُ الرحمان جو قتل|قتل]] ڪيو ويو. 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي تي [[حسين محمد ارشاد]] جي آمريت غالب رهي، جنهن کي 1990ع ۾ [[1990ع بنگلاديش عوامي بغاوت|عوامي بغاوت]] ذريعي هٽايو ويو. 1991ع ۾ جمهوريت جي بحاليءَ کان پوءِ، [[بيگمن جي جنگ]] يعني [[خالده ضياءُ]] ۽ [[شيخ حسينا]] جي رقابت ايندڙ 34 سالن تائين ملڪ جي سياست کي شڪل ڏني. حسينا کي 5 آگسٽ 2024ع تي [[جولاءِ بغاوت|عوامي بغاوت]] ۾ هٽايو ويو.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Battle Of Begums: All About Rivalry Between Khaleda Zia And Sheikh Hasina |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/battle-of-begums-all-about-rivalry-between-khaleda-zia-and-sheikh-hasina-10087241 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251230091627/https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/battle-of-begums-all-about-rivalry-between-khaleda-zia-and-sheikh-hasina-10087241 |archive-date=2025-12-30 |access-date=2026-05-15 |work=NDTV |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mudgal |first=Aryan |date=2025-12-30 |title=‘Battle of the Begums’: Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina's rivalry over the years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/battle-of-the-begums-khaleda-zia-and-sheikh-hasinas-rivalry-over-the-years-bangladesh-101767079979402.html |access-date=2026-05-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> بنگلاديش [[ويسٽ منسٽر نظام]] تي ٻڌل هڪ وحداني [[پارلياماني جمهوريه]] آهي. اهو [[وچولي طاقت]] آهي ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي معيشت|ڏکڻ ايشيا جي ٻئي نمبر وڏي معيشت]] رکي ٿو. بنگلاديش دنيا جي [[ملڪن موجب اسلام|چوٿين نمبر وڏي مسلمان آبادي]] جو گهر آهي. اهو ڏکڻ ايشيا جي [[بنگلاديش هٿياربند فوجون|ٽئين نمبر وڏي فوج]] رکي ٿو ۽ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ]] وارين ڪارروائين ۾ سڀ کان وڏو حصو ڏيندڙ ملڪ آهي. بنگلاديش [[بنگلاديش جون ڊويزنون|اٺ ڊويزنن]]، [[بنگلاديش جا ضلعا|64 ضلعن]]، [[اپازيلا|500 سب ضلعن]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش جون يونين ڪائونسلون|4,599 يونين ڪائونسلن]] تي مشتمل آهي، ۽ دنيا جي [[سندربن|سڀ کان وڏي مينگروو ٻيلي]] جو گهر آهي. ان وٽ دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي [[بنگلاديش ۾ روهنگيا پناهگير|پناهگير آبادي]] مان هڪ آهي ۽ اهو اڃا تائين مقامي سطح تي پکڙيل [[بنگلاديش ۾ ڪرپشن|ڪرپشن]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ انساني حق|انساني حقن جي ڀڃڪڙين]]، [[مذهبي تشدد]]، [[سياسي زوال|سياسي عدم استحڪام]] ۽ [[موسمي تبديلي جا اثر|موسمي تبديلي جي منفي اثرن]] جهڙن چئلينجن کي منهن ڏئي رهيو آهي. بنگلاديش [[ڏکڻ ايشيائي علائقائي تعاون تنظيم|سارڪ]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش جا پرڏيهي لاڳاپا|ڪيترين ٻين بين الاقوامي تنظيمن]] جو ميمبر ملڪ آهي. == نالي جي بڻ بنياد == {{Main|بنگال جا نالا}} ''بنگلاديش'' ("بنگالي ملڪ") جي نالي جي بڻ بنياد کي ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين ڳولي سگهجي ٿو، جڏهن بنگالي محب وطن گيتن، جهڙوڪ [[رابندرناٿ ٽئگور]] جي ''آجي بنگلاديشير هردوئي'' ۽ [[قاضي نذرالاسلام]] جي ''نمو نمو نمو بنگلاديش مومو'' ۾، ترتيبوار 1905ع ۽ 1932ع ۾، هي اصطلاح استعمال ٿيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geetabitan.com/lyrics/A/aaji-bangladesher-hridoy.html |title=Notation of song aaji bangladesher hridoy |access-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011316/http://www.geetabitan.com/lyrics/A/aaji-bangladesher-hridoy.html |archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> 1950ع واري ڏهاڪي کان، بنگالي قومپرستن [[اوڀر پاڪستان]] ۾ سياسي جلسن ۾ هي اصطلاح استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. ''بنگلا'' اصطلاح [[بنگال]] علائقي ۽ [[بنگالي ٻولي]] ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. ''بنگلا'' اصطلاح جي اصل واضح ناهي؛ مختلف نظرين موجب ان جو تعلق ڪانسي جي دور جي ڪنهن [[پروٽو-ڊراوڙي ٻولي|پروٽو-ڊراوڙي]] قبيلي،<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+bd0014%29 |title=Bangladesh: early history, 1000&nbsp;B.C.–A.D. 1202 |date=September 1988 |website=Bangladesh: A country study |publisher=[[لائبريري آف ڪانگريس]] |access-date=1 December 2014 |quote=Historians believe that Bengal, the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of [[West Bengal]], was settled in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga, Bangala, Bangal, and Bengal. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207010051/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+bd0014%29 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 December 2013 }}</ref> ۽ لوهه جي دور جي [[ونگا سلطنت]] سان جوڙيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanga|title=Vanga &#124; ancient kingdom, India|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=24 April 2023|archive-date=30 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730062030/https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanga|url-status=live}}</ref> هن اصطلاح جو سڀ کان پراڻو ڄاتل استعمال 805ع واري [[نيسري|نيسري پليٽ]] ۾ ملي ٿو. ''ونگلا ديسا'' اصطلاح يارهين صديءَ جي ڏکڻ هندستاني رڪارڊن ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |year=2000 |title=India: A History |publisher=[[Atlantic Monthly Press]] |page=220 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |quote=In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon.}}</ref><ref name="Sen-1999">{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-date=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |publisher=New Age International |page=281 |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111745/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |url-status=live }}</ref> چوڏهين صديءَ ۾ [[بنگال سلطنت]] دوران هن اصطلاح کي سرڪاري حيثيت ملي.<ref name="Ahmed2004">{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Salahuddin |date=2004 |title=Bangladesh: Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Szfqq7ruqWgC&pg=PA23 |publisher=APH Publishing |page=23 |isbn=978-81-7648-469-5 |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206161602/https://books.google.com/books?id=Szfqq7ruqWgC&pg=PA23 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"But the most important development of this period was that the country for the first time received a name, ie Bangalah." [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal Banglapedia: Islam, Bengal] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723091245/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal |date=23 July 2015 }}</ref> [[شمس الدين الياس شاهه]] 1342ع ۾ پاڻ کي "بنگلا جو پهريون [[شاهه]]" قرار ڏنو.<ref name="Ahmed2004" /> اسلامي دور ۾ ''بنگال'' لفظ هن علائقي لاءِ سڀ کان عام نالو بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sircar |first=D.C. |author-link=Dineshchandra Sircar |year=1971 |orig-date=First published 1960 |title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC |edition=2nd |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=135 |isbn=978-81-208-0690-0 |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206161603/https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC |url-status=live }}</ref> سورهين صديءَ جي تاريخدان [[ابوالفضل بن مبارڪ]] پنهنجي ''[[آئين اڪبري]]'' ۾ لکي ٿو ته پڇاڙي ''"ال"'' جو اضافو ان حقيقت مان ٿيو ته هن زمين جا قديم راجا ٽڪرين جي هيٺاهين وارن هيٺاهن علائقن ۾ مٽيءَ جا دڙا ٺاهيندا هئا، جن کي "ال" چيو ويندو هو.<ref>Land of Two Rivers, [[Nitish Sengupta]]</ref> اهو ذڪر [[غلام حسين سليم]] جي [[رياض السلاطين]] ۾ پڻ ملي ٿو.<ref name="riaj">[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=07601010&ct=11 RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215055926/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=07601010&ct=11|date=15 December 2014}}, [[Ghulam Husain Salim]], The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.</ref> هند-آريائي پڇاڙي ''[[-desh|ديش]]'' سنسڪرت لفظ ''deśha'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ "زمين" يا "ملڪ" آهي. تنهنڪري ''بنگلاديش'' نالي جي معنيٰ "بنگال جي زمين" يا "بنگال جو ملڪ" آهي.<ref name="Sen-1999" /> == تاريخ == {{Main|بنگلاديش جي تاريخ}} === ابتدائي تاريخ === [[File:Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription.png|thumb|ٽين صدي ق.م. جو [[مهاستان برهمي ڪتبو]]، جيڪو 1931ع ۾ [[مهاستان ڳڙهه]]، [[بوگرا ضلعو]] مان دريافت ٿيو]] هن علائقي تي پکڙجندڙ پهرين وڏي مقامي سلطنت [[موريا سلطنت]] ({{Circa}} 320–185 ق.م.) هئي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ [[ساماتاتا]] نالي بادشاھت اڀري، جيڪا [[گپت سلطنت]] (تقريباً 319–540ع) جي باجگذار رياست هئي. [[هرشا]] (606–647ع) ساماتاتا کي پنهنجي نسبتاً ڍري انتظامي سياسي ڍانچي ۾ شامل ڪيو. ٻڌ ڌرم واري [[پالا سلطنت]] 750ع کان 1150ع تائين هن علائقي تي حڪومت ڪئي. بعد ۾ ان کي هندو [[سينا خاندان]] ختم ڪيو، جنهن 1204ع تائين حڪومت ڪئي، جڏهن [[غوري خاندان]] جي [[محمد بختيار خلجي]] جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ [[هندستاني برصغير ۾ مسلمان فتحون|مسلمان فتحن]] هن علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=EARLY HISTORY, 1000 B.C.-A.D. 1202|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> === وچئين دور === {{Main|بينگال سلطنت|بنگال صوبو}} [[File:Renaldis muslin woman.jpg|thumb|ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[ڍاڪا]] جي هڪ عورت نفيس [[بنگال جي ململ واپار|بنگالي ململ]] جو لباس پهريل]] {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 300 | image1 = Kusumba Mosque, Naogaon.jpg | image2 = গোয়ালদি মসজিদ 3.jpg | image3 = Bagha Shahi Mosque.jpg | image4 = Choto Shona Mosque Rajshahi.jpg | footer = بنگال سلطنت جي دور جي مسجدن جي تعمير. مٿان کاٻي کان گھڙيال وار ترتيب سان: [[ڪسومبا مسجد]] جا محراب، [[گوالدي مسجد]]، [[باگها مسجد]] ۽ [[ڇوٽو سونا مسجد]] جا نوڪدار محراب ۽ بنگالي ڇت. }} [[File:Hussain Shahis of Bengal.png|thumb|left|[[حسين شاهي خاندان]] جي دور ۾ بنگال]] ان کان پوءِ بنگال [[دهلي سلطنت]] (1206–1526ع) جو حصو بڻيو.<ref name="islamization">{{cite book|chapter=ISLAMIZATION OF BENGAL, 1202–1757|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/5.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> 1341ع ۾ [[فخرالدين مبارڪ شاهه]] آزاد [[بنگال سلطنت]] قائم ڪئي.<ref name="islamization"/> آزاد بنگال سلطنت تي لڳاتار ٻن خاندانن، [[حسين شاهي خاندان]] ۽ [[الياس شاهي خاندان]] حڪومت ڪئي، جڏهن ته [[گنيشا خاندان]] جو مختصر دور پڻ رهيو. جاگرافيائي توسيع ۽ معاشي خوشحاليءَ جي زماني ۾ يورپي ۽ چيني سياحن ان کي "واپار لاءِ دنيا جو سڀ کان مالدار ملڪ" قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nanda|first=J.N.|year=2005|title=Bengal: the unique state|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-149-2}}</ref>{{rp|10}} 1576ع ۾ [[مغل سلطنت]] بنگال تي قبضو ڪيو.<ref name="islamization"/><ref>Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan (eds). ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, c.1200–c.1750''. Cambridge University Press, 1982.</ref> اٺارهين صديءَ تائين [[بنگال صوبو]] مغل سلطنت جو سڀ کان مالدار صوبو بڻجي ويو ۽ ان کي "ملڪن جي جنت" ۽ "هندستان جو اناج گهر" سڏيو ويو.<ref name="islamization"/> هتي جي رهواسين جو معيارِ زندگي دنيا جي بهترين معيارن مان هڪ هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هي علائقو ڪپهه جي ڪپڙي (خاص طور ململ)، ريشم ۽ [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٻيڙيون ٺاهڻ جي صنعت|ٻيڙيون ٺاهڻ]] جو وڏو عالمي برآمد ڪندڙ ۽ پيدا ڪندڙ هو.<ref name="ray">{{cite book|first=Indrajit|last=Ray|year=2011|title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-82552-1|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>{{rp|174}} 1700ع جي شروعات ۾ مغل سلطنت جي زوال کان پوءِ هي علائقو [[بنگال جا نواب|بنگال جي نوابن]] جي ماتحت هڪ نيم خودمختيار رياست بڻجي ويو، جنهن جو بنياد [[مرشد قلي خان]] 1717ع ۾ رکيو. === برطانوي نوآبادياتي دور === {{Main|بنگال پريزيڊنسي}} [[File:Bengal Presidency in British India with dependencies 1852.png|thumb|left|برطانوي هندستان ۾ بنگال پريزيڊنسي (سائي رنگ) ۽ ان جا تابع علائقا (سرمائي رنگ)]] 23 جون 1757ع تي [[سراج الدوله]] جي اڳواڻيءَ واري رياست کي [[ايسٽ انڊيا ڪمپني]] [[پلاسي جي جنگ]] ۾ شڪست ڏني. اها جنگ بنگال ۽ سڄي هندستاني برصغير تي [[برطانوي راڄ]] قائم ڪرڻ ۾ اهم ثابت ٿي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=Indrajit|title=Identifying the woes of the cotton textile industry in Bengal: tales of the nineteenth century|volume=62|number=4|pages=857–892|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|journal=[[The Economic History Review]]|jstor=27771525|date=November 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00444.x }}</ref> بنگال برطانيا جي [[صنعتي انقلاب]] ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو، پر ان جي قيمت وڏي پئماني تي سرمائي جي نيڪالي، صنعتڪشي جي زوال ۽ بنگالي ڪپڙي جي صنعت جي تباهيءَ جي صورت ۾ ادا ڪئي وئي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=Indrajit|title=Identifying the woes of the cotton textile industry in Bengal: tales of the nineteenth century|volume=62|number=4|pages=857–892|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|journal=[[The Economic History Review]]|jstor=27771525|date=November 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00444.x }}</ref><ref name="ray"/>{{rp|7–10}} 1770ع جي هولناڪ [[عظيم بنگال ڏڪار]] ۾ اندازاً هڪ ڪروڙ تائين ماڻهو فوت ٿيا،<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ghose|first=Ajit Kumar|title=Food Supply and Starvation: A Study of Famines with Reference to the Indian Sub-Continent|volume=34|number=2|pages=368–389|jstor=2662775|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[Oxford Economic Papers]]|year=1982|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a041557 |pmid=11620403 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A population history of India: from the first modern people to the present day |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882905-8 |edition=1st |location=Oxford |pages=80–81}}</ref><ref name="Irschick2018">{{citation|last=Irschick|first=Eugene F.|author-link=Eugene F. Irschick|title=A History of the New India: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wqiaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|year=2018|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-43617-1|pages=73–}}</ref> جيڪو بنگال پريزيڊنسي جي ڪل آباديءَ جي لڳ ڀڳ ٽئين حصي جي برابر هو.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ|last=Peers|first=Douglas M.|year=2006|title=India under colonial rule: 1700–1885|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-582-31738-3}}</ref>{{rp|47}} === پاڪستان جو حصو === {{Main|ڊومينين آف پاڪستان|اوڀر بنگال|اوڀر پاڪستان}} {{further|اولھ پاڪستان| بنگال جو ورهاڱو (1947)|انڊيا جو ورھاڱو }} لڳ ڀڳ ٻن صدين جي سڌي برطانوي حڪمراني کان پوءِ، جديد بنگلاديش جون سرحدون [[هندستان جي ورهاڱي]] دوران 15 آگسٽ 1947ع تي [[ريڊڪلف لائين]] تحت [[بنگال جي ورهاڱي (1947ع)|بنگال جي ورهاڱي]] سان مقرر ٿيون.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chatterji|first=Joya|title=The Fashioning of a Frontier: The Radcliffe Line and Bengal's Border Landscape, 1947–52|volume=33|number=1|year=1999|pages=185–242|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]]|doi=10.1017/S0026749X99003066 |jstor=313155}}</ref> ان وقت هي علائقو [[اوڀر بنگال]] جي نالي سان نئين ٺهيل [[پاڪستان جي ڊومينين]] جو اوڀر ۽ سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو حصو بڻيو، جڏهن ته ٻيو حصو [[اولهه پاڪستان]] هو.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=PAKISTAN PERIOD, 1947–71|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/14.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|page=4|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> اوڀر ۽ اولهه پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ هڪ هزار ميلن کان وڌيڪ جاگرافيائي فاصلو هو، جيڪو بعد ۾ شديد معاشي اڻبرابريءَ جو بنيادي سبب بڻيو.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sobhan|first=Rehman|title=The Problem of Regional Imbalance in the Economic Development of Pakistan|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|volume=2|number=5|year=1962|pages=31–37|doi=10.2307/3023445 |jstor=3023445}}</ref> [[خواجه ناظم الدين]] اوڀر بنگال جو پهريون وزيراعليٰ ٿيو ۽ [[فريڊرڪ چالمرز بورن]] ان جو گورنر مقرر ٿيو. 1949ع ۾ [[آل پاڪستان عوامي مسلم ليگ]] قائم ٿي. 1950ع ۾ [[اوڀر بنگال قانون ساز اسيمبلي]] زمينداري نظام ۽ مستقل بندوبست کي ختم ڪندي زرعي سڌارا نافذ ڪيا.<ref>[[#Baxter|Baxter]], p. 72</ref> 1953ع ۾ عوامي مسلم ليگ جو نالو تبديل ڪري وڌيڪ "سيڪيولر" [[عوامي ليگ]] رکيو ويو.<ref name="LewisSagar1992">{{cite book |author1=David S. Lewis |author2=Darren J. Sagar|title=Political Parties of Asia and the Pacific: A Reference Guide |url={{GBurl|id=S4uyAAAAIAAJ}}|year=1992|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-0-582-09811-4|page=36|access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref> {{مکيه|بنگلاديش جي آزاديءَ جي جنگ}} ثقافتي، لساني، سياسي ۽ معاشي امتياز، 1952ع جي [[بنگالي ٻولي تحريڪ]]، 1966ع جي [[ڇهن نڪتن واري تحريڪ]]، 1970ع جي چونڊن ۾ [[عوامي ليگ]] جي شاندار ڪاميابي ۽ پوءِ [[آپريشن سرچ لائيٽ]] جي فوجي ڪارروائيءَ، بنگلاديش جي آزاديءَ جي جدوجهد کي جنم ڏنو. 25 مارچ 1971ع تي پاڪستاني حڪومت طرفان فوجي آپريشن شروع ڪيو ويو.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bose|first=Sarmila|title=Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971|journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]]|volume=40|number=41|year=2005|pages=4463–4471|jstor=4417267}}</ref> 26 مارچ 1971ع تي پاڪستاني فوج پاران [[شيخ مجيب الرحمان]] جي گرفتاري کان پوءِ، آزادي پسند اڳواڻ ميجر [[ضياءُ الرحمان]] مجيب جي طرفان بنگلاديش جي آزاديءَ جو اعلان نشر ڪيو.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/zias-declaration-19001 | title=Zia's declaration |work=The Daily Star |date=7 April 2014 }}</ref> ان کان پوءِ نَو مهينن تي مشتمل خوني [[بنگلاديش جي آزاديءَ جي جنگ]] شروع ٿي، جنهن دوران نسلي بنگالين جي خلاف [[بنگلاديش نسل ڪشي]] به ٿي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saikia|first=Yasmin|title=Beyond the Archive of Silence: Narratives of Violence of the 1971 Liberation War of Bangladesh|journal=[[History Workshop Journal]]|number=58|year=2004|volume=58 |pages=275–287|doi=10.1093/hwj/58.1.275 |jstor=25472765}}</ref> آخرڪار 16 ڊسمبر 1971ع تي [[پاڪستاني هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ وارو معاهدو|پاڪستاني هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ]] کان پوءِ بنگلاديش هڪ خودمختيار ۽ آزاد رياست طور وجود ۾ آيو. === آزاد بنگلاديش === [[بنگلاديش جو آئين]] 4 نومبر 1972ع تي نافذ ڪيو ويو.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chakma|first1=Parbon|last2=Saumik|first2=Rafid Azad|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/50-years-bangladesh-constitution-nutshell-3160281|title=50 Years of Bangladesh Constitution In a nutshell|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=4 November 2022|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> آزاديءَ کان پوءِ، مجيب جي اڳواڻيءَ واري حڪومت وڏي پيماني تي ڪرپشن ۽ بدانتظامي ۾ ملوث ٿي، جنهن سبب سڄي ملڪ ۾ لاقانونيت ۽ معاشي تباهي پيدا ٿي. [[بڪسال|هڪ پارٽي سوشلزم]] قائم ڪرڻ جون ڪوششون ۽ [[1974ع بنگلاديش ڏڪار|1974ع جو وڏو ڏڪار]] مجيب جي مقبوليت ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي کان پوءِ 1975ع ۾ سندس [[شيخ مجيب الرحمان جو قتل|قتل]] جو سبب بڻيا.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Fall of the Bangabandhu, 1972–75|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/19.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="gov0"/>{{rp|131}} ان کان پوءِ صدارت [[ضياءُ الرحمان]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جنهن عوامي نظم بحال ڪيو، زراعت کي صنعتي بنيادن تي آندو، [[بنگلاديش نيشنلسٽ پارٽي]] قائم ڪئي ۽ [[ڏکڻ ايشيائي علائقائي تعاون تنظيم]] جي قيام جي شروعات ڪئي.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=The Zia Regime and Its Aftermath, 1977–82|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> ضياءُ الرحمان 1 سيپٽمبر 1978ع تي [[بنگلاديش نيشنلسٽ پارٽي]] جو بنياد وڌو.<ref>{{cite news |title=BNP vows to continue movement |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/politics/bnp-vows-continue-movement-for-democracy-restore-1627522 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |agency=[[United News of Bangladesh|UNB]] |date=1 September 2018 |access-date=3 June 2026}}</ref> 1981ع ۾ [[ضياءُ الرحمان جو قتل|رحمان جي قتل]] کان پوءِ ايندڙ ڏهاڪو [[حسين محمد ارشاد]] جي ماتحت [[فوجي آمريت]] جو دور رهيو، جنهن ۾ بنيادي ڍانچي جي ترقي، [[اختيارن جي منتقلي]] جون سڌارا، قومي ملڪيت ۾ آيل صنعتن جي نجڪاري ۽ 1988ع ۾ اسلام کي [[رياستي مذهب]] قرار ڏيڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=THE ERSHAD PERIOD: Achieving Stability, 1982–83|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/90.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Emerging Opposition, 1983–86|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/91.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Relaxation of Martial Law, 1986–87|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/92.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=More Opposition Pressure|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/93.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> [[1990ع بنگلاديش عوامي بغاوت|بحالي]] کان پوءِ [[پارلياماني جمهوريت]] [[1991ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|1991ع]] ۾ واپس آئي، ۽ اقتدار بي اين پي جي [[خالده ضياءُ]] ۽ عوامي ليگ جي [[شيخ حسينا]] جي وچ ۾ مٽاسٽا ٿيندو رهيو. هن دور کي [[بيگمن جي جنگ]] سڏيو ويو، جنهن 2024ع تائين 34 سالن لاءِ بنگلاديش جي سياست ۽ تاريخ کي شڪل ڏني.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42999503|title=Bangladesh grows tired of the Battling Begums|last=Rowlatt|first=Justin|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=11 February 2018|access-date =13 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="gov0"/>{{rp|130}} [[2008ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|2008ع جي عام چونڊن]] کان پوءِ عوامي ليگ ٻيهر اقتدار ۾ آئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2008-12-30-voa9/401556.html|title=Bangladesh's Sheikh Hasina Wins Landslide Election|date=1 November 2009|access-date=14 February 2025|publisher=[[Voice of America]]|last=Herman|first=Steve}}</ref> [[شيخ حسينا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ملڪ معاشي ترقي ڏٺي، پر ساڳئي وقت [[جمهوري پٺتي هٽڻ]]، وڌندڙ [[آمريت پسندي]]، وڏي پيماني تي [[بنگلاديش ۾ ڪرپشن|ڪرپشن]] ۽ وسيع [[بنگلاديش ۾ انساني حق|انساني حقن جون ڀڃڪڙيون]] پڻ ڏٺيون.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ethirajan|first1=Anbarasan|last2=Wong|first2=Tessa|title=Sheikh Hasina: The pro-democracy icon who became an autocrat|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg3ee303yxpo|date=6 August 2024|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> مختلف رپورٽن موجب حسينا ۽ عوامي ليگ حڪومت، ڀارت سان سهڪار جي مدد سان، [[2009ع بنگلاديش رائفلز بغاوت]] منظم ڪئي ته جيئن اهڙن قابل فوجي آفيسرن کي ماريو وڃي، جن کي حسينا پنهنجي اقتدار لاءِ خطرو سمجهندي هئي؛ ان سان [[بنگلاديش فوج]] غير مستحڪم ٿي ۽ عملي طور هڪ پارٽي حڪمراني مضبوط ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reporter |first1=Staff |title='Hasina, AL leaders behind BDR mutiny' |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/crime-justice/news/hasina-al-leaders-behind-bdr-mutiny-4047691 |access-date=1 December 2025 |work=The Daily Star |date=1 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Did India benefit from BDR mutiny? What the probe commission says|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/did-india-benefit-bdr-mutiny-what-probe-commission-says-1299101|website=The Business Standard|date=2025-12-01|access-date=2025-12-01|language=en}}</ref> حسينا [[2014ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|2014ع]]، [[2018ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|2018ع]] ۽ [[2024ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|2024ع جي عام چونڊن]] ۾ لڳاتار ٻيو، ٽيون ۽ چوٿون مدو کٽيو؛ اهي سڀئي چونڊون جعلي هيون ۽ نه [[آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊ|آزاد نه منصفاڻي]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/06/world/asia/bangladesh-elections/index.html|title=Bangladesh ruling party wins elections marred by boycott, violence|date=6 January 2014|access-date=14 February 2025|publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-46718393|title=Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins landslide in disputed vote|date=31 December 2018|access-date=14 February 2025|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-67889387|title=Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins fourth term in controversial vote|date=8 January 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|last1=Anbarasan|first1=Ethirajan|last2=Ng|first2=Kelly}}</ref> آمرانه حڪومت خلاف [[جولاءِ بغاوت]] کان پوءِ، حسينا کي [[عدم تعاون تحريڪ (2024ع)|استعيفا ڏيڻ ۽ ڀارت ڀڄڻ]] تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جيڪو [[جولاءِ 36|5 آگسٽ 2024ع]] تي ٿيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/5/bangladeshs-sheikh-hasina-forced-to-resign-what-happened-and-whats-next|title=Bangladesh's Sheikh Hasina forced to resign: What happened and what's next?|date=5 August 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]}}</ref> آگسٽ 2024ع ۾ هڪ عبوري حڪومت قائم ٿي، جنهن ۾ نوبل انعام يافته [[محمد يونس]] کي [[بنگلاديش جو چيف ايڊوائيزر|چيف ايڊوائيزر]] بڻايو ويو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/clyg7we8xvno|title=Yunus sworn in as interim Bangladesh leader|last1=Hussain|first1=Samira|last2=Drury|first2=Flora|date=8 August 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> [[2026ع بنگلاديشي عام چونڊون|2026ع جي عام چونڊن]] کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش نيشنلسٽ پارٽي]] (بي اين پي) ٻيهر اقتدار ۾ آئي ۽ چيئرمين [[طارق رحمان]] 17 فيبروري 2026ع تي بنگلاديش جي وزيراعظم طور حلف کنيو. [[بنگلاديش جماعت اسلامي]] مکيه مخالف ڌر بڻجي وئي.<ref>{{cite web |title=From a marginal force to opposition party: The rise of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/marginal-force-opposition-party-rise-bangladesh-jamaat-e-islami-1361786 |website=The Business Standard |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref> 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان، [[آزاد منڊي]] جي پاليسين ۽ [[معاشي آزادڪاري]] جي قدمن سبب، بنگلاديش اهم معاشي واڌ حاصل ڪئي آهي. اهو دنيا جي [[حقيقي جي ڊي پي واڌ جي شرح موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|تيز ترين وڌندڙ معيشتن]] مان هڪ طور اڀريو، جنهن جي پٺيان ان جي وڏي [[بنگلاديش ۾ ڪپڙي جي صنعت|ڪپڙي جي صنعت]] آهي، جيڪا دنيا ۾ ٻئي نمبر تي وڏي آهي.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bashar|first1=Omar K. M. R.|last2=Khan|first2=Habibullah|title=Liberalisation and Growth in Bangladesh: An Empirical Investigation|volume=32|number=1|date=March 2009|pages=61–76|jstor=40795710|journal=The Bangladesh Development Studies|publisher=[[Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies]] (BIDS) |doi=10.57138/XTYK4544 }}</ref> اهو [[نامياري جي ڊي پي موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|ڏکڻ ايشيا جي ٻئي نمبر وڏي معيشت]] طور اڀريو آهي، ۽ 2018ع کان پاڙيسري ڀارت جي نامياري في ماڻهو جي ڊي پي کان اڳتي نڪري ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh/bangladesh-ranked-41st-largest-economy-in-2019-all-over-the-world-study-1684078|title=Bangladesh 2nd largest economy in South Asia|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=8 January 2019|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/20/india-falls-behind-bangladesh-gdp/|title=Angst and Denial in India as It's Now Officially Poorer Than Bangladesh|last=Babones|first=Salvatore|date=20 October 2020|access-date=13 January 2025|work=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref> بنگلاديش پنهنجي [[بنگلاديش ۾ غربت|غربت جي شرح]] گهٽائڻ ۾ نمايان ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪيون آهن، جيڪا 1971ع ۾ 80 سيڪڙو هئي،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cri.org.bd/2021/03/26/what-milestones-have-bangladesh-crossed-in-50-years/|title=What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years|date=26 March 2021|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ 44.2 سيڪڙو ٿي،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2018/11/15/bangladesh-reducing-poverty-and-sharing-prosperity|title=Bangladesh: Reducing Poverty and Sharing Prosperity|publisher=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> ۽ 2022ع ۾ 18.7 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://pip.worldbank.org/country-profiles/BGD|title=Country Profile – Poverty and Inequality Platform|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> 21هين صديءَ دوران ان جي [[انساني ترقياتي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|انساني ترقياتي اشاري]] جي واڌ رڳو چين کان گهٽ رهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangladesh.un.org/en/256074-new-directions-human-development-bangladesh|title=New directions for human development in Bangladesh|date=17 December 2023|access-date=12 February 2025|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> [[سبز منتقلي]] جي حصي طور، بنگلاديش جو صنعتي شعبو [[سبز ڪارخانو|سبز ڪارخانا]] ٺاهڻ ۾ اڳواڻ طور اڀريو آهي، ۽ ملڪ وٽ دنيا ۾ تصديق ٿيل سبز ڪارخانن جو سڀ کان وڏو تعداد آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/green-rmg-factories-how-bangladesh-became-global-champion-939426|title=Green RMG factories: How Bangladesh became a global champion|last=Uddin|first=Jasim|date=12 September 2024|access-date=13 January 2025|work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> ان 2017ع کان [[روهنگيا نسل ڪشي]] کان ڀڄندڙ [[بنگلاديش ۾ روهنگيا پناهگير|هڪ ملين کان وڌيڪ روهنگيا پناهگيرن]] کي به پناهه ڏني آهي، جنهن ان جي وسيلن تي دٻاءُ وڌو ۽ ان جي انساني همدردي واري عزم کي نمايان ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/rohingya-refugee-crisis-explained/|title=Rohingya Refugee Crisis Explained|date=22 August 2024|work=[[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]] (UNCHR)|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> == جاگرافي == {{Main|بنگلاديش جي جاگرافي}} [[File:Map of Bangladesh-en.svg|thumb|بنگلاديش جو طبعي نقشو]] بنگلاديش [[بنگال جي نار]] تي [[ڏکڻ ايشيا]] ۾ واقع آهي. اهو لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پاڙيسري [[ڀارت]] سان گهيريل آهي، ۽ ڏکڻ اوڀر ۾ [[ميانمار]] سان ان جي هڪ ننڍڙي سرحد آهي، جيتوڻيڪ اهو [[نيپال]]، [[ڀوٽان]] ۽ چين جي تمام ويجهو واقع آهي. ملڪ کي ٽن علائقن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. ملڪ جو گهڻو حصو زرخيز [[گنگا ڊيلٽا]] تي مشتمل آهي، جيڪو دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو دريائي ڊيلٽا آهي.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Aditi Rajagopal|title=How the World's Largest Delta Might Slowly Go Under Water |url=https://www.discovery.com/nature/largest-delta-underwater|website=Discovery|date=8 February 2020|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208052815/http://www.discovery.com/nature/largest-delta-underwater|url-status=live}}</ref> ملڪ جا اتر اولهه ۽ وچ وارا حصا [[مدهوپور ٽريڪٽ|مدهوپور]] ۽ [[بارند ٽريڪٽ|بارند]] پليٽون سان ٺهيل آهن. اتر اوڀر ۽ ڏکڻ اوڀر وارا علائقا [[سدا بهار]] جبلن جي سلسلن جو گهر آهن. گنگا ڊيلٽا گنگا، جنهن جو مقامي نالو [[پدما درياهه|پدما]] يا ''پوددا'' آهي، [[برهمپتر درياهه|برهمپتر]]، جنهن کي [[جمنا درياهه (بنگلاديش)|جمنا]] يا ''جومونا'' به چيو وڃي ٿو، ۽ [[ميگھنا درياهه|ميگھنا]] درياهن ۽ انهن جي معاون درياهن جي ميلاپ سان ٺهندو آهي. گنگا، جمنا سان ملي ٿي، جيڪا برهمپتر جو مکيه وهڪرو آهي، ۽ پوءِ ميگھنا سان ملي آخرڪار [[بنگال جي نار]] ۾ ڇوڙ ڪري ٿي. بنگلاديش کي "دريائن جي ڌرتي" چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{cite web |title=No Place Like Home – BANGLADESH: LAND OF RIVERS |url=https://ejfoundation.org/films/bangladesh-land-of-rivers |work=Environmental Justice Foundation |access-date=10 March 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930051647/https://ejfoundation.org/films/bangladesh-land-of-rivers |url-status=live }}</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هتي 57 کان وڌيڪ [[سرحد پار درياهه]] آهن، جيڪي ڪنهن به قومي رياست لاءِ سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهن. پاڻيءَ جا معاملا سياسي طور پيچيده آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ بنگلاديش ڀارت کان هيٺاهين وهڪري ۾ واقع آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last=Suvedī |first=Sūryaprasāda |title=International watercourses law for the 21st century |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |year=2005 |pages=154–166 |isbn=978-0-7546-4527-6}}</ref> بنگلاديش گهڻو ڪري زرخيز ۽ هموار ميداني زمين تي مشتمل آهي. ان جو گهڻو حصو سمنڊ جي سطح کان {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} کان گهٽ اوچائي تي آهي، ۽ اندازو آهي ته جيڪڏهن سمنڊ جي سطح {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} وڌي وڃي ته ملڪ جي لڳ ڀڳ 10 سيڪڙو زمين ٻڏي ويندي.<ref name="ali">{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=A. |title=Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution |volume=92 |issue=1–2 |pages=171–179 |year=1996 |bibcode=1996WASP...92..171A |doi=10.1007/BF00175563 }}</ref> ملڪ جو 12 سيڪڙو حصو جابلو نظامن سان ڍڪيل آهي. ملڪ جون [[هاور]] آبي زمينون عالمي ماحولياتي سائنس لاءِ اهميت رکن ٿيون. [[بنگلاديش جي جبلن جي فهرست|بنگلاديش جو سڀ کان اوچو هنڌ]] [[سڪا هافونگ]] آهي، جيڪو ميانمار جي سرحد ڀرسان واقع آهي، ۽ ان جي اوچائي {{convert|1064|m|ft|abbr=on}} آهي.<ref name=CIA/> اڳ ۾ [[ڪيوڪراڊونگ]] يا [[تازنگ ڊونگ]] کي سڀ کان اوچو هنڌ سمجهيو ويندو هو. بنگلاديش ۾ [[ٻيلن جو ڍڪ]] ڪل زميني ايراضيءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 14 سيڪڙو آهي، جيڪو 2020ع ۾ 1,883,400 هيڪٽرن (ha) ٻيلن جي برابر هو، جڏهن ته 1990ع ۾ اهو 1,920,330 هيڪٽر (ha) هو. 2020ع ۾ قدرتي طور ٻيهر وڌندڙ ٻيلن 1,725,330 هيڪٽرن (ha) کي ڍڪيو، جڏهن ته پوکيل ٻيلن 158,070 هيڪٽرن (ha) کي ڍڪيو. قدرتي طور ٻيهر وڌندڙ ٻيلن مان 0 سيڪڙو کي [[ابتدائي ٻيلو]] قرار ڏنو ويو، يعني اهڙو ٻيلو جيڪو مقامي وڻن جي قسمن تي مشتمل هجي ۽ جتي انساني سرگرميءَ جا واضح نشان نه هجن، ۽ لڳ ڀڳ 33 سيڪڙو ٻيلن وارو علائقو محفوظ علائقن اندر مليو. 2015ع لاءِ، ٻيلن جي 100 سيڪڙو ايراضي [[رياستي ملڪيت|عوامي ملڪيت]] هيٺ ڄاڻائي وئي.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911122341/https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Bangladesh |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BGD/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919133606/https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BGD/home/overview/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === آبهوا === [[File:Aerosol pollution over Northern India, Bangladesh, and Bay of Bengal.jpg|thumb|خلا مان ورتل تصوير، جنهن ۾ بنگلاديش مٿان آلودگي ڏيکاريل آهي]] [[سرطان جو مدار]] بنگلاديش مان گذري ٿو، تنهنڪري بنگلاديش جي آبهوا گرم خطي واري آهي؛ آڪٽوبر کان مارچ تائين هلڪو سيارو ۽ مارچ کان جون تائين گرم ۽ گهم وارو اونهارو هوندو آهي. ملڪ ۾ ڪڏهن به هوائي گرمي پد {{convert|0|°C}} کان هيٺ رڪارڊ نه ٿيو آهي؛ سڀ کان گهٽ رڪارڊ ٿيل گرمي پد {{convert|1.1|°C}} هو، جيڪو اتر اولهه واري شهر [[ديناجپور]] ۾ 3 فيبروري 1905ع تي رڪارڊ ٿيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kantaji.com/dinajpurmap.html |title=Map of Dinajpur |website=kantaji.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713134542/http://kantaji.com/dinajpurmap.html |archive-date=13 July 2011 |access-date=17 April 2015}}</ref> گرم ۽ گهم واري [[چوماسي]] موسم جون کان آڪٽوبر تائين جاري رهي ٿي ۽ ملڪ جي اڪثر برسات جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. قدرتي آفتون، جهڙوڪ [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٻوڏون|ٻوڏون]]، [[اڀرندي طوفان]]، [[ٽورنيڊو]] ۽ [[مدي لهرون]] لڳ ڀڳ هر سال اچن ٿيون،<ref name="NatDis">{{cite book |last=Alexander |first=David E. |title= Natural Disasters |chapter-url= {{GBurl|id=gWHsuGTcF34C|p=532}}|year= 1999|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=978-0-412-04751-0 |page=532 |chapter=The Third World |orig-date=1993}}</ref> جن سان گڏ [[ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي]]، [[مٽيءَ جي زوال ۽ خرابي]] ۽ [[ڪٽاءُ]] جا اثر پڻ شامل ٿين ٿا. 1970ع ۽ 1991ع وارا [[بنگلاديش جي اڀرندي طوفانن جي فهرست|طوفان]] خاص طور تباهه ڪندڙ هئا؛ [[1991ع بنگلاديش طوفان|پوئين طوفان]] ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 140,000 ماڻهو مارجي ويا.<ref>"[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-feb-27-adfg-bangla27-story.html Beset by Bay's Killer Storms, Bangladesh Prepares and Hopes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065034/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-feb-27-adfg-bangla27-story.html |date=2 September 2024 }} ". ''Los Angeles Times''. 27 February 2005</ref> سيپٽمبر 1998ع ۾ بنگلاديش جديد تاريخ جي [[1998ع بنگلاديش ٻوڏون|سڀ کان شديد ٻوڏ]] کي ڏٺو، جنهن کان پوءِ ملڪ جا ٻه ٽهائي حصا پاڻيءَ هيٺ اچي ويا، ۽ 1,000 ماڻهو فوت ٿيا.<ref name="EWG">{{cite book |last=Haggett |first=Peter |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2634 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7614-7308-4 |oclc=46578454 |pages=2, 634 |chapter=The Indian Subcontinent |orig-date=2002 |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182107/https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2634 |url-status=live }}</ref> آفتن جي خطري ۾ گهٽتائي لاءِ مختلف بين الاقوامي ۽ قومي قدمن جي نتيجي ۾، ٻوڏن ۽ طوفانن سبب انساني جاني نقصان ۽ معاشي نقصان سالن سان گهٽيا آهن.<ref>{{cite news |last=Raju |first=M. N. A. |title=Disaster Preparedness for Sustainable Development in Bangladesh |url=https://www.daily-sun.com/arcprint/details/294175/Disaster-Preparedness-for-Sustainable-Development-in-Bangladesh/2018-03-10 |work=Daily Sun |date=10 March 2018 |access-date=26 September 2019 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724074442/https://www.daily-sun.com/arcprint/details/294175/Disaster-Preparedness-for-Sustainable-Development-in-Bangladesh/2018-03-10}}</ref> [[2007ع ڏکڻ ايشيائي ٻوڏون]] ملڪ جي ڪيترن علائقن کي تباهه ڪري ويون، پنج ملين ماڻهن کي بي گهر ڪيو ۽ لڳ ڀڳ 500 ماڻهو مارجي ويا.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh flood death toll nears 500, thousands ill |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA30252.htm |agency=[[Reuters]] |date=15 August 2007 |access-date=15 August 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205073714/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA30252.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Flooding after 1991 cyclone.jpg|thumb|[[1991ع بنگلاديش طوفان]] کان پوءِ ٻوڏ، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 140,000 ماڻهو مارجي ويا]] ==== موسمي تبديلي ==== بنگلاديش کي انهن ملڪن مان هڪ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جيڪي [[موسمي تبديليءَ جي نازڪ پذيري|موسمي تبديليءَ لاءِ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نازڪ]] آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kulp |first1=Scott A. |last2=Strauss |first2=Benjamin H.|date=29 October 2019|title=New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding|journal=Nature Communications |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=4844 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.4844K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-12808-z |pmc=6820795 |pmid=31664024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=29 October 2019|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood |url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|access-date=3 November 2019|website=climatecentral.org|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102025006/https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood}}</ref> هڪ صديءَ دوران 508 طوفانن بنگال جي نار واري علائقي کي متاثر ڪيو آهي، جن مان 17 سيڪڙو بابت خيال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته اهي بنگلاديش جي زمين تي پهتا.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chaturvedi|first=Sanjay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UB1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67|title=Climate Change and the Bay of Bengal|date=29 April 2016|publisher=Flipside Digital Content Company Inc.|isbn=978-981-4762-01-4|access-date=25 July 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182105/https://books.google.com/books?id=UB1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> وڌندڙ برساتن، سمنڊ جي سطح ۾ اضافي ۽ اڀرندي طوفانن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ [[قدرتي خطرا]] موسمي تبديليءَ سان وڌڻ جا امڪان آهن، ۽ اهي هر هڪ زراعت، پاڻي ۽ خوراڪ جي سلامتي، انساني صحت ۽ رهائش تي سنگين اثر ڇڏيندا.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.moef.gov.bd/moef.pdf|title=Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh|year=2008|isbn=978-984-8574-25-6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007060017/http://www.moef.gov.bd/moef.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2009}}</ref> اندازو آهي ته 2050ع تائين سمنڊ جي سطح ۾ ٽي فوٽ اضافو لڳ ڀڳ 20 سيڪڙو زمين کي ٻوڙي ڇڏيندو ۽ 30 ملين کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن کي بي گهر ڪندو.<ref>{{cite web |last=Glennon |first=Robert|title=The Unfolding Tragedy of Climate Change in Bangladesh |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-unfolding-tragedy-of-climate-change-in-bangladesh/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040750/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-unfolding-tragedy-of-climate-change-in-bangladesh/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> بنگلاديش ۾ [[سمنڊ جي سطح ۾ اضافو]] واري خطري کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ [[بنگلاديش ڊيلٽا پلان 2100]] شروع ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100 |title=Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100|publisher=The Dutch water sector|access-date=24 September 2019|date=20 May 2019|archive-date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513135800/https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-sas_images/gwp-sas-in-action/ldai/bdp-2100-ppt.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-sas_images/gwp-sas-in-action/ldai/bdp-2100-ppt.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100}}</ref> === حياتياتي گوناگوني === [[File:Bengal Tiger gets down in a shallow canal in Sundarban.jpg|thumb|[[بنگال ٽائيگر]]، قومي جانور، سندربن ۾]] بنگلاديش [[انڊوملايائي علائقو]] ۾ واقع آهي، ۽ اهو چئن خشڪي وارن ماحولياتي علائقن ۾ اچي ٿو: [[هيٺين گنگا ميدانن جا نم پن ڇڻڻ وارا ٻيلا]]، [[ميزورام–منيپور–ڪاچن مينهن وارا ٻيلا]]، [[سندربن تازو پاڻي دلدلي ٻيلا]]، ۽ [[سندربن مينگروو]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287}}</ref> ان جي ماحوليات ۾ ڊگهو سامونڊي ڪنارو، گهڻا [[بنگلاديش جي درياهن جي فهرست|درياهه ۽ معاون درياهه]]، ڍنڍون، [[آبي زمين]]ون، سدا بهار ٻيلا، نيم سدا بهار ٻيلا، جابلو ٻيلا، نم [[پن ڇڻڻ وارا ٻيلا]]، تازو پاڻي دلدلي ٻيلا ۽ ڊگهي گاهه واري هموار زمين شامل آهن. بنگلاديش جو ميدان پنهنجي زرخيز [[دريائي لَٽَ]] واري مٽيءَ لاءِ مشهور آهي، جيڪا وسيع پوک کي سهارو ڏئي ٿي. ملڪ ۾ سرسبز ٻوٽن جو غلبو آهي، ۽ ڳوٺ اڪثر [[آم]]، [[ڪٺل]]، [[بانس]]، [[ڇاليا]]، [[ناريل]] ۽ [[کجور]] جي باغن ۾ لڪل هوندا آهن.<ref name="global.britannica.com">[http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/33426/Plant-and-animal-life Bangladesh | history – geography :: Plant and animal life] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203195926/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/33426/Plant-and-animal-life|date=3 February 2014}}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> ملڪ ۾ ٻوٽن جي زندگيءَ جون 6000 تائين جنسون آهن، جن ۾ 5000 گلدار ٻوٽا شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bdhcdelhi.org/index.php/flora-fauna|title=Flora and Fauna – Bangladesh high commission in India |website=Bangladesh High Commission, New Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820012655/http://www.bdhcdelhi.org/index.php/flora-fauna |archive-date=20 August 2013}}</ref> آبي ذخيرن ۽ آبي زمينن جا نظام ڪيترن آبي ٻوٽن لاءِ رهائشگاهه فراهم ڪن ٿا. [[نيمفياسي|واٽر للي]] ۽ [[ڪنول]] چوماسي موسم ۾ نمايان طور وڌن ٿا. ملڪ ۾ [[بنگلاديش جي محفوظ علائقن جي فهرست|60 جهنگلي جيوت پناهه گاهون]] آهن.<ref>{{cite web |year=2026|title=Protected Area Profile for Bangladesh from the World Database of Protected Areas|url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/BGD|access-date=22 February 2026|website=[[World Database on Protected Areas]]}}</ref> بنگلاديش [[سندربن]] جي گهڻي حصي جو گهر آهي، جيڪو دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو [[مينگروو ٻيلو]] آهي، ۽ ڏکڻ اولهه واري ساحلي علائقي ۾ {{convert|6000|km2}} ايراضيءَ تي پکڙيل آهي. اهو ٽن محفوظ پناهه گاهن ۾ ورهايل آهي: [[سندربن ڏکڻ جهنگلي جيوت پناهه گاهه|ڏکڻ]]، [[سندربن اوڀر جهنگلي جيوت پناهه گاهه|اوڀر]]، ۽ [[سندربن اولهه جهنگلي جيوت پناهه گاهه|اولهه]] علائقا. هي ٻيلو يونيسڪو عالمي ورثي واري ماڳ آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sundarbans |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/ |access-date=2026-02-21 |website=[[UNESCO]] |language=en}}</ref> اتر اوڀر وارو سليٽ علائقو هاور آبي زمينن جو گهر آهي، جيڪو هڪ منفرد ماحولياتي نظام آهي. ان ۾ [[اڀرندي ۽ نيم اڀرندي مخروطي ٻيلا]]، هڪ [[تازو پاڻي دلدلي ٻيلو]]، ۽ گڏيل پن ڇڻڻ وارا ٻيلا پڻ شامل آهن. ڏکڻ اوڀر وارو چٽاگانگ علائقو سدا بهار ۽ نيم سدا بهار جابلو جهنگلن تي مشتمل آهي. وچ بنگلاديش ۾ ميداني سال ٻيلو شامل آهي، جيڪو غازيپور، [[ٽنگائل]] ۽ [[ميمڻ سنگهه]] ضلعن سان گڏ پکڙيل آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rahman |first=Mohammed Mahabubur |last2=Rahman |first2=Md. Motiur |last3=Guogang |first3=Zhang |last4=Islam |first4=Kazi Shakila |date=1 March 2010 |title=A Review of the Present Threats to Tropical Moist Deciduous Sal (Shorea Robusta) Forest Ecosystem of Central Bangladesh |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/194008291000300108 |access-date=2026-02-21 |website=[[Sage Journals]] |language=en |doi=10.1177/194008291000300108}}</ref> [[سينٽ مارٽن ٻيٽ]] ملڪ جو واحد [[مرجاني ريف]] آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuddus |first=Abdul |date=2025-03-03 |title=Is St Martin's actually a 'coral island', what do researchers say? |url=https://en.prothomalo.com/environment/9rpuv1x2ra |access-date=2026-02-21 |website=[[Prothom Alo]] |language=en}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي ٻيلن، دلدلن، وڻڪار وارن علائقن ۽ جبلن ۾ [[بنگلاديش ۾ جهنگلي جيوت|جهنگلي جيوت]] گهڻي مقدار ۾ موجود آهي.<ref name="global.britannica.com"/> جانورن جي وڏي اڪثريت {{convert|150000|km2}} جي رهائشگاهه اندر رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Soraya Auer |author2=Anika Hossain |date=7 July 2012 |title=Lost Wards of the State |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2012/07/01/cover.htm|work=The Daily Star|access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214120509/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2012/07/01/cover.htm |archive-date=14 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[بنگال ٽائيگر]]، [[بادلدار چيتو]]، [[کاري پاڻيءَ جو مگرمڇ]]، [[ڪارو پينٿر]] ۽ [[مڇي خور ٻلي]] سندربن جا اهم شڪاري جانور آهن.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Haggett|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2620|year=2001|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7289-6|page=2620|access-date=20 January 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182110/https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2620|url-status=live}}</ref> اتر ۽ اوڀر بنگلاديش [[ايشيائي هاٿي]]، [[هولاڪ گبن]]، [[ايشيائي ڪارو رڇ]] ۽ [[اورينٽل پائڊ هورن بل]] جو گهر آهي.<ref name="bearprojectbd.weebly.com">{{cite web |url=http://bearprojectbd.weebly.com/bears-in-bangladesh.html|title=Bears in Bangladesh|website=Bangladesh Bear Project|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214061240/http://bearprojectbd.weebly.com/bears-in-bangladesh.html|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> [[چيتل]] هرڻ ڏکڻ اولهه وارن وڻڪار وارن علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي ڏسڻ ۾ اچن ٿا. ٻين جانورن ۾ [[ڪاري وڏي گلھري]]، [[ٽوپي دار لنگور]]، [[بنگال لومڙي]]، [[سامبر هرڻ]]، [[جهنگلي ٻلي]]، [[ڪنگ ڪوبرا]]، [[جهنگلي سوئر]]، [[نيولا]]، [[پينگولين]]، [[پائٿن (نسل)|پائٿن]] ۽ [[ايشيائي واٽر مانيٽر|واٽر مانيٽر]] شامل آهن. بنگلاديش ۾ [[ايراواڊي ڊولفن|ايراواڊي]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ايشيائي درياهي ڊولفن|گنگا ڊولفن]] جي سڀ کان وڏين آبادين مان هڪ موجود آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090331-dolphins-found.html|title=6,000 Rare, Large River Dolphins Found in Bangladesh|work=National Geographic|date=March 2009|access-date=13 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012093653/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090331-dolphins-found.html|archive-date=12 October 2014}}</ref> ملڪ ۾ [[ٻه جيون]] جون 53، رينگڻ وارن جانورن جون 139، [[سامونڊي رينگڻ وارا جانور|سامونڊي رينگڻ وارن جانورن]] جون 19 ۽ [[سامونڊي ٿڃائتا جانور|سامونڊي ٿڃائتن]] جون 5 جنسون آهن. ان ۾ [[بنگلاديش جي پکين جي فهرست|پکين جون 628 جنسون]] پڻ آهن.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hossain |first1=Muhammad Selim |date=23 May 2009 |title=Conserving biodiversity must for survival |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=89375 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530100603/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=89375 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> گذريل صديءَ دوران بنگلاديش ۾ ڪيترائي جانور ختم ٿي ويا، جن ۾ هڪ سينگ ۽ ٻه سينگ وارا [[گينڊا]] ۽ عام [[مور]] شامل آهن. انساني آبادي شهري علائقن ۾ مرڪوز آهي، جنهن ڪري ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي ڪنهن حد تائين محدود رهي آهي. تيز شهري واڌ قدرتي رهائشگاهن لاءِ خطرو بڻجي وئي آهي. ملڪ ۾ ماحولياتي مسئلا وسيع آهن؛ ڪپڙي جي صنعت سبب [[ڌليشوري درياهه]] جي آلودگي ۽ چڪريا سندربن ۾ جهينگن جي پوک کي عالمن [[ماحولياتي قتل]] طور بيان ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Rabby Us |last2=Sarkar |first2=Oliver Tirtho |last3=Hasan |first3=Md. Abid |title=Politics of Climate Change |chapter=Political Economy of River Ecocide in Bangladesh: A Study in the Context of Dhaleshwari River |date=2023 |pages=83–103 |doi=10.1142/9789811263750_0005 |isbn=978-981-12-6374-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zaman |first=Samia |date=7 June 2023 |title=The Bangladesh Environmental Humanities Reader: by Samina Luthfa, Mohammad Tanzimuddin Khan, and Munasir Kamal, Lanham, Lexinton Books, 2022 ISBN 978-1-4985-9913-9 and 978-1-4985-9914-6 |journal=Environmental Politics |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=752–754 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2023.2192149 |doi-access=free}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي علائقا قانون هيٺ محفوظ آهن، پر ڪجهه بنگلاديشي جهنگلي جيوت هن واڌ سبب خطري ۾ آهي. [[بنگلاديش ماحوليات تحفظ ايڪٽ]] 1995ع ۾ نافذ ڪيو ويو. حڪومت ڪيترن علائقن کي [[ماحولياتي طور نازڪ علائقو]] قرار ڏنو آهي، جن ۾ آبي زمينون، ٻيلا ۽ درياهه شامل آهن. [[سندربن ٽائيگر پروجيڪٽ]] ۽ بنگلاديش بيئر پروجيڪٽ تحفظ کي مضبوط ڪرڻ واريون اهم شروعاتون آهن.<ref name="bearprojectbd.weebly.com"/> بنگلاديش 3 مئي 1994ع تي ريو [[حياتياتي گوناگوني بابت ڪنوينشن]] جي توثيق ڪئي.<ref name="cbd.int">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=bd|title=Bangladesh – Country Profile|website=cbd.int|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217020013/http://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=bd|archive-date=17 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> 2014 مطابق ملڪ پنهنجي [[حياتياتي گوناگوني عمل جو منصوبو|قومي حياتياتي گوناگوني حڪمت عملي ۽ عمل منصوبي]] کي نظرثاني ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار هو.<ref name="cbd.int"/> == حڪومت ۽ سياست == {{Multiple image | caption_align = center | total_width = 300 | image1 = Mohammed Shahabuddin official portrait.jpg | caption1 = [[محمد شهاب الدين]]<br /><small>[[بنگلاديش جو صدر|صدر]]</small> | image2 = Tarique Rahman at meeting on Farmer cards, Cabinet Division, Secretariat, Dhaka, 2026-02-23 (cropped).jpg | caption2 = [[طارق رحمان]]<br /><small>[[بنگلاديش جو وزيراعظم|وزيراعظم]]</small> }} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = National Assembly of Bangladesh (10).jpg | caption1 = [[جاتيا سنگساد ڀَون|قومي پارليامينٽ]] جي عمارت [[شير بنگلا نگر]] ۾، جيڪو هڪ پاڙو آهي ۽ ان جو نالو بنگال جي پهرئين [[بنگال جو وزيراعظم|وزيراعظم]] جي نالي تي رکيل آهي | image2 = Bangabhaban.jpg | caption2 = [[بنگڀون]]، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بنگال هائوس'' آهي، بنگلاديش جو [[صدارتي محل]] آهي. اصل ۾ اهو [[هندستان جو وائسراءِ|هندستان جي وائسراءِ]] ۽ [[بنگال پريزيڊنسي جي گورنرن جي فهرست|بنگال جي گورنر]] لاءِ گهر هو. }} [[بنگلاديش جو آئين|آئين]] موجب بنگلاديش هڪ [[وحداني رياست]]<ref name="gov2"/> ۽ ''[[قانوني طور]]'' [[نمائنده جمهوريت]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[ويسٽ منسٽر نظام|ويسٽ منسٽر]] طرز جو [[پارلياماني جمهوريه|پارلياماني نظام]]<ref name="gov0"/> ۽ [[عام ووٽ جو حق]] موجود آهي.<ref name="gov">{{cite journal|last=Jahan|first=Rounaq|title=The Parliament of Bangladesh: Representation and Accountability|doi=10.1080/13572334.2014.975470|year=2014|pages=250–269|journal=[[The Journal of Legislative Studies]]|volume=21|issue=2}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جي حڪومت|حڪومت]] کي ٽن ٿنڀن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو: انتظاميه، مقننه ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي عدليه|عدليه]]. اهي سڀ جوابدهي، شفافيت ۽ [[اختيارن جي ورهاست|اختيارن جي نگراني ۽ توازن]] کي يقيني بڻائڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪن ٿا.<ref name="gov2">{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/rising-stars/explained/news/explained-the-branches-bangladeshs-government-3512581|title=Explained: The branches of Bangladesh's government|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=6 January 2024|access-date=20 January 2025|last=Siddiquee|first=Ayaan Shams}}</ref> آزاديءَ کان وٺي [[عوامي ليگ]] (AL) ۽ [[بنگلاديش نيشنلسٽ پارٽي]] (BNP) بنگلاديش جي سڀ کان طاقتور [[بنگلاديش جون سياسي پارٽيون|سياسي پارٽين]] مان ٻه رهيون آهن.<ref name="gov0">{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Aqil|title=Democracy Deadlocked in Bangladesh|journal=[[Current History]]|volume=115|number=780|year=2016|pages=130–135|doi=10.1525/curh.2016.115.780.130 |jstor=48614157}}</ref> * حڪومت جو پهريون ٿنڀو انتظامي عضوو آهي، جنهن کي ملڪ جي انتظام جي ذميواري ڏني وئي آهي.<ref name="gov2"/> انتظامي اختيار گهڻو ڪري [[بنگلاديش جو وزيراعظم|وزيراعظم]] وٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪو [[حڪومت جو سربراهه]] هوندو آهي ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي ڪابينا|ڪابينا]] جي نگراني ڪندو آهي.<ref name="gov2"/> پارلياماني حڪومت جو مدو پنج سال هوندو آهي. مختلف وزير انتظامي عضوي جو وڏو حصو بڻجن ٿا، سرڪاري کاتن جي نگراني ڪن ٿا ۽ پاليسيون ٺاهين ٿا.<ref name="gov2"/> [[بنگلاديش سول سروس|سول سروس]] وزيرن کي پاليسي لاڳو ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڪري ٿي.<ref name="gov2"/> سڀ اختيار پاليسيون ٺاهڻ، عوامي خدمتون سنڀالڻ ۽ قومي ترقياتي منصوبا لاڳو ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏجي ڪم ڪن ٿا.<ref name="gov2"/> [[بنگلاديش جو صدر|صدر]] رسمي [[رياست جو سربراهه]] آهي، جنهن جي اختيارن ۾ پارليامينٽ مان منظور ٿيل بلن کي قانون بڻائڻ لاءِ صحيح ڪرڻ، حڪومت جي استحڪام ۽ تسلسل کي برقرار رکڻ،<ref name="gov2"/> [[بنگلاديش هٿياربند فوجون|هٿياربند فوجن]] جي ڪمانڊر اِن چيف طور فرض انجام ڏيڻ<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24615.html|title=61.Supreme command|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> ۽ سڀني يونيورسٽين جو [[چانسلر]] هجڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-447.html|title=The Dhaka University Order, 1973 (President's Order).|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> * حڪومت جو ٻيو ٿنڀو مقننه عضوو آهي، جنهن کي [[جاتيا سنگساد]]، يعني قوم جو گهر، پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.<ref name="parliament">{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24619.html|title=65. Establishment of Parliament|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> شهري پارليامينٽ جا ميمبر چونڊين ٿا.<ref name="gov2"/> [[هڪ ايواني]] پارليامينٽ ۾ 350 ميمبر آهن، جن ۾ 300 ميمبر [[فرسٽ پاسٽ دي پوسٽ]] نظام تحت چونڊيا وڃن ٿا، ۽ 50 ميمبر [[عورتن جي بااختياري]] لاءِ مخصوص سيٽن تي مقرر ٿين ٿا.<ref name="parliament"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/women-mps-reserved-seats-how-empowered-are-they-really-3601271|title=Women MPs in reserved seats: How empowered are they really?|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=4 May 2024|access-date=20 January 2025|last=Hasan|first=Rashidul}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جي آئين جو آرٽيڪل 70]] پارليامينٽ جي ميمبرن کي پنهنجي پارٽي جي خلاف ووٽ ڏيڻ کان روڪي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/article-70-constitution-its-safeguard-democracy-1581670|title=Article 70 of Constitution: It's a safeguard for democracy|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=26 May 2018|access-date=20 January 2025}}</ref> پارليامينٽ جي صدارت [[جاتيا سنگساد جو اسپيڪر|اسپيڪر]] ڪندو آهي، جيڪو صدر کان پوءِ ٻئي نمبر تي هوندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24603.html|title=54.Speaker to act as President during absence, etc.|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> * حڪومت جو ٽيون ٿنڀو عدليه آهي، جيڪا قانون جي تشريح، تڪرارن جي حل ۽ انصاف برقرار رکڻ جي ذميوار آهي.<ref name="gov2"/> [[بنگلاديش جي سپريم ڪورٽ|سپريم ڪورٽ]] سڀ کان اعليٰ عدالت آهي، جيڪا [[اپيليٽ ڊويزن، بنگلاديش سپريم ڪورٽ|اپيليٽ ڊويزن]] ۽ [[هاءِ ڪورٽ ڊويزن، بنگلاديش سپريم ڪورٽ|هاءِ ڪورٽ ڊويزن]] ۾ ورهايل آهي.<ref name="court">{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/part-details-203.html|title=THE JUDICIARY|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="gov2"/> ان جي اڳواڻي [[بنگلاديش جو چيف جسٽس|چيف جسٽس]] ڪندو آهي.<ref name="court"/> عدليه وٽ ڪنهن قانون جي آئيني حيثيت جاچڻ ۽ قانوني علاج مهيا ڪرڻ جو اختيار آهي. اها شهرين جا حق بچائي ٿي، قانون جي منصفاڻي لاڳو ٿيڻ کي يقيني بڻائي ٿي ۽ حڪومت اندر اختيارن جو توازن برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="gov2"/> عدالتن وٽ [[بنگلاديش ۾ عدالتي جائزو|عدالتي جائزي]] ۾ وسيع اختيار آهن، ۽ عدالتي [[نظير]] کي آئين جي آرٽيڪل 111 تحت حمايت حاصل آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24668.html|title=111.Binding effect of Supreme Court judgments|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=[[Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> عدليه ۾ ضلعي ۽ ميٽروپوليٽن عدالتون شامل آهن، جيڪي ديواني ۽ فوجداري عدالتن ۾ ورهايل آهن. ججن جي کوٽ سبب عدليه ۾ ڪيسن جو وڏو ڍير موجود آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/editorial/news/huge-case-backlog-only-hurting-citizens-3306391|title=Huge case backlog only hurting citizens|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=28 April 2023|access-date=20 January 2025}}</ref> [[انٽرنيشنل انسٽيٽيوٽ فار ڊيموڪريسي اينڊ اليڪٽورل اسسٽنس|انٽرنيشنل IDEA]] جي گلوبل اسٽيٽ آف ڊيموڪريسي (GSoD) انڊيڪسز ۽ ڊيموڪريسي ٽريڪر موجب، بنگلاديش مجموعي جمهوري معيارن ۾ هيٺين حد ۾ اچي ٿو، خاص طور سياسي نمائندگي ۾ ڪمزوريون آهن، جن ۾ معتبر چونڊون، شامل ووٽ جو حق ۽ چونڊيل حڪومت شامل آهن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/bangladesh |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref> === انتظامي ورهاست === {{Main|بنگلاديش جي انتظامي جاگرافي}} {{Bangladesh Divisions Image Map}} بنگلاديش کي اٺ انتظامي ڊويزنن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي،<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/site/view/division-list/List-of-Divisions|publisher=Bangladesh Government|title=National Web Portal of Bangladesh|date=15 September 2015|access-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923061605/http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/site/view/division-list/List-of-Divisions|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Bangladesh|access-date=15 May 2007 |year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2010/01/25/rangpur-becomes-a-division |title=Rangpur becomes a divivion |work=bdnews24.com |date=25 January 2010 |access-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903184553/http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2010/01/25/rangpur-becomes-a-division |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> ۽ هر ڊويزن جو نالو ان جي مرڪزي شهر تي رکيل آهي: [[باريسال ڊويزن|باريسال]]، سرڪاري طور ''باريشال''<ref name="namechange">{{cite news |url=https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2018/04/02/bangladesh-changes-english-spellings-of-five-districts|title=Bangladesh changes English spellings of five districts|work=bdnews24.com|date=2 April 2018|access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215091950/https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2018/04/02/bangladesh-changes-english-spellings-of-five-districts|url-status=live}}</ref>، [[چٽاگانگ ڊويزن|چٽاگانگ]]، سرڪاري طور ''چٽوگرام''<ref name="namechange" />، [[ڍاڪا ڊويزن|ڍاڪا]]، [[کُلنا ڊويزن|کُلنا]]، [[ميمڻ سنگهه ڊويزن|ميمڻ سنگهه]]، [[راجشاهي ڊويزن|راجشاهي]]، [[رنگپور ڊويزن|رنگپور]]، ۽ [[سليٽ ڊويزن|سليٽ]]. ڊويزنون ضلعن، يعني ''ضلعن''، ۾ ورهايل آهن. بنگلاديش ۾ 64 ضلعا آهن، ۽ هر ضلعو ''اپازيلا''، يعني سب ضلعن، يا ''ٿانا'' ۾ ورهايل آهي. هر پوليس اسٽيشن جي اندر وارو علائقو، سواءِ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن جي، ''[[بنگلاديش جون يونين ڪائونسلون|يونينن]]'' ۾ ورهايل آهي، ۽ هر يونين ڪيترن ڳوٺن تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن ۾ پوليس اسٽيشنون وارڊن ۾ ورهايل آهن، جيڪي وري ''محلن'' ۾ ورهايل آهن. ڊويزن يا ضلعي سطح تي ڪو به چونڊيل نمائندو ناهي، ۽ انتظام رڳو سرڪاري عملدارن تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. هر يونين، يا وارڊ، ۾ چيئرمين ۽ ڪيترن ميمبرن لاءِ سڌيون چونڊون ٿينديون آهن. 1997ع ۾ پارليامينٽ قانون منظور ڪيو، جنهن تحت هر يونين ۾ 12 مان ٽي سيٽون عورتن لاءِ مخصوص ڪيون ويون.<ref>''Local Government Act'', No. 20, 1997</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right; border:2px solid #8fb3d9; background:#f8fbff;" |+ style="background:#d9ecff; color:#003366; font-weight:bold; padding:0.4em;" | بنگلاديش جون انتظامي ڊويزنون |- ! scope="col" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | [[بنگلاديش جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] ! scope="col" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | گاديءَ جو شهر ! scope="col" data-sort-type="date" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | قيام ! scope="col" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | پکيڙ (km<sup>2</sup>)<br /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dghs.gov.bd/images/docs/Publicaations/HB%202016%20_2nd_edition_13_01_17.pdf |title=Health Bulletin 2016 |website=Directorate General of Health Services |page=14 |access-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613050056/http://dghs.gov.bd/images/docs/Publicaations/HB%202016%20_2nd_edition_13_01_17.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | 2021ع آبادي<br />(اندازي مطابق)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopMonographs/PopulationProjection.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopMonographs/PopulationProjection.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=Population Projection of Bangladesh: Dynamics and Trends, 2011–2061 |date=November 2015 |website=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |pages=25–28}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="background:#b7d7f0;" | گهاٽائي<br />2021ع |- | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[باريسال ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[باريسال]] | 1 جنوري 1993ع | 13,225 | 9,713,000 | 734 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[چٽاگانگ ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[چٽاگانگ]] | 1 جنوري 1829ع | 33,909 | 34,747,000 | 1,025 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[ڍاڪا ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[ڍاڪا]] | 1 جنوري 1829ع | 20,594 | 42,607,000 | 2,069 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[کُلنا ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[کُلنا]] | 1 آڪٽوبر 1960ع | 22,284 | 18,217,000 | 817 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[ميمڻ سنگهه ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[ميمڻ سنگهه]] | 14 سيپٽمبر 2015ع | 10,584 | 13,457,000 | 1,271 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[راجشاهي ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[راجشاهي]] | 1 جنوري 1829ع | 18,153 | 21,607,000 | 1,190 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[رنگپور ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#ffffff;" | [[رنگپور، بنگلاديش|رنگپور]] | 25 جنوري 2010ع | 16,185 | 18,868,000 | 1,166 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[سليٽ ڊويزن]] | style="text-align:left; background:#eef7ff;" | [[سليٽ]] | 1 آگسٽ 1995ع | 12,635 | 12,463,000 | 986 |} === پرڏيهي لاڳاپا === {{Main|بنگلاديش جا پرڏيهي لاڳاپا}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Diplomatic relations of Bangladesh.svg | caption1 = اهي ملڪ، جن جا بنگلاديش سان سفارتي لاڳاپا آهن | image2 = | caption2 = }} بنگلاديش کي [[عالمي سياست]] ۾ هڪ [[وچولي طاقت]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/bangladesh-at-50-on-the-path-to-becoming-a-middle-power/|title=Bangladesh at 50: On the Path to Becoming a Middle Power|work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=16 December 2021 |last=Hassan |first=Asif Muztaba|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153004/https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/bangladesh-at-50-on-the-path-to-becoming-a-middle-power/|url-status=live}}</ref> اهو [[هند-پئسفڪ]] جي جيوسياسي معاملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/understanding-the-importance-of-bangladesh-in-the-bay-of-bengal-and-the-indo-pacific/|title=Understanding the Importance of Bangladesh in the Bay of Bengal and the Indo-Pacific |last=Karim |first=Tariq A.|date=21 May 2022|publisher=[[National Bureau of Asian Research]]|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153004/https://www.nbr.org/publication/understanding-the-importance-of-bangladesh-in-the-bay-of-bengal-and-the-indo-pacific/|url-status=live}}</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ڏکڻ ايشيا ۽ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايشيا جي وچ ۾ حڪمت عمليءَ واري هنڌ تي واقع آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156355/adbi-wp500.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156355/adbi-wp500.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia: A Bangladesh Country Study|date=September 2014|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]]|access-date=26 September 2022|number=500 |last1=Rahman |first1=Mustafizur |last2=Moazzem |first2=Khondaker Golam |last3=Chowdhury |first3=Mehruna Islam |last4=Sehrin |first4=Farzana}}</ref> بنگلاديش 1972ع ۾ [[قومن جي دولت مشترڪه]] ۾ ۽ 1974ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-enters-commonwealth-1894048 |title=Bangladesh enters Commonwealth |last=Sajen |first=Shamsuddoza|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=18 April 2020 |access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153013/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-enters-commonwealth-1894048|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/audio/2014/09/592702|title=Bangladesh marks 40 years as Member State of the UN |publisher=United Nations|date=26 September 2014|access-date=26 September 2022 |last=Chaudhury |first=Dipanjan Roy|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153010/https://news.un.org/en/audio/2014/09/592702|url-status=live}}</ref> اهو موسمي تبديلي، ايٽمي هٿيارن جي عدم ڦهلاءُ، واپاري پاليسي ۽ غير روايتي سلامتي جي مسئلن تي گهڻ طرفي سفارتڪاري تي ڀاڙي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsis-ntsasia.org/roundtable-on-non-traditional-security-threats-in-the-indo-pacific-region/ | title=Roundtable on 'Non Traditional Security Threats in the Indo-Pacific Region' – NTS-Asia | date=30 August 2022 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184723/https://rsis-ntsasia.org/roundtable-on-non-traditional-security-threats-in-the-indo-pacific-region/ | url-status=live }}</ref> بنگلاديش [[ڏکڻ ايشيائي علائقائي تعاون تنظيم|سارڪ]] جي قيام ۾ اڳواڻي ڪئي، جيڪو [[هندستاني برصغير]] ۾ علائقائي سفارتڪاري جو اهم فورم آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156717/adbi-dp78.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156717/adbi-dp78.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |last1=De |first1=Prabir |last2=Bhattacharyay |first2=Biswa N.|title=Prospects of India–Bangladesh Economic Cooperation: Implications for South Asian Regional Cooperation|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]]|date=September 2007|access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref> اهو 1974ع ۾ [[اسلامي تعاون تنظيم]] ۾ شامل ٿيو،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-example-religious-harmony-oic-2064177|title=Bangladesh an example of religious harmony: OIC|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=21 March 2021|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102404/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-example-religious-harmony-oic-2064177 |url-status=live}}</ref> ۽ [[ڊي-8 اقتصادي تعاون تنظيم|ڊيولپنگ-8]] جو باني ميمبر آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-receives-international-peace-award-d-8-founding-member-3085371|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=1 August 2022|access-date=27 September 2022|title=Bangladesh receives "International Peace Award" as D-8 founding member|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-receives-international-peace-award-d-8-founding-member-3085371|url-status=live}}</ref> تازو بنگلاديش [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جي سهڪار سان علائقائي واپار ۽ ٽرانسپورٽ رابطن کي هٿي ڏيڻ تي ڌيان ڏنو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/06/28/regional-trade-and-connectivity-in-south-asia-gets-more-than-1-billion-boost-from-world-bank | title=Regional Trade and Connectivity in South Asia Gets More Than $1 Billion Boost from World Bank | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184718/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/06/28/regional-trade-and-connectivity-in-south-asia-gets-more-than-1-billion-boost-from-world-bank | url-status=live }}</ref> اهو پنهنجي اهم پرڏيهي پاليسي مقصدن مان هڪ طور [[آسيان ۾ بنگلاديش جي شموليت|آسيان ۾ شامل ٿيڻ جي ڪوشش]] پڻ ڪري رهيو آهي.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |title=Ultimate goal is to join ASEAN as a full member |url=https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/trade-market/ultimate-goal-is-to-join-asean-as-a-full-member-1743783067 |access-date=2025-07-12 |work=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-05 |title=Will Bangladesh join Asean? Maritime arbitration wins favour Dhaka |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3277348/will-bangladesh-join-asean-maritime-arbitration-wins-and-cultural-links-favour-dhaka |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rahman |first=Mohammad Tariqur |date=8 February 2025 |title=Perhaps: Should Bangladesh be a member of ASEAN? |url=https://apakhabartv.com/2025/02/08/perhaps/ |access-date=17 July 2025 |website=ApakhabarTV}}</ref> ڍاڪا [[بمسٽيڪ]] جو صدر دفتر رکي ٿو، جيڪا [[بنگال جي نار تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ|بنگال جي نار سان لاڳاپيل ملڪن]] کي گڏ ڪندڙ تنظيم آهي. پاڙيسري ميانمار سان [[بنگلاديش–ميانمار لاڳاپا|لاڳاپا]] 2016–2017ع کان سخت ڇڪتاڻ جو شڪار آهن، جڏهن 700,000 کان وڌيڪ [[بنگلاديش ۾ روهنگيا پناهگير|روهنگيا پناهگير]] غيرقانوني طور بنگلاديش ۾ داخل ٿيا.<ref name="RohingyaHRW">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/08/05/bangladesh-not-my-country/plight-rohingya-refugees-myanmar|title=Bangladesh Is Not My Country|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=5 August 2018|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/08/05/bangladesh-not-my-country/plight-rohingya-refugees-myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي پارليامينٽ، حڪومت ۽ سول سوسائٽي روهنگيا خلاف ميانمار جي فوجي ڪارروائين تي [[2016–17ع روهنگيا لڏپلاڻ تي بين الاقوامي ردعمل|بين الاقوامي تنقيد]] جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ رهيون آهن، ۽ انهن جي [[واپسي جو حق|واپسيءَ جي حق]] جو مطالبو [[اراڪان]] ڏانهن ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/bangladesh-and-myanmar-resume-talks-on-rohingya-repatriation/ | title=Bangladesh and Myanmar Resume Talks on Rohingya Repatriation | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184715/https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/bangladesh-and-myanmar-resume-talks-on-rohingya-repatriation/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/17/rohingya-refugees-have-to-be-taken-back-bangladesh-pm-says|title=Bangladesh tells UN that Rohingya refugees must return to Myanmar|date=17 August 2022|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926223428/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/17/rohingya-refugees-have-to-be-taken-back-bangladesh-pm-says|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديش پنهنجي سڀ کان وڏي پاڙيسري ملڪ ڀارت سان اهم [[بنگلاديش–ڀارت لاڳاپا|ٻطرفا ۽ معاشي لاڳاپا]] رکي ٿو،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Bangladesh_MAR2021.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Bangladesh_MAR2021.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=India-Bangladesh Bilateral Relations|date=March 2021|publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)]]|access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref> جيڪي اڪثر [[ڀارت ۾ پاڻيءَ جي سياست|پاڻيءَ جي سياست]]، [[گنگا پاڻي تڪرار|گنگا]] ۽ [[تيستا درياهه#پاڻي ورهائڻ جو چئلينج|تيستا]] جي مسئلن،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/india-and-bangladesh-conflict-over-ganges-river | title=India and Bangladesh Conflict over the Ganges River &#124; Climate-Diplomacy | date=January 1957 | access-date=23 October 2022 | archive-date=23 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023122123/https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/india-and-bangladesh-conflict-over-ganges-river | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Karim |first=Sajid |date=November 2020 |title=Transboundary Water Cooperation between Bangladesh and India in the Ganges River Basin: Exploring a Benefit-sharing Approach |type=Master's |publisher=[[Uppsala University]] |url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1499222/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1499222/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/india-must-settle-the-teesta-river-dispute-with-bangladesh-for-lasting-gains/|title=India Must Settle the Teesta River Dispute With Bangladesh for Lasting Gains|work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=9 April 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Banerji |first=Anuttama|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/india-must-settle-the-teesta-river-dispute-with-bangladesh-for-lasting-gains/|url-status=live}}</ref> ۽ [[بنگلاديش–ڀارت سرحد تي موت|بنگلاديشي شهرين جي سرحدي قتلن]] سبب ڇڪتاڻ جو شڪار ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/unlawful-killings-along-india-border-bangladeshi-families-seek-justice/2141343 |title='Unlawful killings' along India border: Bangladeshi families seek justice|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|date=11 February 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Kamruzzaman |first=Md.|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/unlawful-killings-along-india-border-bangladeshi-families-seek-justice/2141343|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2020/12/22/bangladesh-sees-highest-border-deaths-in-10-years|title=Bangladesh sees highest border deaths in 10 years|date=22 December 2020 |last=Anik |first=Syed Samiul Basher|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102351/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2020/12/22/bangladesh-sees-highest-border-deaths-in-10-years|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديش جا پاڪستان سان لاڳاپا مسئلن جو شڪار آهن، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو پاڪستان 1971ع واري [[بنگلاديش نسل ڪشي]] کان انڪار ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/should-pakistan-apologize-to-bangladesh-for-the-1971-war/a-57051549|title=Should Pakistan apologize to Bangladesh for the 1971 war?|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=30 March 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Janjua |first=Haroon|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.dw.com/en/should-pakistan-apologize-to-bangladesh-for-the-1971-war/a-57051549|url-status=live}}</ref> اهو چين سان [[بنگلاديش–چين لاڳاپا|گرم لاڳاپا]] برقرار رکي ٿو، جيڪو ان جو سڀ کان وڏو واپاري ڀائيوار ۽ سڀ کان وڏو هٿيار فراهم ڪندڙ ملڪ آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/41935-decoding-china-bangladesh-relationship/|title=Decoding China-Bangladesh relationship |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Joyeeta|date=27 June 2018|access-date=27 September 2022|publisher=[[Observer Research Foundation]]|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/41935-decoding-china-bangladesh-relationship/|url-status=live}}</ref> جاپان بنگلاديش کي سڀ کان وڌيڪ معاشي امداد ڏيندڙ ملڪ آهي، ۽ ٻنهي ملڪن وچ ۾ [[بنگلاديش–جاپان لاڳاپا|حڪمت عملي ۽ معاشي ڀائيواري]] آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/50-years-of-japan-bangladesh-ties-from-economic-to-strategic-partnership/|title=50 Years of Japan-Bangladesh Ties: From Economic to Strategic Partnership|work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=10 February 2022 |last=Shazzad |first=Hussain|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153002/https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/50-years-of-japan-bangladesh-ties-from-economic-to-strategic-partnership/|url-status=live}}</ref> وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن سان سياسي لاڳاپا مضبوط آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/38010 | title=Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia have extremely cordial relations – Rizvi | date=27 March 2013 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184720/https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/38010 | url-status=live }}</ref> بنگلاديش کي پنهنجي ترسيل رقم جو 59 سيڪڙو وچ اوڀر مان ملي ٿو،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/middle-east-dual-shock-spillover-bangladeshs-remittance-108325 | title=Middle East dual shock spillover on Bangladesh's remittance | date=19 July 2020 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184724/https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/middle-east-dual-shock-spillover-bangladeshs-remittance-108325 | url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ خراب ڪم ڪندڙ حالتون وچ اوڀر ۾ رهندڙ چئن ملين کان وڌيڪ [[وچ اوڀر ۾ بنگلاديشي|بنگلاديشي مزدورن]] کي متاثر ڪن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/06/29/experts-middle-east-remains-key-to-bangladeshs-fortunes-in-a-changing-world|title=Experts: Middle East remains key to Bangladesh's fortunes in a changing world|date=29 June 2022|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102351/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/06/29/experts-middle-east-remains-key-to-bangladeshs-fortunes-in-a-changing-world|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديش [[موسمي تبديلي|عالمي موسمي]] سفارتڪاري ۾ [[ڪلايميٽ ولنرئبل فورم]] جي اڳواڻ طور اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://study.soas.ac.uk/cop26-bangladesh-climate-diplomacy/ | title=COP26 and Bangladesh: Time to Consolidate Climate Diplomacy | work=SOAS Blog | date=11 October 2021 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184721/https://study.soas.ac.uk/cop26-bangladesh-climate-diplomacy/ | url-status=live }}</ref> === فوج === {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Bangladeshi soldiers on a BTR-80 APC.jpg | caption1 = [[بي ٽي آر-80]] تي بنگلاديش فوج جا اهلڪار | image2 = BNS Bongobondhu2.jpg | caption2 = بنگلاديش بحريه جو [[فريگيٽ]]، [[بي اين ايس خالد بن وليد]] | image3 = Mikoyan MiG-29-Chengdu F-7.jpg | caption3 = بنگلاديش هوائي فوج جا ويڙهاڪ جهاز، مگ-29 ۽ ايف-7 }} [[بنگلاديش هٿياربند فوجون]] [[برطانوي فوج]] ۽ [[برطانوي هندستاني فوج]] جو ادارياتي ڍانچو ورثي ۾ حاصل ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/mobile/ch07.html|title=The Military and Democracy in Bangladesh|website=press-files.anu.edu.au|access-date=19 September 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141253/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/mobile/ch07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 2024ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش هٿياربند فوجون]] جي سرگرم اهلڪارن جو انگ لڳ ڀڳ 230,000 هو،<ref name="IISS">*{{cite book| title=The Military Balance 2018 |author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies| date=14 February 2018| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=978-1-85743-955-7| ref=IISS2018}}</ref> جنهن ۾ هوائي فوج جا 21,000 ۽ بحريه جا 27,000 اهلڪار شامل هئا.<ref>Including service and civilian personnel. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112044228/http://www.bangladeshnavy.org/glance.html Bangladesh Navy]. Retrieved 17 July 2007.</ref> روايتي دفاعي ڪردارن کان علاوه، فوج آفتن جي امدادي ڪارروائين ۾ شهري اختيارين جي مدد ڪئي آهي ۽ سياسي بيچيني جي دورن ۾ اندروني سلامتي پڻ فراهم ڪئي آهي. ڪيترن سالن کان، بنگلاديش [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ|گڏيل قومن جي امن فوجن]] ۾ دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو حصو ڏيندڙ ملڪ رهيو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2023 |title=Contribution of Uniformed Personnel to UN by Country and Personnel Type |url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/01_contributions_to_un_peacekeeping_operations_by_country_and_post_59_february_23.pdf.pdf |access-date=12 May 2023 |publisher=United Nations|archive-date=12 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512143419/https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/01_contributions_to_un_peacekeeping_operations_by_country_and_post_59_february_23.pdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جو فوجي بجيٽ]] جي ڊي پي جو 1.3 سيڪڙو آهي، جيڪو 2021ع ۾ 4.3 بلين آمريڪي ڊالرن جي برابر هو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=BD |title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh |publisher=World Bank |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207232946/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=BD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Alif |first=Abdullah |date=11 June 2020 |title=Budget FY21: Military spending increases by Tk2,327 crore |url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/business/economy/2020/06/11/military-spending-increases-by-tk2-327-crore |work=Dhaka Trbiune |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207231443/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/business/economy/2020/06/11/military-spending-increases-by-tk2-327-crore |url-status=live }}</ref> [[بنگلاديش بحريه]]، جيڪا بنگال جي نار جي وڏين بحرين مان هڪ آهي، فريگيٽن، آبدوزن، ڪورويٽن ۽ ٻين جهازن جي [[بنگلاديش بحريه جي سرگرم جهازن جي فهرست|بيڙي]] تي مشتمل آهي. [[بنگلاديش هوائي فوج]] وٽ گهڻ مقصدي جنگي جهازن جو هڪ [[بنگلاديش جي سرگرم فوجي جهازن جي فهرست|ننڍو بيڙو]] آهي. بنگلاديش جي فوجي سامان جو گهڻو حصو چين کان اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite news |last=Balachandran |first=P.K. |date=12 April 2017 |title=Rivals India and China woo Bangladesh with aid totalling $46 b |url=http://www.ft.lk/article/609166/Rivals-India-and-China-woo-Bangladesh-with-aid-totalling---46-b |work=[[Daily FT]] |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728123712/http://www.ft.lk/article/609166/Rivals-India-and-China-woo-Bangladesh-with-aid-totalling---46-b |url-status=live }}</ref> تازن سالن ۾، بنگلاديش ۽ ڀارت گڏيل فوجي مشقون، فوجي اڳواڻن جا اعليٰ سطحي دورا، [[دهشتگردي جي روڪٿام]] ۾ سهڪار ۽ ڳجهي ڄاڻ جي مٽاسٽا وڌائي آهي. بنگلاديش [[اتر اوڀر ڀارت]] ۾ استحڪام ۽ سلامتي کي يقيني بڻائڻ لاءِ اهم آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/migration-river-management-radicalisation-66008/ |title=Migration, river management, radicalisation: What does the future hold for India-Bangladesh relations? |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Joyeeta |date=May 2020 |website=Observer Research Foundation |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207231444/https://www.orfonline.org/research/migration-river-management-radicalisation-66008/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-206537 |title=Bangladesh and India's Northeast: A security perspective |work=The Daily Star |date=15 October 2011 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208025833/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-206537 |url-status=live }}</ref> اوڀر برصغير ۾ بنگلاديش جي حڪمت عملي واري اهميت چين جي ويجهڙائي، برما سان سرحد، مکيه ڀارت ۽ اتر اوڀر ڀارت جي جدا ٿيڻ، ۽ بنگال جي نار ۾ ان جي سامونڊي علائقي تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |author=Anu Anwar, Michael Kugelman |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/12/01/us-bangladesh-relations-dhaka-india-china-bri/ |title=The U.S. Should Deepen Ties With Bangladesh |work=Foreign Policy |date=1 December 2021 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162327/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/12/01/us-bangladesh-relations-dhaka-india-china-bri/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 2002ع ۾ بنگلاديش ۽ چين دفاعي سهڪار جو معاهدو ڪيو.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kinne |first=Brandon J. |date=15 August 2018 |title=Defense Cooperation Agreements and the Emergence of a Global Security Network |journal=International Organization |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=799–837 |doi=10.1017/S0020818318000218 |doi-access=free }}</ref> آمريڪا بنگلاديش سان [[اسٽيٽس آف فورسز ايگريمينٽ]]، [[ايڪويزيشن اينڊ ڪراس-سروسنگ ايگريمينٽ]] ۽ جنرل سيڪيورٽي آف ملٽري انفارميشن ايگريمينٽ بابت ڳالهين جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Paul |first=Bimal Kanti |year=2005 |title=Bangladeshi American Response to the 1998 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): An Assessment |journal=The Professional Geographer |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=495–505 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9272.2005.00494.x |bibcode=2005ProfG..57..495P }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Nazmul |url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/us-keen-on-military-ties-with-dhaka-1.386026 |title=U.S. keen on military ties with Dhaka &#124; Uae |work=Gulf News |date=11 May 2002 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162344/https://gulfnews.com/uae/us-keen-on-military-ties-with-dhaka-1.386026 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=US wants 2 defence deals with Bangladesh |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/us-wants-2-defence-deals-bangladesh-1815466 |work=The Daily Star |date=18 October 2019 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162327/https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/us-wants-2-defence-deals-bangladesh-1815466 |url-status=live }}</ref> 2019ع ۾ بنگلاديش گڏيل قومن جي [[ايٽمي هٿيارن جي پابندي بابت معاهدو]] جي توثيق ڪئي.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh ratifies nuclear weapons prohibition treaty |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/government-affairs/2019/09/28/bangladesh-ratifies-nuclear-weapons-prohibition-treaty |work=Dhaka Tribune |date=28 September 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920163951/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/government-affairs/2019/09/28/bangladesh-ratifies-nuclear-weapons-prohibition-treaty |url-status=live }}</ref> == آبادي == {{Main|بنگلاديش جي آبادي}} {{Further|بنگالي}} {{Historical populations |source = World Bank<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BD|publisher=[[World Bank]]|title=Population, total – Bangladesh|access-date=19 January 2025}}</ref> |title = آبادي (ملينن ۾) |percentages = pagr |1960 |51,828,660 |1971 |70,276,758 |1980 |88,016,432 |1990 |111,633,717 |2000 |134,544,304 |2010 |152,201,981 |2023 |171,466,990 }} بنگلاديش جي آبادي [[2022ع بنگلاديشي آدمشماري|2022ع جي آدمشماري]] ۾ 169.8&nbsp;ملين رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي،<ref name="populationcensus2022"/> جيڪا 2023ع ۾ وڌي 171.4&nbsp;ملين ٿي وئي.<ref name="unpop">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BD|title=Population, total – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref> اهو دنيا جو [[آبادي موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|اٺون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ملڪ]]، ايشيا جو [[آبادي موجب ايشيائي ملڪن جي فهرست|پنجون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ملڪ]]، ۽ دنيا جو [[آبادي جي گهاٽائي موجب ملڪن ۽ تابع علائقن جي فهرست|سڀ کان وڌيڪ گهاٽي آبادي وارو وڏو ملڪ]] آهي، جتي 2020ع ۾ مکيه آبادي گهاٽائي 1,265 ماڻهو/km<sup>2</sup> هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST?locations=BD|title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي [[ڪل زرخيزي شرح]] (TFR)، جيڪا ڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ شرحن مان هڪ هئي، نمايان گهٽتائي مان گذري آهي؛ اها 1985ع ۾ 5.5 کان 1995ع ۾ 3.7 ۽ پوءِ 2022ع ۾ 1.9 تائين گهٽجي وئي،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=BD|title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> جيڪا 2.1 واري [[متبادل سطح کان هيٺ زرخيزي]] کان به گهٽ آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bora |first1=Jayanta Kumar |last2=Saikia |first2=Nandita |last3=Kebede |first3=Endale Birhanu |last4=Lutz |first4=Wolfgang |title=Revisiting the causes of fertility decline in Bangladesh: The relative importance of female education and family planning programs |journal=Asian Population Studies |date=2023 |volume=19 |pages=81–104 |doi=10.1080/17441730.2022.2028253 |doi-access=free }}</ref> آبادي جو گهڻو حصو ڳوٺاڻن علائقن ۾ رهي ٿو، جڏهن ته 2023ع مطابق صرف 40٪ آبادي شهري علائقن ۾ رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=BD|title=Urban population (% of total population) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي [[وچولي عمر]] لڳ ڀڳ 28 سال آهي؛ ڪل آبادي جو 26٪ حصو 14 سالن يا ان کان گهٽ عمر جو آهي،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.0014.TO.ZS?locations=BD|title=Population ages 0–14 (% of total population) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> ۽ 2023ع صرف 6٪ ماڻهو 65 سالن يا ان کان وڌيڪ عمر جا آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS?locations=BD|title=Population ages 65 and above (% of total population) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> بنگلاديش هڪ [[نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع جي سطح موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|نسلي ۽ ثقافتي طور هم جنس سماج]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ [[بنگالي ماڻهو|بنگالي]] آبادي جو 99٪ آهن.<ref name="cia"/> [[آديواسي]] آبادي ۾ [[چاڪما ماڻهو|چاڪما]]، [[مارما ماڻهو|مارما]]، [[سانٿال ماڻهو|سانٿال]]، [[مرو ماڻهو|مرو]]، [[تانچنگيا ماڻهو|تانچنگيا]]، [[باوم ماڻهو|باوم]]، [[تريپوري ماڻهو|تريپوري]]، [[خاصي ماڻهو|خاصي]]، [[خومي ماڻهو|خومي]]، [[ڪوڪي ماڻهو|ڪوڪي]]، [[گارو ماڻهو|گارو]] ۽ [[بشنوپريا منيپوري ماڻهو|بشنوپريا منيپوري]] شامل آهن. چٽاگانگ پهاڙي علائقن ۾ مقامي ماڻهن جي خودمختياري تحريڪ سبب 1975ع کان 1997ع تائين بدامني ۽ [[چٽاگانگ پهاڙي علائقن جو تڪرار|بغاوت]] رهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1997ع ۾ امن معاهدو ٿيو، پر علائقو [[آپريشن اتاران|اڃا به فوجي موجودگي هيٺ]] آهي.<ref name="rashiduzzaman">{{cite journal |last=Rashiduzzaman |first=M. |year=1998 |title=Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns |journal=Asian Survey |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=653–70 |doi=10.2307/2645754 |jstor=2645754}}</ref> [[اردو]] ڳالهائيندڙ [[رهجي ويل پاڪستاني]]ن کي 2008ع ۾ سپريم ڪورٽ طرفان شهريت ڏني وئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/how-bangladesh-court-ruling-changed-lives-more-300000-stateless-people|title=How a Bangladesh court ruling changed the lives of more than 300,000 stateless people|last1=Shadman|first1=Onchita|last2=Schönbauer|first2=Roland|date=23 February 2015|access-date=27 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش 2017ع کان وٺي 700,000 کان وڌيڪ روهنگيا پناهگيرن جي ميزباني پڻ ڪري ٿو، جنهن سبب اهو دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏين پناهگير آبادين وارن ملڪن مان هڪ آهي.<ref name="RohingyaHRW"/> === شهري مرڪز === {{Further|بنگلاديش جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} بنگلاديش جو گاديءَ وارو ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر [[ڍاڪا]] آهي، جنهن جي انتظام لاءِ ٻه شهري ڪارپوريشنون قائم آهن، جيڪي شهر جي اترين ۽ ڏاکڻي حصن جي نگراني ڪن ٿيون. بنگلاديش ۾ ڪُل 13 [[بنگلاديش جي شهري ڪارپوريشنن جي فهرست|شهري ڪارپوريشنون]] آهن، جتي ميئرن جون چونڊون ٿينديون آهن: ڍاڪا ڏکڻ، ڍاڪا اتر، [[چٽاگانگ]]، [[ڪوميلا]]، [[خولنا]]، [[ميمن سنگهه]]، [[سلهٽ]]، [[راجشاهي]]، [[باريسال]]، [[رنگپور]]، [[گازيپور]]، [[بوگرا]] ۽ [[نارائن گنج]]. ميئر پنجن سالن جي مدي لاءِ چونڊيا ويندا آهن. بنگلاديش ۾ مجموعي طور 506 شهري مرڪز آهن، جن مان 43 شهرن جي آبادي 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهي. {{Largest cities | country = Bangladesh | stat_ref = [https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2023-09-27-09-50-a3672cdf61961a45347ab8660a3109b6.pdf] | list_by_pop = | div_name = ملڪ | div_link = Bangladesh | city_1 = ڍاڪا | pop_1 = 10,278,882 | city_2 = چٽاگانگ | pop_2 = 3,227,246 | city_3 = گازيپور | pop_3 = 2,674,697 | city_4 = نارائن گنج | pop_4 = 967,724 | city_5 = خولنا | pop_5 = 718,735 | city_6 = Rangpur, Bangladesh{{!}}رنگپور | pop_6 = 708,384 | city_7 = ميمن سنگهه | pop_7 = 576,722 | city_8 = راجشاهي | pop_8 = 552,791 | city_9 = سلهٽ | pop_9 = 532,426 | city_10 = بوگرا | pop_10 = 542,420 | city_11 = ڪوميلا | pop_11 = 439,414 }} === ٻولي === {{Main|بنگلاديش جون ٻوليون}} [[File:Shaheed Minar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|[[ڍاڪا شهيد مينار|شهيد مينار]]، ڍاڪا ۾ واقع هڪ قومي يادگار آهي، جيڪو 1952ع جي [[بنگالي ٻولي تحريڪ]] جي شهيدن جي ياد ۾ تعمير ڪيو ويو هو ۽ بنگالي قومپرستي جي علامت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.]] بنگلاديش جي سرڪاري ۽ غالب ٻولي [[بنگالي ٻولي|بنگالي]] آهي، جيڪا آبادي جي 99 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن جي [[مادري ٻولي]] آهي.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Population and Housing Census 2022: Report on Socio-Economic and Demographic Survey 2023 |url=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/SEDS_2023_Report.pdf|date=June 2024|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|page=xx|isbn=978-984-35-2977-0|access-date=9 June 2024|archive-date=9 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240609144133/http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/SEDS_2023_Report.pdf}}</ref><ref name="LOG">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Rahim|first1=Enayetur|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert L.|title=Ethnicity and Linguistic Diversity|encyclopedia=Bangladesh: a country study|year=1989|access-date=24 September 2022|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/29.htm|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|page=59|oclc=49223313}}</ref> بنگالي کي هڪ [[لهجن جو تسلسل]] (Dialect Continuum) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن ۾ سڄي ملڪ ۾ مختلف [[بنگالي لهجا|لهجا]] ڳالهايا وڃن ٿا. ملڪ ۾ [[دولسانيت]] (Diglossia) پڻ موجود آهي، جنهن تحت گهڻا ماڻهو معياري ڳالهائجندڙ بنگالي سمجهي يا ڳالهائي سگهن ٿا، ساڳئي وقت پنهنجي علائقائي لهجي يا ٻوليءَ جي صورت پڻ استعمال ڪن ٿا.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/amar-ekushey-2018/amago-bhasha-1537534|title=Amago Basha|last=Khan|first=Sameer Ud Dowla|date=21 February 2018|access-date=24 September 2022|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> انهن ۾ [[چٽاگانگي ٻولي|چٽاگانگي]] شامل آهي، جيڪا چٽاگانگ جي ڏکڻ اوڀر واري علائقي ۾ ڳالهائي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1991 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |place= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=16}}</ref> [[نواخالي ٻولي|نواخالي]]، جيڪا [[نواخالي ضلعو|نواخالي]] ضلعي ۾ ڳالهائي وڃي ٿي،<ref>{{citation|author=Sarwar, Fatina|title=Noakhali Dialect: Its Prospect of Standardization}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rashel|first=Md. Mostafa|title=Phonological Analysis of Chatkhil Dialect in Noakhali District, Bangladesh|journal=Theory and Practice in Language Studies|volume=1|issue=9|date=September 2011|pages=1051–1061|doi=10.4304/tpls.1.9.1051-1061|url=http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol01/09/09.html/|archive-date=15 June 2022|access-date=6 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615203456/http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol01/09/09.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615203456/http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol01/09/09.html |date=15 June 2022 }}</ref> ۽ [[سلهٽي ٻولي|سلهٽي]]، جيڪا اتر اوڀر واري [[سلهٽ ڊويزن]] ۾ ڳالهائي وڃي ٿي.<ref name="LOG"/> [[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] بنگلاديش جي عدالتي ۽ تعليمي معاملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ملڪ ماضي ۾ برطانوي سلطنت جو حصو رهيو آهي. اها وڏي پيماني تي ڳالهائي ۽ سمجهي وڃي ٿي، ۽ سڀني [[بنگلاديش جي اسڪولن جي فهرست|اسڪولن]]، [[بنگلاديش جي ڪاليجن جي فهرست|ڪاليجن]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي يونيورسٽين جي فهرست|يونيورسٽين]] ۾ لازمي مضمون طور پڙهائي وڃي ٿي، جڏهن ته انگريزي-ذريعو تعليمي نظام پڻ وڏي پيماني تي اختيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Mohammad Mosiur |last2=Islam |first2=Md Shaiful |last3=Karim |first3=Abdul |last4=Chowdhury |first4=Takad Ahmed |last5=Rahman |first5=Muhammad Mushfiqur |last6=Seraj |first6=Prodhan Mahbub Ibna |last7=Singh |first7=Manjet Kaur Mehar |title=English language teaching in Bangladesh today: Issues, outcomes and implications |journal=Language Testing in Asia |date=2019 |volume=9 |article-number=9 |doi=10.1186/s40468-019-0085-8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> قبائلي ٻوليون، جيتوڻيڪ آهستي آهستي خطري ۾ پئجي رهيون آهن، تڏهن به ملڪ جي لساني ورثي جو اهم حصو آهن. انهن ۾ [[چاڪما ٻولي]] شامل آهي، جيڪا هڪ اوڀر هند-آريائي ٻولي آهي ۽ [[چاڪما ماڻهو|چاڪما ماڻهن]] جي مادري ٻولي آهي.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Chakma |first1=Sujana |title=Chakma language: survival from being extinct in Bangladesh |date=2014 |hdl=10361/3983 }}{{page needed|date=January 2026}}</ref> ٻين قبائلي ٻولين ۾ [[گارو ٻولي|گارو]]، [[ميتيئي ٻولي|ميتيئي]]، [[ڪوڪ بوروڪ]] ۽ [[راخين ٻولي|راخين]] شامل آهن. [[آسٽرو ايشيائي ٻوليون|آسٽرو ايشيائي ٻولين]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڳالهائي ويندڙ ٻولي [[سانتالي ٻولي]] آهي، جيڪا [[سانٿال ماڻهو|سانٿال ماڻهن]] جي مادري ٻولي آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Seung|first1=Kim|last2=Kim|first2=Amy|title=The Santali cluster in Bangladesh: a sociolinguistic survey|year=2010|url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/85/39/32/85393268857150358467007206894440229270/silesr2010_006.pdf|issue=2010–006|publisher=[[SIL International]]|series=Survey Report|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش ۾ رهجي ويل پاڪستاني|رهجي ويل پاڪستاني]] ۽ [[ڍاڪايا|پراڻي ڍاڪا]] جي ڪجهه آبادي اڄ به [[اردو]] کي پنهنجي مادري ٻولي طور استعمال ڪن ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، اردو جي استعمال بابت سماجي تنقيد ۽ ناپسنديدگي اڃا تائين وڏي حد تائين موجود آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ashrafi|first=Shah Tazria |title=How the Urdu language and literature slipped into darkness in Bangladesh|url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/how-the-urdu-language-and-literature-slipped-into-darkness-in-bangladesh-43391|work=[[TRT World]]|date=19 January 2021|type=Opinion|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> === مذهب === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ مذهب}} {{bar box |title=بنگلاديش ۾ مذهب (2022ع جي آدمشماري)<ref name="census">{{cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2022: Preliminary Report |url=https://sid.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sid.portal.gov.bd/publications/01ad1ffe_cfef_4811_af97_594b6c64d7c3/PHC_Preliminary_Report_(English)_August_2022.pdf |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |page=16 |date=August 2022 |access-date=25 September 2024 |archive-date=8 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708004426/https://sid.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sid.portal.gov.bd/publications/01ad1ffe_cfef_4811_af97_594b6c64d7c3/PHC_Preliminary_Report_(English)_August_2022.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |titlebar=#Fcd116 |left1=مذهب |right1=سيڪڙو |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[بنگلاديش ۾ اسلام|مسلمان]]|green|91.04}} {{bar percent|[[بنگلاديش ۾ هندومت|هندو]]|darkorange|7.94}} {{bar percent|[[بنگلاديش ۾ ٻڌمت|ٻڌ]]|yellow|0.60}} {{bar percent|[[بنگلاديش ۾ عيسائيت|عيسائي]]|darkblue|0.31}} {{bar percent|ٻيا|red|0.11}} }} [[بنگلاديش ۾ اسلام|اسلام]] بنگلاديش جو [[سرڪاري مذهب]] آهي.<ref name="state religion">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (part I) |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24549.html |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=Laws of Bangladesh}}</ref> بهرحال، [[بنگلاديش جو آئين|آئين]] سيڪيولرزم (مذهبي غيرجانبداري) کي پڻ برقرار رکي ٿو ۽ سڀني مذهبن لاءِ برابر حقن جي ضمانت ڏئي ٿو.<ref name="secularism">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (part II) |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24560.html |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=Laws of Bangladesh}}</ref><ref name="state religion"/> هر شهري کي پنهنجي پسند جو مذهب اختيار ڪرڻ ۽ ان تي عمل ڪرڻ جي آزادي حاصل آهي. [[بنگلاديش ۾ اسلام|اسلام]] ملڪ جو سڀ کان وڏو مذهب آهي، جنهن تي لڳ ڀڳ 91.1٪ آبادي عمل ڪري ٿي.<ref name="census"/> بنگلاديش جي مسلمانن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[بنگالي مسلمان]] آهي، جيڪي [[سني اسلام]] سان وابسته آهن.<ref name="state"/> بنگلاديش دنيا جو ٽيون سڀ کان وڌيڪ مسلمان اڪثريت وارو ملڪ آهي ۽ مجموعي مسلمان آبادي جي لحاظ کان چوٿين نمبر تي اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2010 |title=Muslim Population by Country |publisher=Pew Research |date=27 January 2011 |access-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726201620/http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2010 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[بنگالي هندو]] ملڪ جي [[بنگلاديش ۾ هندومت|ٻي وڏي مذهبي اقليت]] آهن ۽ دنيا جي [[هندن جي آبادي]] جي لحاظ کان ٽئين وڏي هندو برادري ٺهن ٿا. [[2022ع جي بنگلاديشي آدمشماري]] موجب هندو آبادي جو 7.95٪ آهن.<ref name="state"/><ref name="census"/> جڏهن ته [[2011ع جي بنگلاديشي آدمشماري]] ۾ هندو آبادي جو 8.54٪ هئا. [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٻڌمت|ٻڌمت]] ملڪ جو ٽيون سڀ کان وڏو مذهب آهي، جنهن تي صرف 0.6٪ آبادي عمل ڪري ٿي.<ref name="census"/> بنگلاديشي ٻڌ ڌرم جا پوئلڳ خاص طور تي [[چٽاگانگ ٽڪريون وارو علائقو|چٽاگانگ ٽڪريون واري علائقي]] جي قبائلي قومن ۽ سامونڊي چٽاگانگ ۾ رهندڙ [[بنگالي ٻڌ ڌرمي]] اقليت ۾ مرڪوز آهن، جيڪي گهڻو ڪري [[ٿيراوادا]] روايت جي پيروي ڪن ٿا.<ref name="state"/> [[بنگلاديش ۾ عيسائيت|عيسائيت]] چوٿون وڏو مذهب آهي، جنهن جا پيروڪار آبادي جو 0.3٪ آهن. انهن مان گهڻا هڪ ننڍڙي [[بنگالي عيسائي]] برادري سان تعلق رکن ٿا.<ref name="census"/> آبادي جو لڳ ڀڳ 0.1٪ حصو ٻين مذهبن تي عمل ڪري ٿو، جهڙوڪ [[روح پرستي]]، يا ڪنهن به مذهب سان وابسته نه آهي.<ref name="state">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bangladesh|work=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=8 January 2025}}</ref> === تعليم === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ تعليم}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Bangladesh Literacy Rate (2022, Total).svg | caption1 = بنگلاديش جي ضلعن ۾ [[خواندگي]] جي شرح | image2 = Curzon Hall - Northern Facade - University of Dhaka - Dhaka 2015-05-31 1992.JPG | caption2 = [[ڪرزن هال]]، [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي]] جو هڪ حصو }} بنگلاديش جو آئين بيان ڪري ٿو ته سڀني ٻارن کي مفت ۽ لازمي تعليم فراهم ڪئي ويندي.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh: Article 17 (Free and compulsory education)|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24565.html|website=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs|access-date=27 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش ۾ تعليم جي نگراني [[بنگلاديش جي تعليم واري وزارت]] ڪندي آهي. [[بنگلاديش جي پرائمري ۽ عوامي تعليم واري وزارت]] مقامي سطح تي ابتدائي تعليم ۽ سرڪاري مالي سهائتا حاصل ڪندڙ اسڪولن بابت پاليسين جي نفاذ جي ذميوار آهي. ابتدائي ۽ ثانوي تعليم [[لازمي تعليم]] آهي، جيڪا رياست جي خرچ تي هلائي ويندي آهي ۽ سرڪاري اسڪولن ۾ مفت فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي. 2021ع تائين بنگلاديش جي [[خواندگي]] جي شرح 76٪ هئي؛ مردن ۾ 79٪ ۽ عورتن ۾ 71.9٪.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.MA.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult male (% of males ages 15 and above) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.FE.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> ملڪ جو تعليمي نظام ٽن وڏن درجن تي ٻڌل آهي ۽ ان کي وڏي پيماني تي سرڪاري مالي سهائتا حاصل آهي. حڪومت ابتدائي، ثانوي ۽ اعليٰ ثانوي سطحن تي ڪيترائي تعليمي ادارا هلائي ٿي ۽ ڪيترن نجي ادارن کي پڻ امداد فراهم ڪري ٿي. تنهن هوندي به تعليم تي سرڪاري خرچ دنيا ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ خرچن مان هڪ آهي، جيڪو مجموعي گهريلو پيداوار (GDP) جو صرف 1.8٪ آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=BD|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=12 January 2025}}</ref> تعليمي نظام پنجن مرحلن ۾ ورهايل آهي: * ابتدائي تعليم (پهرين کان پنجين جماعت) * جونيئر ثانوي تعليم (ڇهين کان اٺين جماعت) * ثانوي تعليم (نائين ۽ ڏهين جماعت) * اعليٰ ثانوي تعليم (يارهين ۽ ٻارهين جماعت) * اعليٰ تعليم (يونيورسٽي سطح) <ref name="CompEd2">{{cite book |author=T. Neville Postlethwaite |title=The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-08-030853-1 |page=130}}</ref> ابتدائي سطح جا شاگرد جونيئر ثانوي سطح ۾ داخلا لاءِ [[پرائمري ايجوڪيشن ڪمپليشن]] (PEC) امتحان پاس ڪندا آهن. ان کان پوءِ جونيئر ثانوي شاگرد [[جونيئر اسڪول سرٽيفڪيٽ]] (JSC) امتحان ڏيندا آهن ته جيئن نائين جماعت ۾ داخلا وٺي سگهن. ڏهين جماعت جا شاگرد [[سيڪنڊري اسڪول سرٽيفڪيٽ (بنگلاديش)|سيڪنڊري اسڪول سرٽيفڪيٽ]] (SSC) امتحان پاس ڪري يارهين جماعت ۾ داخل ٿيندا آهن. آخرڪار ٻارهين جماعت ۾ شاگردن کي [[هائير سيڪنڊري سرٽيفڪيٽ]] (HSC) امتحان پاس ڪرڻو پوندو آهي ته جيئن اعليٰ تعليم يا يونيورسٽين ۾ داخلا لاءِ درخواست ڏئي سگهن.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mamun |first1=Mohammed A. |last2=Griffiths |first2=Mark D. |title=Young Teenage Suicides in Bangladesh—Are Mandatory Junior School Certificate Exams to Blame? |journal=International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction |date=2022 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=1627–1631 |doi=10.1007/s11469-020-00275-3 }}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جون يونيورسٽيون|يونيورسٽيون]] ٽن قسمن جون آهن: * سرڪاري يونيورسٽيون (حڪومت جي ملڪيت ۽ [[بنگلاديش يونيورسٽي گرانٽس ڪميشن]] جي مالي سهائتا سان) * نجي يونيورسٽيون * بين الاقوامي يونيورسٽيون (بين الاقوامي ادارن پاران هلندڙ) ملڪ ۾ 55 سرڪاري،<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/public-universities|title=List of Public Universities|publisher=[[University Grants Commission of Bangladesh]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> 115 نجي<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/private-universities|title=List of Private Universities|publisher=[[University Grants Commission of Bangladesh]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> ۽ 2 بين الاقوامي يونيورسٽيون آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/international-universities|title=List of International Universities|publisher=[[University Grants Commission of Bangladesh]]|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> [[نيشنل يونيورسٽي، بنگلاديش]] داخلا وٺندڙ شاگردن جي تعداد جي لحاظ کان دنيا جي ٻي وڏي يونيورسٽي آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/why-campus-programmes-matter-national-university-982726|title=Why on-campus programmes matter for National University|work=[[Business Standard]]|date=2 November 2024|last=Hossain|first=Shaikh Shohag}}</ref> [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي]]، جيڪا 1921ع ۾ قائم ٿي، ملڪ جي سڀ کان پراڻي سرڪاري يونيورسٽي آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/youth/education/campus/news/the-conception-and-birth-dhaka-university-2121841|title=The conception and birth of Dhaka University|date=2 July 2021|access-date=9 February 2025|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|last=Mujib|first=Rasheek Tabassum}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش يونيورسٽي آف انجنيئرنگ اينڊ ٽيڪنالاجي|بي يو اي ٽي (BUET)]] انجنيئرنگ تعليم لاءِ ملڪ جي سڀ کان نمايان يونيورسٽي سمجهي وڃي ٿي. [[چٽاگانگ يونيورسٽي]]، جيڪا 1966ع ۾ قائم ٿي، ملڪ جو سڀ کان وڏو يونيورسٽي ڪيمپس رکي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/10/19/chittagong-university-model-campus-tourism/|title=Chittagong University: A model of campus tourism|last=Mahmud|first=Tarek|date=19 October 2017|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|access-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007152843/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/10/19/chittagong-university-model-campus-tourism|archive-date=7 October 2022}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش يونيورسٽي آف پروفيشنلز|بي يو پي (BUP)]] هٿياربند فوجن سان لاڳاپيل سڀ کان وڏي سرڪاري يونيورسٽي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 April 2009|title=Bangladesh University of Professionals Act, 2009 (Act No. 30 of 2009)|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-1016.html?lang=en|access-date=5 September 2021|website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd}}</ref> [[ڍاڪا ڪاليج]]، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ قائم ٿيو، برصغير جي قديم ترين تعليمي ادارن مان هڪ آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/weekend-read/news/dhakas-educational-heritage-3414361|title=Dhaka's educational heritage|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=9 September 2023|last1=Nand|first1=Dipan|last2=Rahaman|first2=Arafat|access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> طبي تعليم 39 سرڪاري، 6 هٿياربند فوجن سان لاڳاپيل ۽ 68 نجي [[بنگلاديش جي طبي ڪاليجن جي فهرست|طبي ڪاليجن]] ذريعي فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي. سڀئي طبي ڪاليج [[بنگلاديش جي صحت ۽ خانداني ڀلائي واري وزارت]] سان لاڳاپيل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/365640/three-more-medical-colleges-renamed-by-health|title=Three more medical colleges renamed by Health Ministry|date=19 November 2024|access-date=9 February 2025|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]}}</ref> [[نارٿ سائوٿ يونيورسٽي]] کي عام طور ملڪ جي اڳواڻ نجي يونيورسٽي طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Times Higher Education Rankings 2023: DU, NSU ranked top Bangladeshi universities |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/education/times-higher-education-rankings-2023-du-nsu-ranked-top-bangladeshi-universities |website=The Business Standard |date=12 October 2022 |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref> === صحت === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ صحت}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Life expectancy by WBG -Bangladesh.png | caption1 = بنگلاديش ۾ [[متوقع عمر]] جي تاريخي واڌ، جيڪا آزادي کان پوءِ نمايان بهتري ڏيکاري ٿي | image2 = Child mortality rate in Bangladesh.png | caption2 = 1990ع کان پوءِ بنگلاديش ۾ [[ٻارن جي شرحِ اموات]] جي تاريخي واڌ ويجھ، جيڪا نمايان گهٽتائي ظاهر ڪري ٿي | image3 = A community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh (8630810827).jpg | caption3 = راڄڌاني ڍاڪا جي هڪ ڪچي آبادي ۾ سروي ڪندڙ هڪ برادري صحت ڪارڪن }} بنگلاديش جو آئين پنهنجي سڀني شهرين لاءِ صحت جون خدمتون بنيادي حق طور ضمانت ڏئي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mof.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mof.portal.gov.bd/budget_mof/b3342588_2e85_4fcb_95af_dddfdea4851b/G-1_04_127_Health%20Services_English.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://mof.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mof.portal.gov.bd/budget_mof/b3342588_2e85_4fcb_95af_dddfdea4851b/G-1_04_127_Health%20Services_English.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|title=Chapter-5 {{!}} Health Services Division|publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Bangladesh)]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جي صحت ۽ خانداني ڀلائي واري وزارت]] ملڪ ۾ صحت جون خدمتون فراهم ڪندڙ سڀ کان وڏو ادارياتي ادارو آهي،<ref name="overview">{{cite journal |author1=World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific |title=Bangladesh health system review |journal=Health Systems in Transition |date=17 July 2015 |volume=5 |issue=3 |hdl=10665/208214 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> جنهن ۾ ٻه ڊويزنون شامل آهن: [[صحت خدمتون ڊويزن]] ۽ [[طبي تعليم ۽ خانداني ڀلائي ڊويزن]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/11610/onelink.to/articlelist/323/Cartoon|title=Health Ministry split into 2 divisions|work=[[New Age (Bangladesh)|New Age]]|date=20 March 2017|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> تنهن هوندي به بنگلاديش جون صحت جون سهولتون اڃا تائين مڪمل طور تي ڪافي نه سمجهيون وڃن ٿيون، جيتوڻيڪ معيشت جي واڌ ۽ غربت ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي سان انهن ۾ سڌارو آيو آهي.<ref name="overview"/> ملڪ کي صحت جي افرادي قوت جي شديد کوٽ کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته باقاعده تربيت يافته صحت فراهم ڪندڙ مجموعي صحت عملي جو تمام ننڍو حصو آهن.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ahmed|first1=Syed Masud|last2=Hossain|first2=Md. Awlad|last3=Chowdhury|first3=Ahmed Mushtaque Raja|last4=Bhuiya|first4=Abbas Uddin|title=The health workforce crisis in Bangladesh: shortage, inappropriate skill-mix, and inequitable distribution|date=22 January 2011|journal=[[Human Resources for Health]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|volume=9|number=3|page=3|pmid=21255446|doi=10.1186/1478-4491-9-3|pmc=3037300|doi-access=free}}</ref> ڳوٺاڻن ڊاڪٽرن جي علاج واري عمل ۾ اڃا به نمايان خاميون موجود آهن ۽ دوائن جي غير مناسب ۽ نقصانڪار تجويز عام آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mahmood|first1=Shehrin S.|last2=Iqbal|first2=Mohammad|last3=Hanifi|first3=S. M. A.|last4=Wahed|first4=Tania|last5=Bhuiya|first5=Abbas|title=Are 'Village Doctors' in Bangladesh a curse or a blessing?|date=6 July 2010|doi=10.1186/1472-698X-10-18|volume=10|number=18|pmid=20602805|journal=BMC International Health and Human Rights|page=18|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|pmc=2910021|doi-access=free}}</ref> بنگلاديش جو صحت جو نظام سرڪاري ناڪافي مالي مدد سبب متاثر آهي.<ref name="overview"/> 2021ع مطابق صحت تي خرچ مجموعي گهريلو پيداوار (GDP) جو صرف 2.36٪ هو،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=BD|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> جڏهن ته صحت لاءِ گهريلو سرڪاري خرچ مجموعي صحت خرچن جو 16.88٪ هئا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.GHED.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Domestic general government health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> ذاتي خرچن مان ادا ڪيل صحت خرچ مجموعي خرچن جو لڳ ڀڳ 73٪ هئا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> خانگي صحت خرچ مجموعي صحت خرچن جو تقريباً 75.48٪ هئا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PVTD.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Domestic private health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> ملڪ ۾ هر 10,000 ماڻهن لاءِ صرف 5.3 ڊاڪٽر موجود هئا،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=BD|title=Physicians (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> جڏهن ته هر 1,000 ماڻهن لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6 ڊاڪٽر ۽ 6 نرسون موجود هيون.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.NUMW.P3?locations=BD|title=Nurses and midwives (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> اسپتالن ۾ هر 1,000 ماڻهن لاءِ صرف 9 بسترا موجود هئا.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Islam|first1=Md. Taimur|last2=Talukder|first2=Anup Kumar|last3=Siddiqui|first3=Md. Nurealam|last4=Islam|first4=Tofazzal|title=Tackling the COVID-19 pandemic: The Bangladesh perspective|journal=Journal of Public Health Research|doi=10.4081/jphr.2020.1794|date=14 October 2020|volume=9|number=4|article-number=jphr.2020.1794|pmid=33117758|pmc=7582102}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS?locations=BD|title=Hospital beds (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> ماهر جراحي عملي جو انگ هر 100,000 ماڻهن لاءِ صرف 3 هو،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.SAOP.P5?locations=BD|title=Specialist surgical workforce (per 100,000 population) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> جڏهن ته هر 1,000 ماڻهن لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 5 برادري صحت ڪارڪن موجود هئا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.CMHW.P3?locations=BD|title=Community health workers (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> 2022ع ۾ تقريباً 60٪ آبادي کي محفوظ [[پيئڻ جي پاڻي]] تائين رسائي حاصل هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.H2O.SMDW.ZS?locations=BD|title=People using safely managed drinking water services (% of population) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> 2002ع ۾ اندازو لڳايو ويو ته پيئڻ جي پاڻي جو اڌ حصو [[آرسينڪ]] سان آلوده هو، جنهن ۾ في ليٽر 10 مائڪروگرام کان وڌيڪ مقدار موجود هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/18/half-of-bangladeshi-drinking-water-is-polluted-with-arsenic-and-climate-change-is-making-i|title=Half of Bangladeshi drinking water is polluted with arsenic – and climate change is making it worse|work=[[Euronews]]|date=18 January 2024|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش دنيا جي بدترين هوا جي معيار وارن ملڪن مان هڪ آهي، خاص طور تي گهڻي آبادي وارن شهري علائقن، جهڙوڪ [[ڍاڪا]] ۽ ان جي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقي ۾.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/energysource/bangladeshs-air-quality-is-among-the-worlds-worst-what-can-be-done/|title=Bangladesh's air quality is among the world's worst. What can be done?|date=25 June 2024|access-date=7 January 2025|work=[[Atlantic Council]]|last1=Webster|first1=Joseph|last2=Sinha|first2=Natalie|last3=Meadows|first3=Sarah}}</ref> عالمي بينڪ جي اندازي موجب 2019ع ۾ فضائي آلودگي سبب بنگلاديش ۾ 80,000 کان 90,000 موت ٿيا. اها ملڪ ۾ موت ۽ معذوري جو ٻيو وڏو سبب هئي ۽ ان سبب ملڪ کي پنهنجي GDP جو لڳ ڀڳ 4–4.4٪ معاشي نقصان برداشت ڪرڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/12/03/high-air-pollution-level-is-creating-physical-and-mental-health-hazards-in-bangladesh-world-bank|title=High Air Pollution Level is Creating Physical and Mental Health Hazards in Bangladesh: World Bank|publisher=[[World Bank]]|date=4 December 2022|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> 2022ع مطابق پيدائش وقت مجموعي [[متوقع عمر]] 74 سال هئي، جنهن ۾ مردن جي متوقع عمر 72 سال ۽ عورتن جي 76 سال هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=BD|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> ملڪ ۾ [[ٻارن جي شرحِ اموات]] نسبتاً بلند آهي. هر 1,000 جيئري ڄمڻن تي شيرخوار ٻارن جي اموات جي شرح 24 ۽ پنجن سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن ٻارن جي اموات جي شرح 29 هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=BD|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?locations=BD|title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> 2020ع مطابق [[مائرن جي اموات جي شرح]] هر 100,000 جيئري ڄمڻن تي 123 هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=BD|title=Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> بنگلاديش ڪيترن ئي ملڪن، خاص طور تي [[ڀارت ۾ طبي سياحت|ڀارت]]، لاءِ [[طبي سياحت]] جو هڪ اهم ذريعو آهي،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/tourism/bangladesh-key-source-market-medical-tourism-1571314|title=Bangladesh a key source market for medical tourism|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=4 May 2018|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> ڇاڪاڻ ته ڪيترائي شهري پنهنجي ملڪ جي صحت واري نظام تي اطمينان ۽ اعتماد نٿا رکن.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Andaleeb|first1=Syed Saad|last2=Siddiqui|first2=Nazlee |first3=Shahjahan |last3=Khandakar|title=Patient satisfaction with health services in Bangladesh|volume=22|number=4|date=July 2007 |pages=263–273|doi=10.1093/heapol/czm017 |journal=[[Health Policy and Planning]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pmid=17545252|doi-access=free}}</ref> موت جا مکيه سبب [[ڪورونري شريانن جي بيماري]]، فالج ۽ دائمي [[ساھ جون بيماريون]] آهن، جيڪي بالغ مردن ۽ عورتن جي مجموعي موتن جو ترتيبوار 62٪ ۽ 60٪ حصو بڻجن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shawon|first1=Md. Toufiq Hassan|last2=Ashrafi|first2=Shah Ali Akbar|last3=Azad|first3=Abul Kalam|last4=Firth|first4=Sonja M.|last5=Chowdhury|first5=Hafizur|last6=Mswia|first6=Robert G.|last7=Adair|first7=Tim|last8=Riley|first8=Ian|last9=Abouzahr|first9=Carla|last10=Lopez|first10=Alan D.|title=Routine mortality surveillance to identify the cause of death pattern for out-of-hospital adult (aged 12+ years) deaths in Bangladesh: introduction of automated verbal autopsy|date=12 March 2021|journal=BMC Public Health|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|volume=21|number=491|page=491|doi=10.1186/s12889-021-10468-7|pmid=33706739|pmc=7952220|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[غذائي کوٽ]] بنگلاديش ۾ هڪ وڏو ۽ مستقل مسئلو آهي، جيڪو خاص طور تي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن کي متاثر ڪري ٿو. آبادي جي اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصي کي غذائي کوٽ جو شڪار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. شديد غذائي کوٽ 450,000 ٻارن کي متاثر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ 20 لک ٻار وچولي درجي جي شديد غذائي کوٽ جو شڪار آهن. پنجن سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن ٻارن مان 52٪ [[رت جي گهٽتائي]]، 41٪ واڌ ويجھ ۾ رڪاوٽ، 16٪ شديد ڪمزوري ۽ 36٪ گهٽ وزن جو شڪار آهن. عورتن مان چوٿون حصو گهٽ وزن وارو آهي ۽ تقريباً 15٪ جو قد معمول کان گهٽ آهي، جڏهن ته اڌ کان وڌيڪ عورتون پڻ رت جي گهٽتائي جو شڪار آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icddrb.org/news-and-events/press-corner/media-resources/malnutrition|title=Malnutrition|publisher=[[International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh]] (ICDDR,B)|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001130754/https://www.icddrb.org/news-and-events/press-corner/media-resources/malnutrition}}</ref> 2024ع جي [[عالمي بک اشاري]] ۾ بنگلاديش 127 ملڪن مان 84هين نمبر تي رهيو.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank|url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html|access-date=2024-12-11|website=Global Hunger Index (GHI)}}</ref> == معيشت == {{Main|بنگلاديش جي معيشت}} {{Further|بنگلاديش جي ڪمپنين جي فهرست}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Dhaka April (33244268934).jpg | caption1 = [[موتي جهيل ٿاڻو|موتي جهيل]]، قومي گاديءَ واري شهر [[ڍاڪا]] جو سڀ کان وڏو [[مرڪزي واپاري ضلعو|واپاري ضلعو]] آهي۔ | image2 = The padma bridge 04.jpg | caption2 = [[پدما پل]]، جيڪا 2022ع ۾ کولِي وئي، هڪ [[سڙڪ ۽ ريلوي پلن جي فهرست|سڙڪ-ريل پل]] آهي جيڪا [[پدما ندي]] تي تعمير ٿيل آهي۔ }} بنگلاديش هڪ [[في فرد مجموعي قومي آمدني موجب ملڪن جي فهرست#هيٺين وچولي آمدني وارو گروهه|هيٺين وچولي آمدني]] واري [[مخلوط معيشت|مخلوط منڊي معيشت]] رکندڙ ملڪ آهي۔<ref>{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Zobaer|url=https://www.dw.com/en/bangladesh-economy-50-years-on/a-57015896|title=Bangladesh at 50: From 'basket case' to rising economic star|access-date=30 September 2022|work=[[ڊي ڊبليو نيوز]]|publisher=[[ڊيوچي ويلي]]|date=16 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/01/22/a-journey-together-bangladesh-and-world-bank-celebrate-historic-partnership|title=A Journey Together: Bangladesh and World Bank Celebrate Historic Partnership|publisher=[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]]|date=22 January 2023|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> نالي ماتر جي ڊي پي موجب بنگلاديش دنيا جي [[ملڪن جي جي ڊي پي (نالي ماتر) موجب فهرست|36هين وڏي معيشت]] ۽ [[خريداري قوت برابري]] (PPP) موجب [[ملڪن جي جي ڊي پي (PPP) موجب فهرست|24هين وڏي معيشت]] رکي ٿو۔ بنگلاديش جي [[مزدور قوت]] 71.4 ملين ماڻهن تي مشتمل آهي،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=BD|title=Labor force, total – Bangladesh|publisher=[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]]|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> جيڪا دنيا ۾ [[مزدور قوت موجب ملڪن جي فهرست|ستين وڏي مزدور قوت]] آهي؛ جڏهن ته 2024 مطابق بيروزگاري جي شرح 3.6٪ هئي۔<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?locations=BD|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]]|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> ملڪ جا [[زرِ مبادلا جا ذخيرا]] گهٽجڻ باوجود،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/business/local/s3knbstt64|title=Respite from fall in forex reserves, dollar market stable|work=[[پروٿوم آلو]]|date=19 October 2024|last=Sakib|first=Shanaullah|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> ڏکڻ ايشيا ۾ هندستان کان پوءِ ٻئي نمبر تي آهن۔ بنگلاديش جي [[بنگلاديشي جلاوطن برادري|جلاوطن برادري]] 2024ع دوران تقريباً 27 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر [[بنگلاديش ڏانهن ترسيل رقم]] جي صورت ۾ موڪليا۔<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/remittance-hit-all-time-high-2024-3789871|title=Remittance hit all-time high in 2024|last=Hasan|first=Md. Mehedi|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|date=2 January 2025|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديشي ٽڪا]] ملڪ جي قومي ڪرنسي آهي۔ 2023 مطابق، خدمتن وارو وڏو شعبو ڪل جي ڊي پي جو لڳ ڀڳ 51.5٪ حصو ڏئي ٿو، ان کان پوءِ صنعتي شعبو 34.6٪ سان ٻئي نمبر تي آهي، جڏهن ته [[بنگلاديش ۾ زراعت|زرعي شعبو]] صرف 11٪ جي ڊي پي پيدا ڪري ٿو۔<ref name="cia"/> تنهن هوندي به روزگار جي لحاظ کان اهو سڀ کان وڏو شعبو آهي ۽ ملڪ جي لڳ ڀڳ اڌ مزدور قوت کي روزگار فراهم ڪري ٿو۔<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/labour-force-survey-2022-agriculture-still-main-job-generator-3283936|title=Labour Force Survey 2022: Agriculture still main job generator|last=Byron|first=Rejaul Karim|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|date=30 March 2023|access-date=11 January 2025}}</ref> ملڪ جي برآمداتي آمدني جو 84٪ کان وڌيڪ حصو [[بنگلاديش جي ڪپڙي جي صنعت]] مان حاصل ٿئي ٿو۔<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/02/how-bangladesh-offers-lessons-for-sustainable-industrialization-in-africa/|last=Akinrebiyo|first=Femi|title=Bangladesh's leap from poverty to textile powerhouse offers lessons for countries in Africa|date=16 February 2024|work=[[ورلڊ اڪنامڪ فورم]]|access-date=11 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش دنيا جو ٻيون نمبر وڏو تيار پوشاڪ برآمد ڪندڙ ملڪ آهي ۽ عالمي [[تيز فيشن]] صنعت ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو، جتي اها مختلف مغربي فيشن برانڊن کي شيون برآمد ڪري ٿي۔<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd6ye3e8x9po|title=Fast fashion drove Bangladesh – now its troubled economy needs more|work=[[بي بي سي نيوز]]|date=7 September 2024|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Imandar|first=Nikhil|publisher=[[بي بي سي]]}}</ref> بنگلاديش [[بنگلاديش جي جوٽ صنعت|جوٽ]]،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/symbol-our-degradation-3624216|title=A symbol of our degradation|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|date=2 June 2024|last=Choudhury|first=Serajul Islam|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش ۾ چانورن جي پيداوار|چانور]]،<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/bw4ldbvrb4|title=Rice production rising high in Bangladesh|last=Mahmud|first=Iftekhar|work=[[پروٿوم آلو]]|date=17 June 2023|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جي مڇين جي فهرست|مڇي]]،<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/good-day-bangladesh/sk7ow1u6en|title=Bangladesh globally second in freshwater fish production|last=Mahmud|first=Iftekhar|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|date=10 June 2024|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش ۾ چانهه جي پيداوار|چانهه]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/long-term-plan-behind-high-tea-production-3399926|title=Long-term plan behind high tea production|last1=Chowdhury|first1=Dwoha|last2=Halder|first2=Sukanta|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|date=22 August 2023|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> ۽ گلن جو اهم پيدا ڪندڙ ملڪ پڻ آهي۔<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/floriculture-lucrative-sector-bangladesh-131728|title=Floriculture: A lucrative sector in Bangladesh|date=12 September 2020|website=Business Standard}}</ref> ٻين وڏين صنعتن ۾ [[بنگلاديش ۾ جهاز سازي|جهاز سازي]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ دواسازي صنعت|دواسازي]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ فولاد صنعت|فولاد]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ برقيات صنعت|برقيات]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش ۾ چمڙي جي صنعت|چمڙي جون شيون]] شامل آهن۔<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ahaduzzaman|last2=Sarkar|first2=Prottasha|last3=Anjum|first3=Aniqa|last4=Khan|first4=Easir A.|title=Overview of Major Industries in Bangladesh|date=7 December 2017|journal=Journal of Chemical Engineering|volume=30|number=1|doi=10.3329/jce.v30i1.34798|pages=51–58|doi-access=free}}</ref> چين بنگلاديش جو سڀ کان وڏو واپاري ڀائيوار آهي، جيڪو ڪل واپار جو 15٪ حصو رکي ٿو، جڏهن ته هندستان 8٪ سان ٻئي نمبر تي آهي۔<ref>{{cite web|last=Haroon|first=Jasim Uddin|date=11 December 2024|work=[[فنانشل ايڪسپريس]]|url=https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/last-page/china-bangladeshs-top-trading-partner-in-fy24-1733855492|title=China Bangladesh's top trading partner in FY24|access-date=11 January 2025}}</ref> خانگي شعبو ملڪ جي جي ڊي پي جو 80٪ حصو پيدا ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ملڪيت وارين ڪمپنين جو ڪردار مسلسل گهٽجي رهيو آهي۔<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/public-sector-needs-keep-pace-private-sector-359749|title=Public sector needs to keep pace with private sector|date=20 January 2022|website=Business Standard}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي معيشت گهڻو ڪري خانداني ملڪيت واريون [[بنگلاديش جي ڪمپنين جي فهرست|واپاري جماعتون]] ۽ ننڍن ۽ وچولي درجي جي ڪاروبارن تي ٻڌل آهي۔ بنگلاديش جون ڪجهه وڏيون عوامي شيئر مارڪيٽ ۾ درج ڪمپنيون [[بيڪسيمڪو]]، [[بي آر اي سي بينڪ]]، [[بي ايس آر ايم]]، [[جي پي ايڇ اسپات]]، [[گرامينفون]]، [[سمٽ گروپ]] ۽ [[اسڪوائر فارماسيوٽيڪل]] آهن۔<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dse.com.bd/dse30_share.php|title=DS30 Index &#124; Dhaka Stock Exchange|website=dse.com.bd}}</ref> [[ڍاڪا اسٽاڪ ايڪسچينج]] ۽ [[چٽگانگ اسٽاڪ ايڪسچينج]] ملڪ جون ٻه اهم [[سرمائي مارڪيٽ]]ون آهن۔<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/tale-two-capital-markets-883756|title=A tale of two capital markets|work=[[Business Standard]]|date=25 June 2024|last=Islam|first=Shadique Mahbub|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش ۾ مواصلات]] جي صنعت دنيا جي تيزي سان وڌندڙ صنعتن مان هڪ آهي، جتي نومبر 2024ع جي آخر تائين موبائيل فون استعمال ڪندڙن جو انگ 188.78 ملين تائين پهچي ويو۔<ref>{{cite web|title=Mobile Phone Subscribers in Bangladesh|url=https://www.amtob.org.bd/home/industrystatics|access-date=9 January 2025|work=[[بنگلاديش موبائيل ٽيليڪام آپريٽرز ايسوسيئيشن|AMTOB]]}}</ref> سياسي عدم استحڪام،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eiu.com/n/infrastructure-enhancements-will-underpin-growth-in-dhaka/|title=Infrastructure enhancements will underpin growth in Dhaka|date=30 September 2020|access-date=12 January 2025|work=[[ايڪانامسٽ انٽيليجنس يونٽ]]}}</ref> وڌندڙ مهانگائي،<ref name="sadiq"/> [[بنگلاديش ۾ بدعنواني|گھڻي بدعنواني]]،<ref>{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Sadiq|date=22 May 2024|title=Why is it taking so long to stabilise the economy?|access-date=12 January 2025|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/why-it-taking-so-long-stabilise-the-economy-3615381}}</ref> بجلي جي اڻپوري فراهمي،<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rahman|first1=Asifur|last2=Karmaker|first2=Konkon|date=11 September 2024|title=Power supply may not improve anytime soon|access-date=12 January 2025|work=[[ڊيلي اسٽار]]|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/how-do-we-overcome-our-corruption-crisis-3731226}}</ref> ۽ سڌارن جي سست رفتار سان عملداري معاشي واڌ ويجهه لاءِ اهم چئلينج آهن۔<ref name="sadiq"/> بنگلاديش کي [[گلوبل انوويشن انڊيڪس]] ۾ 2024ع ۽ 2025ع دوران 106هين درجو حاصل ٿيو۔<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh ranking in the Global Innovation Index 2025|url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/bangladesh|access-date=2025-10-21 |website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref> === توانائي === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ بجلي وارو شعبو}} {{Further|بنگلاديش جي توانائي پاليسي|بنگلاديش پاور ڊولپمينٽ بورڊ|بنگلاديش ۾ قدرتي گئس ۽ پيٽروليم|پيٽرو بنگلا}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant , Ruppur, Pabna.jpg | caption1 = رات جو تعمير هيٺ [[روپور ائٽمي بجلي گهر]] | image2 = Moving Turbines!!.jpg | caption2 = [[ڪتوبديا ٻيٽ]] تي هوا واريون ٽربائينون }} بنگلاديش، جتي 2009ع ۾ روزانو ڪيترائي ڀيرا بجلي بند ٿيڻ جا واقعا ٿيندا هئا، 2022ع تائين 100٪ بجلي پهچ حاصل ڪري چڪو هو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/how-100-electrification-changed-rural-game-384954|title=How 100% electrification changed the rural game|date=14 March 2022|website=Business Standard|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004183507/https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/how-100-electrification-changed-rural-game-384954|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/electricity-now-every-house-2987601 |title=Electricity now in every house |work=The Daily Star |date=22 March 2022 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130005200/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/electricity-now-every-house-2987601 |url-status=live }}</ref> اهو آهستي آهستي [[سبز معيشت]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي ۽ دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو آف-گرڊ شمسي بجلي پروگرام رکي ٿو، جنهن مان 20 ملين ماڻهو فائدو وٺن ٿا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/04/07/bangladesh-solar-home-systems-provide-clean-energy-for-20-million-people|title=Bangladesh Solar Home Systems Provide Clean Energy for 20 million People|publisher=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001203911/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/04/07/bangladesh-solar-home-systems-provide-clean-energy-for-20-million-people|url-status=live}}</ref> ملڪ ۾ پيداوار لاءِ ''پالڪي'' نالي هڪ [[برقي ڪار]] تيار ڪئي پئي وڃي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/tech-startup/news/palki-affordable-locally-assembled-electric-vehicle-its-way-3103341 |title=Palki: An affordable locally assembled Electric Vehicle on its way |work=The Daily Star |date=26 August 2022 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065543/https://www.thedailystar.net/tech-startup/news/palki-affordable-locally-assembled-electric-vehicle-its-way-3103341 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[بايو گئس]] کي نامياتي ڀاڻ ٺاهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو پيو وڃي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mang |first=Heinz-Peter |title=Situation Analysis of Agro-Industrial Biogas Plants in Bangladesh |url=https://reeep.sreda.gov.bd/projects/2017-02-Situation-Analysis-of-Agro-Industrial-Biogas-Plants-In-Bangladesh_HPMang.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618191038/https://reeep.sreda.gov.bd/projects/2017-02-Situation-Analysis-of-Agro-Industrial-Biogas-Plants-In-Bangladesh_HPMang.pdf |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=sreeda.gov.bd}}</ref> روسي ڪمپني [[روس ائٽم]] جي مدد سان تعمير ٿيندڙ [[روپور ائٽمي بجلي گهر]] ملڪ جو پهريون فعال [[ائٽمي بجلي گهر]] هوندو. ان جي ٻن ڪل يونٽن مان پهريون يونٽ 2025ع ۾ ڪم شروع ڪرڻ جي اميد رکي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Mohiuddin|title=Rooppur nuclear power plant: Power generation deferred|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|date=19 May 2024|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/mens8s0lt0 |access-date=8 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش وٽ اڃا به قدرتي گئس جا وڏا اڻ استعمال ٿيل ذخيرا موجود آهن، خاص طور تي پنهنجي سامونڊي علائقي ۾.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2021/12/natural-gas-underexplored-in-bangladesh|title=Natural Gas – Underexplored in Bangladesh?|date=15 December 2021|website=GEO ExPro|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114124/https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2021/12/natural-gas-underexplored-in-bangladesh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangladesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/#:~:text=With%20its%20new%20territory%2C%20Bangladesh%27s,the%20end%20of%20the%20year. |title=Bangladesh: Asia's New Energy Superpower? |access-date=3 October 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229123448/https://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangladesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/#:~:text=With%20its%20new%20territory%2C%20Bangladesh%27s,the%20end%20of%20the%20year. |url-status=live }}</ref> ڳولا جي کوٽ ۽ ثابت ٿيل ذخيرن ۾ گهٽتائي سبب بنگلاديش کي ٻاهرين ملڪن مان [[ايل اين جي]] درآمد ڪرڻي پئي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/energy/imported-lng-be-24-times-more-expensive-local-gas-cpd-370075|title=Imported LNG to be 24 times more expensive than local gas: CPD|date=13 February 2022|website=Business Standard|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114118/https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/energy/imported-lng-be-24-times-more-expensive-local-gas-cpd-370075|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-lng-power-idINL1N2Z10R7|title=Bangladesh halts expensive spot LNG imports despite load-shedding|work=Reuters|date=20 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/let-us-not-become-dependent-lng-import-2925721|title=Let us not become dependent on LNG import|first=Badrul|last=Imam|date=26 December 2021|work=The Daily Star|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114121/https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/let-us-not-become-dependent-lng-import-2925721|url-status=live}}</ref> گئس جي کوٽ [[روسي-يوڪريني جنگ (2022ع–هاڻوڪي)|روسي-يوڪريني جنگ]] سبب وڌيڪ وڌي وئي.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/a9b8d051-a126-469c-b1ad-b0d29a8d53eb|title=Bangladesh is being 'killed by economic conditions elsewhere in the world'|newspaper=Financial Times|location=London|date=24 August 2022|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=26 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126085309/https://www.ft.com/content/a9b8d051-a126-469c-b1ad-b0d29a8d53eb|url-status=live}}</ref> عالمي مارڪيٽ ۾ قيمتن جي تيز واڌ سبب، مسلسل لوڊشيڊنگ جي باوجود، بنگلاديش جولاءِ 2022ع ۾ عارضي طور [[اسپاٽ قيمت]] تي ايل اين جي خريد ڪرڻ بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/markets/commodities/bangladesh-halts-expensive-spot-lng-imports-despite-load-shedding-idUSL1N2Z10R7/|title=Bangladesh halts expensive spot LNG imports despite load-shedding|work=[[Reuters]]|date=20 July 2022|access-date=8 January 2025}}</ref> قيمتون گهٽجڻ کان پوءِ فيبروري 2023ع ۾ هن وري اسپاٽ قيمت تي ايل اين جي خريد ڪرڻ شروع ڪئي.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Paul|first1=Ruma|last2=Chow|first2=Emily|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/bangladesh-restart-spot-lng-buying-prices-ease-sources-2023-02-01/|title=Bangladesh to restart spot LNG buying as prices ease – sources|work=[[Reuters]]|date=1 February 2023|access-date=8 January 2025}}</ref> جڏهن ته [[بنگلاديش جون سرڪاري ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] بنگلاديش جي لڳ ڀڳ اڌ بجلي پيدا ڪن ٿيون، خانگي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون، جهڙوڪ سمٽ گروپ ۽ [[اورين گروپ (بنگلاديش)|اورين گروپ]]، بجلي پيدا ڪرڻ سان گڏ مشينري، ريئڪٽر ۽ سامان فراهم ڪرڻ ۾ وڌندڙ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري رهيون آهن.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/summit-signs-22-year-ppa-upcoming-583-mw-gas-power-plant-ge-co-develop-plant|title=Summit signs 22-year PPA for upcoming 583 MW gas power plant; GE to co-develop plant in Bangladesh|website=GE News|access-date=23 October 2022|archive-date=23 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023153618/https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/summit-signs-22-year-ppa-upcoming-583-mw-gas-power-plant-ge-co-develop-plant|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديش بجلي پيدا ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت 2009ع ۾ 5 گيگاواٽ کان وڌائي 2022ع ۾ 25.5 گيگاواٽ ڪئي. ملڪ ان کي 2041ع تائين وڌيڪ وڌائي 50 [[گيگاواٽ]] ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکي ٿو. آمريڪي ڪمپنيون جهڙوڪ [[شيوران ڪارپوريشن|شيوران]] ۽ [[جنرل اليڪٽرڪ]] بنگلاديش جي ملڪي قدرتي گئس پيداوار جو لڳ ڀڳ 55٪ فراهم ڪن ٿيون ۽ بجلي منصوبن ۾ سڀ کان وڏن سيڙپڪارن مان آهن. بنگلاديش جي لڳل گئس سان هلندڙ بجلي پيداوار جي صلاحيت جو 80٪ آمريڪا ۾ تيار ٿيل ٽربائينن مان اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/bangladesh-power-and-energy | title=Bangladesh – Power and Energy | date=20 July 2022 | access-date=5 October 2022 | archive-date=5 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005062425/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/bangladesh-power-and-energy | url-status=live }}</ref> === سياحت === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ سياحت}} [[File:Save the sundarbans 20.jpg|thumb|[[سندر بن]] دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو [[مينگروو ٻيلو]] آهي.]] [[بنگلاديش ۾ سياحت|سياحت جي صنعت]] تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهي آهي ۽ مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار (جي ڊي پي) ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 3.02٪ حصو ڏئي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Byron|first1=Rejaul Karim|first2=Mahmudul|last2=Hasan|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/industries/tourism/news/tourisms-share-302pc-gdp-2904556|title=Tourism's share 3.02% in GDP|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=28 November 2021|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> 2019ع ۾ بنگلاديش جي بين الاقوامي سياحتي آمدني 391 ملين آمريڪي ڊالر هئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.RCPT.CD?locations=BD|title=International tourism, receipts (current US$) – Bangladesh|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> ملڪ وٽ [[بنگلاديش جا عالمي ورثي جا ماڳ|يونيسڪو جا ٽي عالمي ورثي وارا ماڳ]] آهن: [[باگرهات جي تاريخي مسجدن جو شهر|مسجدن جو شهر]]، [[پهاڙپور ۾ ٻڌ وهار جا آثار|ٻڌ وهار]] ۽ [[سندر بن]]؛ جڏهن ته ست ماڳ [[عالمي ورثي جو ماڳ#نامزدگي جو عمل|عبوري فهرست]] ۾ شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=bd|title=Tentative Lists|access-date=6 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806231331/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=bd|archive-date=6 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> [[عالمي سفر ۽ سياحت ڪائونسل]] (WTTC) جي 2019ع واري رپورٽ موجب، بنگلاديش ۾ سفر ۽ سياحت جي شعبي 2018ع دوران سڌي طرح 11,80,500 نوڪريون پيدا ڪيون، جيڪي ملڪ جي ڪل روزگار جو 1.9٪ هيون.<ref name="2019 report">{{cite web |url=http://reports.weforum.org/pdf/ttci-2019/WEF_TTCI_2019_Profile_BGD.pdf |title=Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index 2019 edition: Bangladesh |website=World Travel and Tourism Council|access-date=18 December 2019}}</ref> ساڳئي رپورٽ موجب، بنگلاديش ۾ هر سال لڳ ڀڳ 125,000 بين الاقوامي سياحن جي آمد ٿئي ٿي.<ref name="2019 report"/> 2012ع ۾ ملڪي خرچن سفر ۽ سياحت سان لاڳاپيل سڌي مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار (جي ڊي پي) جو 97.7٪ پيدا ڪيو هو.<ref name="2013 report">{{cite web |url=http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/bangladesh2013.pdf |title=Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2013: Bangladesh |website=World Travel and Tourism Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007183403/http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/bangladesh2013.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2013}}</ref> == ثقافت == {{Main|بنگلاديش جي ثقافت}} {{Further|بنگال جي ثقافت|بنگلاديش جا عجائب گهر|بنگلاديش جي ڪتب خانن جي فهرست}} === موڪلون ۽ ميلا === {{Main|بنگلاديش جون سرڪاري موڪلون|بنگلاديش جي ميلن جي فهرست}} روايتي ميلن ۾ [[پهيلو بوئشاکھ]] (بنگالي نئون سال) شامل آهي، جيڪو بنگالي ثقافت جو سڀ کان وڏو ميلو آهي ۽ وڏي پيماني تي جشن ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/shout/news/the-universal-appeal-pahela-baishakh-2077693|title=The Universal Appeal of Pahela Baishakh|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=14 April 2021|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Islam|first=Hiya}}</ref> [[پوهيلا فالگون]] [[بنگلاديش ۾ ويلنٽائن ڏهاڙو]] سان گڏ ايندو آهي ۽ موسيقي، ناچ ۽ ٻين ثقافتي سرگرمين سان ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/dhaka/373684/du-celebrates-pohela-falgun-with-spring-festival|title=DU celebrates Pohela Falgun with spring festival|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|date=14 February 2025|access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref> ٻين ميلن ۾ [[نوبنّو]] ۽ [[پوش پربن]] شامل آهن، جيڪي نئين فصل جي لاباري جي خوشيءَ ۾ ملهايا ويندا آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/nobanno-the-old-bangla-new-year-49964|title=Nobanno: The Old Bangla New Year|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=13 November 2014|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Chowdhury|first=Asrar}}</ref> [[شڪرائين]] هڪ ساليانو جشن آهي، جنهن دوران [[پتنگ]] اڏايا ويندا آهن. اهو [[بنگالي ڪئلينڊر]] جي نائين مهيني [[پوش]] جي پڄاڻيءَ تي ملهايو ويندو آهي. هي ميلو ڀارت ۽ نيپال ۾ ملهايل [[مڪر سنڪرنتي]] سان به هم وقت هوندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-170574|title=Shakrain festival|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=19 January 2011|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> [[File:Jatiyo Sritisoudho.jpg|thumb|[[قومي شهيد يادگار]] تي فتح ڏهاڙي جون تقريبون]] مذهبي ميلن مان مسلمانن جا ٻه سڀ کان وڏا عيدون [[عيدالفطر]] ۽ [[عيدالاضحيٰ]] آهن. عيدالفطر [[رمضان]] جي مهيني جي پڄاڻيءَ تي ملهايي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته عيدالاضحيٰ قربانيءَ جو ميلو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/31/what-is-eid-al-adha-and-how-is-it-celebrated|title=What is Eid al-Adha and how is it celebrated?|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=31 July 2020|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> ٻنهي عيدن جي موقعي تي ملڪ ۾ سڀ کان ڊگهيون [[بنگلاديش جون سرڪاري موڪلون|سرڪاري موڪلون]] ڏنيون وينديون آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/governance/news/five-day-eid-vacation-two-day-holiday-durga-puja-3729086|title=Five-day Eid vacation, two-day holiday for Durga puja|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=17 October 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> ٻين اسلامي ميلن ۾ [[مولد النبي]] (عيد ميلاد النبي)،<ref>{{cite news|last=Zamir|first=Muhammad|title=Various dimensions of Mawlid or Milad-un-nabi|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/various-dimensions-of-mawlid-or-milad-un-nabi|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Financial Express (Bangladesh)|The Financial Express]]|date=15 September 2024}}</ref> [[عاشورا]]،<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/ashura-being-observed-bangladesh-673434|title=Ashura being observed in Bangladesh|work=[[Business Standard]]|date=29 July 2023|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> [[چنڊ رات]]،<ref>{{cite news|title=A reminiscent tour of Chaand Raat through the decades|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/lifestyle/culture/a-reminiscent-tour-of-chaand-raat-through-the-decades|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Financial Express (Bangladesh)|The Financial Express]]|date=10 April 2024}}</ref> [[شب برات]]، [[شب معراج]]، [[شب قدر]] ۽ [[عالمي اجتماع]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite news|title=Shab-e-Barat to be observed on March 29|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/03/14/shab-e-barat-to-be-observed-on-march-29|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|date=14 March 2021}}</ref> هندن جو سڀ کان وڏو ميلو [[درگا پوجا]] آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Zand|first=Sahar|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20241008-bangladeshs-devoted-idol-creators|title=The 'god makers': Bangladesh's devoted idol creators|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=9 October 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> ٻين اهم هندو ميلن ۾ [[ڪرشن جنماشتمي]]، [[ڪالي پوجا]]، [[سرسوتي پوجا]] ۽ [[رتھ ياترا]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/dxpkrv51ga|title=Janmashtami today|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|date=26 August 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ratha Yatra festival begins across Bangladesh|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/351359/ratha-yatra-festival-begins-across-bangladesh|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|date=7 July 2024}}</ref> بدھ مت جي پوئلڳن جو سڀ کان وڏو ميلو [[بدھ پورنيما]] آهي، جيڪو [[گوتم بدھ]] جي جنم ڏينهن جي ياد ۾ ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/buddha-purnima-today-3615671|title=Buddha Purnima today|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=22 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> عيسائين ۾ [[ڪرسمس]]، جيڪو [[بڙو ڏينهن]] جي نالي سان مشهور آهي، ۽ [[ايسٽر]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ ملهايا ويندڙ مذهبي جشن آهن.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Islam|first1=Tousef|last2=Gomez|first2=Rexy Jason|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/christmas-bangladesh-transposing-jingle-bells-memories-764026|title=Buddha Purnima today|work=[[Business Standard]]|date=25 December 2023|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> قومپرستانه قومي ڏينهن ۾ [[ٻولي تحريڪ جو ڏهاڙو]] شامل آهي، جيڪو هر سال 21 فيبروري تي 1952ع جي [[بنگالي ٻولي تحريڪ]] جي شهيدن جي ياد ۾ ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rahman|first=Mohammad Afzalur|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/amar-ekushe-2024/news/how-ekushey-was-commemorated-during-the-pakistan-period-3549101|title=How Ekushey was commemorated during the Pakistan period|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=21 February 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref> 1999ع ۾ [[يونيسڪو]] هن ڏينهن کي [[مادري ٻوليءَ جو عالمي ڏينهن]] قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unesco.org/en/days/mother-language|title=International Mother Language Day|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> [[بنگلاديش جو آزادي ڏهاڙو|آزادي ڏهاڙو]] 26 مارچ تي پاڪستان کان آزاديءَ جي اعلان جي ياد ۾ ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="star2"/> [[بنگلاديش جو فتح ڏهاڙو|فتح ڏهاڙو]] 16 ڊسمبر تي [[بنگلاديش جي آزاديءَ جي جنگ]] ۾ فتح جي ياد ۾ ملهايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="star2">{{cite web|date=26 March 2024|last=Rafa|first=Amrin Tasnim|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/rising-stars/news/the-significance-bangladeshs-independence-day-and-victory-day-3575421|title=The significance of Bangladesh's Independence Day and Victory Day|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> انهن ٽنهي قومي ڏينهن تي [[شهيد مينار، ڍاڪا]] ۽ [[قومي شهيد يادگار]] تي عوامي تقريبون منعقد ڪيون وينديون آهن، جتي شهيدن کي ڀيٽا پيش ڪئي ويندي آهي.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nation set to pay homage to language martyrs tomorrow|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/nation-set-pay-homage-language-martyrs-tomorrow-795818|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Financial Express (Bangladesh)|The Financial Express]]|date=20 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=National Martyrs' Memorial ready for Independence Day observance|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/307542/national-martyrs-memorial-ready-for-independence|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|date=25 March 2023|last=Sabbir|first=Ariful Islam}}</ref> === ادب === {{Main|بنگالي ادب}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Nazrul.jpg | caption1 = [[قاضي نذرالاسلام]]، بنگلاديش جو قومي شاعر.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/zoogq5cu7n|title=Kazi Nazrul Islam officially recognised as national poet|date=3 January 2025|access-date=18 January 2025|work=[[Prothom Alo]]}}</ref> | image2 = Humayun ahmed gossip.jpg | caption2 = [[همايون احمد]]، مشهور ناول نگار ۽ فلمساز }} بنگالي ادب بنگالي ثقافت جو هڪ اهم حصو آهي. ڏهين کان ٻارهين صدي عيسويءَ جي وچ واري دور جون [[چرياپد]] نظمون بنگالي ٻوليءَ جا قديم ترين محفوظ مثال آهن.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Guhathakurta|editor1-first= Meghna|editor2-last=Schendel|editor2-first=Willem van|title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8223-5318-8}}</ref>{{rp|40}} [[بنگال سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ وچئين دور جي بنگالي ليکڪن تي عربي ۽ [[فارسي ادب]] جو گهرو اثر پيو.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bari|first=Sarah Anjum|title=A Tale of Two Languages: How the Persian language seeped into Bengali|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=12 April 2019|access-date=18 January 2025|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/longform/news/tale-two-languages-how-the-persian-language-seeped-bengali-1728421}}</ref> وچئين دور جي اهم ادبي ڪاميابين ۾ [[منگل ڪاويا]] شامل آهن.<ref name="run"/> [[بنگال جي نئين سجاڳي]] (18هين صديءَ جي آخر کان 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين) جديد بنگالي ادب تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو. [[مائيڪل مدھوسودن دت]] بنگالي شاعريءَ ۾ آزاد بحر متعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|last=Radice|first=William|title=The Significance of Madhusudan Dutt and his Epic|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|publisher=[[India International Centre]]|jstor=23005843|pages=73–88|volume=30|number=1}}</ref> [[مير مشرف حسين]] پهريون وڏو بنگالي مسلمان اديب هو.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bangla Sahitye Musalman|last=Syed|first=Abdul Mannan|publisher=[[Islamic Foundation Bangladesh|Islamic Foundation]]|year=2009|isbn=978-984-06-0478-4|location=Dhaka|page=20}}</ref> [[رابندرناٿ ٽيگور]] ادب جو [[ادب جو نوبل انعام|نوبل انعام]] حاصل ڪندڙ پهريون ايشيائي ۽ غير يورپي شخص هو.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2000|last=Jewell|first=Richard|title=The Nobel Prize: History and Canonicity|journal=The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association|publisher=Midwest Modern Language Association|doi=10.2307/1315120|jstor=1315120|pages=97–113|volume=33|number=1}}</ref> [[قاضي نذرالاسلام]] انقلابي شاعر هو، جنهن نوآباديات ۽ فاشزم خلاف سياسي مزاحمت جي حمايت ڪئي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rahaman|first=Habibur|title=Kazi Nazrul Islam and Decolonisation: Poetry as a Praxis of Political Intervention and Cultural Ecology|journal=Asiatic|publisher=[[Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University]]|pages=120–136|volume=16|number=1|date=June 2022}}</ref> [[جيبنانندا داس]] کي ٽيگور ۽ نذرال کان پوءِ سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور بنگالي شاعر سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.prothomalo.com/entertainment/article/703870|title=Barishale Jibanananda Mela|date=6 December 2015|work=Prothom Alo|access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> [[بيگم روڪيا]] کي بنگلاديش جي نسواني ادب جي باني ليکڪا طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1998|last=Alam|first=S. M. Shamsul|title=Women in the Era of Modernity and Islamic Fundamentalism: The Case of Taslima Nasrin of Bangladesh|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]]|jstor=3175098}}</ref> آزاديءَ کان پوءِ [[همايون احمد]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مقبول ليکڪ بڻيو.<ref name="pied"/> هر سال [[اڪوشي ڪتاب ميلو]] ۽ [[ڍاڪا ادبي ميلو]]، جيڪي [[بنگلا اڪيڊمي]] جي نگراني هيٺ منعقد ٿيندا آهن، ڏکڻ ايشيا جي سڀ کان وڏن ادبي ميلن مان شمار ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/lit-fest-ekushey-boi-mela-and-our-books-1673450330|title=Lit Fest, Ekushey Boi Mela ... and our books|last=Ahsan|first=Syed Badrul|date=22 January 2023|access-date=17 January 2025|work=[[The Financial Express (Bangladesh)|The Financial Express]]}}</ref> === اڏاوت === {{Main|بنگلاديش جي اڏاوت}} {{Further|بنگال جي اڏاوت|بنگلاديش جي آثار قديمه وارن ماڳن جي فهرست}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Paharpur Buddhist Bihar.jpg | caption1 = [[سومپورا مهاويهار]]، [[نوگائون]] ۾، [[بنگلاديش جا عالمي ورثي وارا ماڳ|يونيسڪو عالمي ورثي وارو ماڳ]] | image2 = Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg | caption2 = [[سٺ گنبذن واري مسجد]]، [[باگرهات]] ۾، [[بنگلاديش جا عالمي ورثي وارا ماڳ|يونيسڪو عالمي ورثي وارو ماڳ]] | image3 = Ahsan Manzil-Front View.jpg | caption3 = [[احسن منزل]]، [[پراڻو ڍاڪا]] ۾ }} بنگلاديش جي اڏاوت [[بنگال جي اڏاوت|بنگال خطي]] ۽ وسيع [[ڀارت جي اڏاوت|هندستاني ننڍي کنڊ]] جي اڏاوت سان ڳنڍيل آهي. ان تي ملڪ جي [[بنگلاديش جي ثقافت|ثقافت]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ مذهب|مذهب]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي تاريخ|تاريخ]] جو اثر آهي.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/277578/Visual-art-and-architecture|title=Visual art and architecture in Bangladesh|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 September 2009}}</ref> هندو ۽ بدھ اڏاوتي باقيات [[مهاستان ڳڙھ]] مان مليا آهن، جيڪو ٽين صدي ق.م. سان لاڳاپيل آهي.<ref name="re">{{cite book|author=Susan L. Huntington|title=The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ|year=1984|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=90-04-06856-2}}</ref>{{rp|157}} [[نندي پد]] ۽ [[سواستڪ]] جا نشان [[واري-بتشور کنڊرات]] ۾ پٿر جي جنڊن تي مليا آهن، جيڪي [[لوهي دور]]، 400 کان 100 ق.م. تائين، هن علائقي ۾ [[هندومت]] جي موجودگي ڏيکارين ٿا.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Imam|first1=Abu|last2=Bulbul|first2=Ahmed|last3=Masood|first3=Imran|title=Religious and Auspicious Symbols Depicted on Artifacts of Wari-Bateshwar|journal=Pratnatattva|number=12|year=2006|pages=1–12|publisher=[[Jahangirnagar University]]}}</ref> اٺين صديءَ ۾ بدھ [[پال سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ ٺهيل [[سومپورا مهاويهار]] اسلام کان اڳ واري دور جو هڪ شاندار مثال آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/travel/news/think-youve-seen-it-all-wait-till-you-visit-8th-century-gem-bangladesh-3729731|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|title=Think you've seen it all? Wait till you visit this 8th-century gem in Bangladesh|date=17 October 2024|access-date=13 January 2025|last=Zarif|first=Mannan Mashhur}}</ref> ٻين بدھ [[ويهارا]]ن ۾ [[مينامتي]] جو [[شلبن بهار]] ۽ [[بڪرمپور]] جو [[بڪرمپور ويهار]] شامل آهن.<ref name="re"/>{{rp|164–167}} تازين کوٽائين اسلام کان اڳ جي ننڍن مندرن جا به نوان ثبوت ظاهر ڪيا آهن، جيڪي هن علائقي جي هندو، بدھ ۽ [[جين مت|جين]] آباديءَ جي خدمت ڪندا هئا.<ref name="sat"/> [[هند-اسلامي اڏاوت]] 13هين صديءَ کان ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، خاص ڪري [[بنگال سلطنت]] جي منفرد مسجد اڏاوت ۾؛ ان جو هڪ مثال [[باگرهات جي مسجدن جو شهر]] ۾ [[سٺ گنبذن واري مسجد]] آهي، جيڪو [[بنگلاديش جا عالمي ورثي وارا ماڳ|يونيسڪو عالمي ورثي وارو ماڳ]] آهي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hasan|first=Perween|title=Sultanate Mosques and Continuity in Bengal Architecture|journal=[[Muqarnas (journal)|Muqarnas]]|volume=6|pages=58–74|year=1989|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|jstor=1602281|doi=10.2307/1602281}}</ref><ref name="sat">{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/focus/news/sultanate-mughal-the-architectural-legacy-bengal-3738301|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|title=From Sultanate to Mughal: The Architectural Legacy of Bengal|date=28 October 2024|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> [[مغل بنگال]] ۾ علائقي اندر [[مغل اڏاوت]] پکڙجي وئي. ڍاڪا جا مثال [[پراڻو ڍاڪا]] ۾ [[برا ڪٽرا]] ۽ [[ڇوٽو ڪٽرا]]، [[محمدپور ٿاڻو|محمدپور]] ۾ [[ست گنبذ مسجد]] ۽ [[ڪرزن هال]] ۾ [[موسيٰ خان مسجد]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6672/|title=Mughal Mosques in Bangladesh|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/historic-sites-left-ruins-3006146|last=Sarkar|first=Tarun|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|title=Boro Katra, Chhoto Katra: Dhaka's key historic sites in ruins|date=17 April 2022|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> مغل دور جي اهم قلعن ۾ [[پراڻو ڍاڪا]] جو [[لال باغ قلعو]]، [[منشي گنج]] جو [[ادراڪپور قلعو]]، ۽ ترتيبوار [[نارايڻ گنج]] جا [[حاجي گنج قلعو]] ۽ [[سوناکاندا قلعو]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6675/|title=Mughal Forts on Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=20 January 2025}}</ref> [[ڪانتاجيو مندر]] ۽ [[ڍاڪي شواري مندر]] وچئين دور جي پوئين حصي جي [[هندو مندر اڏاوت]] جا بهترين مثال آهن.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Husain|editor-first=ABM|title=Architecture: A History Through the Ages|series=Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series|volume=2|publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]|page=243|oclc=298612818}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bakshi|first=Akhil|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Travels Through Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and India: an Account of the Expedition Hands Across the Borders|year=2004|page=221|isbn=81-900862-1-9|publisher=Odyssey Books}}</ref> بنگالي [[مقامي اڏاوت]] [[بنگلو]] جي ابتدا لاءِ مشهور آهي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Groth|first=Paul|title=Making New Connections in Vernacular Architecture|journal=[[Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians]]|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|publication-date=September 1999 |volume=58 |pages=444–451|doi=10.2307/991538|jstor=991538|number=3}}</ref> [[سونارگائون]] ۾ [[پانام نگر]] سلطنت، مغل، برطانوي ۽ گڏيل نوآبادياتي روايتن جا اڏاوتي اثر ڏيکاري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Haque|first=AKM Muzzammil|title=Historic Sonargaon|date=February 2016|publisher=[[Bangladesh Folk Arts and Crafts Foundation]]|isbn=978-984-34-0277-6|location=Narayanganj|language=bn|script-title=bn:এতিহাসিক সোনারগাঁ}}</ref>{{rp|22}} [[هند-ساراسيني اڏاوت]] [[برطانوي راڄ]] دوران ترقي ڪئي،<ref>{{cite journal|last=Groth|first=Paul|title=Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860–1910|journal=[[Representations]]|number=6|pages=37–65|year=1984|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|jstor=2928537|doi=10.2307/2928537}}</ref> جنهن جا مثال [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي]] جو [[ڪرزن هال]]، [[چٽاگانگ ڪورٽ بلڊنگ]]، [[رنگپور ٽائون هال]] ۽ [[راجشاهي ڪاليج]] آهن. [[زميندار]] اشرافيه هن پوئين طرز ۾ ڪيترائي محل تعمير ڪيا، جن ۾ [[احسن منزل]]، [[بلياتي زمينداري|بلياتي زميندار باري]]، [[تاجهات محل]]، [[روز گارڊن محل]]، [[اترا گنڀابن|ديگاپاتيا محل]]، [[پوٺيا راجباري]]، [[نٽور راجباري]] ۽ [[موهيرا زميندار باري]] شامل آهن. [[مزهرالاسلام]] کي بنگلاديش ۽ ڏکڻ ايشيا ۾ [[جديد اڏاوت|جديديت پسند تحريڪ]] جو اڳواڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6674/|title=The Architectural Works of Muzharul Islam: an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement in South Asia|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref> [[لوئس ڪان]] هڪ اهم پرڏيهي اڏاوتڪار هو، جنهن [[شير بنگلا نگر]] ۾ [[جاتيا سنگسد ڀبن|قومي پارليامينٽ عمارت]] جو نقشو ٺاهيو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lutolli |first1=Blerim |last2=Jashanica |first2=Kaltrina |title=Kahn's light: The measurable and the unmeasurable of the Bangladesh National Assembly Building |journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research |date=2022 |volume=11 |pages=89–102 |doi=10.1016/j.foar.2021.09.005 }}</ref> === بصري فنون، دستڪاريون ۽ لباس === {{Main|بنگلاديشي فن|بنگلاديش جو مجسمه سازي فن|بنگلاديش جي ڪپڙي جي صنعت}} {{Further|بنگال ۾ ململ جي واپار}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Kantha (Quilt) LACMA AC1994.131.1.jpg | caption1 = [[نقشي ڪنٿا]] (ڀرت ڀريل [[رلي]]) تي ڪڙهائي، بنگال جي صدين پراڻي فني روايت | image2 = Aparajeyo Bangla - 1979 CE - Sculpture by Syed Abdullah Khalid - University of Dhaka Campus - Dhaka 2015-05-31 2367.JPG | caption2 = ''[[اپراجيو بنگلا]]''، [[بنگلاديش آزاديءَ جي جنگ]] جي ياد ۾ ٺهيل هڪ مجسمو، جيڪو [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي]] جي احاطي ۾ واقع آهي }} بنگلاديش ۾ فن جي لکيل تاريخ جو سراغ ٽين صدي ق.م. تائين ملي ٿو، جڏهن هن علائقي ۾ [[ٽيراڪوٽا]] جا مجسما ٺاهيا ويندا هئا. قديم دور ۾ [[پال سلطنت]] ۽ [[سينا خاندان]] جي دور ۾ نمايان [[هندو فن]]، [[جين فن]] ۽ [[بدھ فن]] ترقي ڪئي. [[بنگال سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ چوڏهين صديءَ کان [[اسلامي فن]] پڻ ارتقا ڪئي. مغلن جي حڪمراني دوران ڍاڪا ۾ نفيس [[ململ]] تي فارسي [[نمونو (ڪپڙي جو فن)|نمونن]] سان سينگاريل منفرد [[جامداني]] ڪپڙو اُڻيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0810-880-245 |editor1-last=Chakrabarti |editor1-first=Kunal |publication-date=22 August 2013 |editor2-last=Chakrabarti |editor2-first=Shubhra}}</ref>{{rp|239}} يونيسڪو 2013ع ۾ ان کي [[غير مادي ثقافتي ورثو]] قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-art-of-jamdani-weaving-00879|title=Traditional art of Jamdani weaving|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش [[راجشاهي ريشم]] پڻ پيدا ڪري ٿو، جيڪو پنهنجي نرمي ۽ نفيس نقش ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت سبب مشهور آهي.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |editor1-last=Najmabadi |editor1-first=Afsaneh |publication-date=19 December 2003 |volume=4 |isbn=978-90-04-11380-0 |editor2-last=Joseph |editor2-first=Suad}}</ref>{{rp|158}} [[هاٿي ڏند]]، [[بنگلاديش ۾ پتل جي صنعت|پتل]] ۽ [[بنگلاديش جي مٽيءَ جا ٿانوَ|مٽيءَ جا ٿانوَ]] بنگلاديشي ثقافت ۾ گهريون پاڙون رکن ٿا.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Glassie|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Glassie|editor1-last=Mills|editor1-first=Margaret A.|editor2-last=Claus|editor2-first=Peter J.|editor3-last=Diamond|editor3-first=Sarah|year=2003|encyclopedia=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|title=Pottery, Bangladesh|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0-415-93919-4}}</ref>{{rp|483–485}} [[نقشي ڪنٿا]]، جيڪا بنگال ۾ رلين تي ڀرت ڀرڻ جي صدين پراڻي روايت آهي، سڄي بنگلاديش ۾ تيار ڪئي ويندي آهي.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sirajuddin|first=Muhammad|date=1992|title=Living Crafts in Bangladesh|location=Dhaka|publisher=Markup International|oclc=29737195}}</ref>{{rp|44}} بنگلاديش ۾ [[جديد فن]] جي تحريڪ آزاديءَ کان اڳ واري [[اوڀر بنگال]] ۾، خاص طور تي [[زين العابدين]] جي اڳواڻانه ڪمن سان، وجود ۾ آئي.<ref name="star">{{cite web|last=Hossain|first=Takir|year=2011|access-date=15 January 2015|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2011/anniversary/part9/pg18.htm|title=Art movements between 1948 and 2000}}</ref> ٻين اهم مصورن ۾ [[ايس ايم سلطان]]، [[محمد قبريا]]، [[صفي الدين احمد]]، [[شهاب الدين احمد (فنڪار)|شهاب الدين احمد]]، [[ڪنڪ چنپا چڪما]]،<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jahangir |first1=Apurba |author-link=Apurba Jahangir |last2=Hossain |first2=Anika |date=6 March 2015 |title=A FREE SPIRIT |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/the-star/spotlight/free-spirit-5077 |access-date=15 January 2025 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> [[قيوم چوڌري]]، [[رشيد چوڌري]]، [[قامرال حسن]]، [[رفيق النبي]] ۽ [[سيد جهانگير]] شامل آهن.<ref name="star"/> [[نوويرا احمد]] کي بنگلاديش ۾ جديد مجسمه سازي جي باني سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sarker|first=Sujit|date=7 May 2015|access-date=15 January 2015|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/novera-pioneer-progressiveness-bangladesh-80953|title=Novera, pioneer of progressiveness in Bangladesh}}</ref> ٻين مشهور مجسمه سازن ۾ [[نتون ڪنڊو]]، [[سيد عبدالله خالد]]، [[حميد الزمان خان]]، [[شميم سڪدر]]، [[فردوسي پريابهاشني]] ۽ [[عبدالرزاق (فنڪار)|عبدالرزاق]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|last=Alom|first=Zahangir|date=1 June 2018|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|url=https://online84.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/exhibition/opulent-display-sculptures-1584643|title=An opulent display of sculptures}}</ref> [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي]] جي [[ڍاڪا يونيورسٽي جو شعبو فنون لطيفه|فنون لطيفه شعبي]] پاران [[پهيلو بوئيشاکھ]] تي منعقد ٿيندڙ سالياني [[منگل شوبھا ياترا]] (بنگالي نئين سال جي جلوس) کي يونيسڪو 2016ع ۾ غير مادي ثقافتي ورثي جي فهرست ۾ شامل ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/mangal-shobhajatra-on-pahela-baishakh-01091|title=Mangal Shobhajatra on Pahela Baishakh|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> فن جي هڪ صورت طور ڦوٽوگرافي 21هين صديءَ ۾ تيزيءَ سان ترقي ڪئي آهي. هر ٻن سالن کانپوءِ ٿيندڙ [[ڇوبي ميلا بين الاقوامي ڦوٽوگرافي ميلو]] کي ايشيا جو سڀ کان وڏو ڦوٽوگرافي ميلو سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Asad|first=Kazi Akib Bin|date=5 February 2015|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|url=https://online84.thedailystar.net/shout/chobi-mela-viii-1219|title=CHOBI MELA VIII|quote=Festival or not, it is the single largest photography event in Asia and has been since its inception in 2000.}}</ref> [[لونگي]] مردن لاءِ سڀ کان عام غير رسمي لباس آهي،<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mahbub|first=Rifat|title=Re-imagining the Ambivalent: The Political Trajectory of Lungi from Pre-Colonial East Bangla to Post-Independent Bangladesh|journal=Spectrum|publisher=[[University of Dhaka]]|volume=17|number=1|year=2023|pages=47–65|doi=10.3329/spectrum.v17i1.68998|doi-access=free}}</ref> جڏهن ته [[ڪرتو]] (''پنجابي'') ۽ [[پاجامو]] عيدن ۽ ٻين تہوارن تي مرد پائيندا آهن.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 June 2016|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/the-panjabi-story-1238983|title=The panjabi story}}</ref> ملڪ اندر تيار ڪيل [[سوٽ (لباس)|سوٽ]]، [[ٽائي]] ۽ [[پتلون]] رسمي تقريبن ۾ مردن جو عام لباس آهن، جڏهن ته شادين ۾ روايتي [[شرواني]] ۽ [[چوڙيدار]] [[پڳ]] سان گڏ پاتا ويندا آهن.<ref name="arts"/> عورتون عام طور تي [[شلوار قميص]] سان گڏ [[اورڻو]] پائينديون آهن، جڏهن ته وڌيڪ رسمي تقريبن ۾ [[ساڙي]] استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي.<ref name="arts">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh|title=Bangladesh|last1=Husain|first1=Syed Sajjad|last2=Tinker|first2=Hugh Russell|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref> ڪجهه عورتون [[اسلامي لباس]] به اختيار ڪن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kamaruzzaman|first=Md.|date=31 January 2022|access-date=15 January 2025|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/hijab-popularity-budding-among-educated-women-in-bangladesh/2489648|title=Hijab popularity budding among educated women in Bangladesh}}</ref> === اداڪاري وارا فن === {{Main|بنگلاديش جي موسيقي|بنگلاديش ۾ ناچ}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Bangladesh Udichi Shilpigoshthi - Chittagong University Sangsad celebrating Pohela Falgun 1423 at CU Muktomoncho (02).jpg | caption1 = [[پهيلو فالگن]] جي موقعي تي [[چٽاگانگ يونيورسٽي]] ۾ ناچ | image2 = Ektara player.jpg | caption2 = [[ڪشٽيا]] ۾ [[لالن]] جي مزار تي [[باول]] فنڪار [[ايڪتارا]] وڄائيندي }} بنگلاديش جي [[بنگلاديش ۾ ٿيٽر|ٿيٽر]] روايت ۾ مختلف صورتون شامل آهن، جن جي تاريخ چوٿين صدي عيسويءَ تائين پهچي ٿي.<ref name="Ahmed">{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Syed Jamil |date=2000 |title=Achinpakhi Infinity: Indigenous Theatre of Bangladesh |publisher=University Press |page=396 |isbn=978-984-05-1462-5}}</ref> ان ۾ ڪهاڻي ٻڌائڻ جون صورتون، گيت ۽ ناچ تي ٻڌل پيشڪشون، علامتي ڪردار، طومارن تي تصويرن سان لاڳاپيل نمائشون، ڪٺ پتلي ناٽڪ ۽ جلوسي روايتون شامل آهن.<ref name="Ahmed"/> [[ياترا (ٿيٽر)|ياترا]] بنگالي لوڪ ناٽڪ جي سڀ کان مشهور صورت آهي.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Pabitra|title=Jatra: The Popular Traditional Theatre of Bengal|journal=Journal of South Asian Literature|volume=10|number=2/4|pages=87–107|year=1975|publisher=[[Michigan State University]]|jstor=40871932}}</ref> [[هندستاني روايتي ناچ]] جي مختلف صنفن، جهڙوڪ ''[[ڪٿڪلي]]''، ''[[ڀرت ناٽيم]]''، [[اوڊيسي]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahriar|first=Amir Hasan|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/event/proma-abonti-life-dedicated-odissi-dance-1487770|title=Proma Abonti – A life dedicated to Odissi dance|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=8 November 2017|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref> ۽ [[منيپوري ناچ]] کان علاوه، ملڪ ۾ مقامي ناچ جون روايتون پڻ وجود ۾ آيون آهن.<ref name="arts"/> [[بنگلاديش جي موسيقي]] کي روايتي، نيم روايتي، [[عبادتي موسيقي|عبادتي]] ۽ [[مقبول موسيقي]] ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو. بنگلاديش ۾ روايتي موسيقي هندستاني ننڍي کنڊ جي عبادتي موسيقي جي عام صنفن سان ظاهر ٿئي ٿي؛ جهڙوڪ [[هندستاني روايتي موسيقي]] جون صنفون [[دھرپد]] ۽ [[خيال]]. ٻين اهم صنفن ۾ [[قوالي]] ۽ [[ڪيرتن]] شامل آهن.<ref name="arts"/> [[ربندر سنگيت]] ۽ [[نذرل سنگيت]] اڄ به تمام گهڻا مقبول آهن.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Pabitra|title=Musical Literature of Bengal|journal=[[Indian Literature (journal)|Indian Literature]]|volume=16|number=14–27|pages=14–27|year=1973|publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]]|jstor=24157426}}</ref> مقامي [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۾ [[باول]] صوفي روايت نمايان آهي، جنهن کي 18هين صديءَ ۾ [[لالن]] مقبول بڻايو، ۽ يونيسڪو ان کي [[انساني زباني ۽ غير مادي ثقافتي ورثي جو شاهڪار]] قرار ڏنو آهي.<ref name="wei">{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/baul-songs-00107|title=Baul songs|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="alom"/> لوڪ موسيقي جي ٻين مقامي صنفن ۾ [[ڀاٽيالي]]، [[ڀاوائيا]]، [[ڌمال]]، [[ڪوي گان]]، [[جاري گان]]، [[ساري گان]]، [[معرفتي]] ۽ [[گمڀيرا]] شامل آهن.<ref name="arts"/><ref name="alom"/> لوڪ موسيقي سان گڏ مختلف ساز استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ايڪتارا]]، [[دوتارا]]، [[ڍول]]، [[بانسري]]، منجيرا، [[خانجني]]، [[سرندا]]، [[خماڪ]]، [[ڊگڊگي]]، [[جوري]]، جهنجهڻي ۽ [[تال (ساز)|ماجيرا]] (جهانج جو هڪ قسم) شامل آهن.<ref name="alom">{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/naboborsho-1423/the-timeless-appeal-folk-music-1208197|title=The timeless appeal of folk music|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=14 April 2016|access-date=15 January 2025|last=Alom|first=Zahangir}}</ref> بنگلاديش وٽ [[هندستاني روايتي موسيقي]] جي پڻ مالا مال روايت آهي، جنهن ۾ [[ستار]]، طبلو، [[سرود]] ۽ [[سنتور]] جهڙا ساز استعمال ٿين ٿا.<ref>London, Ellen (2004). Bangladesh. Gareth Stevens Pub. p. 29. {{ISBN|0-8368-3107-1}}.</ref> موسيقي سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۽ درسگاهن جهڙوڪ [[بنگلاديش شلپاڪلا اڪيڊمي]] ۽ [[ڇايانٽ]] بنگالي لوڪ موسيقي جي روايتن کي محفوظ رکڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو آهي.<ref name="alom"/> [[صابينا ياسمين]] ۽ [[رونا ليلا]] کي ملڪ جي عظيم ترين خاتون پلے بيڪ گلوڪارن مان شمار ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/runa-lailas-voice-gift-god-sabina-yasmin-3171921|title=Runa Laila's voice is a gift from God: Sabina Yasmin|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=17 November 2022|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shazu|first=Shah Alam}}</ref> [[اينڊريو ڪشور]]، جيڪو هڪ ٻيو مشهور پلے بيڪ گلوڪار هو، کيس "پلے بيڪ جو بادشاهه" سڏيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reeti|first=Sadia Khalid|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/showtime/316303/remembering-%E2%80%98playback-king%E2%80%99-andrew-kishore|title=Remembering 'Playback King' Andrew Kishore|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|date=5 November 2021|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref> [[اعظم خان (گلوڪار)|اعظم خان]]، جنهن کي "پاپ سمراٽ" ۽ "راڪ گرو" جا لقب ڏنا ويا، [[بنگلاديشي راڪ]] جي بنيادي شخصيتن مان هو.<ref>{{cite web|last=Adnin|first=Nazia|title=Remembering Azam Khan: The rock pioneer of Bangladesh|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/glitz/remembering-azam-khan-rock-pioneer-bangladesh-4918|date=28 February 2020|access-date=15 January 2024|work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> [[ايوب بچو]] ۽ [[جيمس (موسيقار)|جيمس]] جهڙن موسيقارن پڻ سڄي ملڪ ۾ وڏي مقبوليت حاصل ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/news/ayub-bachchu-passes-away-1648585| title=Rock's leading light goes out|work=The Daily Star| date=18 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/ode-the-guru-of-bangladeshi-rock-james-1509028|title=An Ode to the Guru of Rock|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=23 December 2017|access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> [[شايان چوڌري ارنوب]] [[انڊي راڪ]] موسيقي جي هڪ بااثر شخصيت رهيو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/arnob-unplugged-candid-insights-his-artistic-journey-3606661|title=Arnob unplugged: Candid insights into his artistic journey|date=10 May 2024|access-date=15 January 2025|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> 21هين صديءَ جي مشهور پاپ گلوڪارن ۾ [[حبيب واحد]] ۽ [[تحسن رحمان خان]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/musician-habib-wahid-king-of-fusion-music-in-bangladesh-1789549|title=KING OF FUSION|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=23 November 2018|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/interview/news/tahsan-opens-about-career-future-plans-1663867|title=TAHSAN opens up about career, future plans|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=24 August 2019|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad}}</ref> [[هيڦي ميٽل موسيقي]] جي شعبي ۾ [[آرٽسيل]] ۽ [[وارفيز]] کي تمام گهڻو اثرائتو سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/canada-chants-artcell-artcell-beloved-band-celebrates-25-years-3612926|title=Canada chants 'Artcell, Artcell!' as beloved band celebrates 25 years|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=18 May 2024|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/warfaze-celebrates-4-decades-concerts-worldwide-3680936|title=Warfaze celebrates 4 decades with concerts worldwide|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=19 August 2024|access-date=15 January 2024}}</ref> === ميڊيا ۽ سئنيما === {{Main|بنگلاديش جي ميڊيا|بنگلاديش جي سئنيما}} بنگلاديش ۾ صحافت جي تاريخ 1860ع کان شروع ٿئي ٿي، جڏهن ڍاڪا ۾ پهريون ڇاپخانو قائم ڪيو ويو.<ref name="dr">{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/purbabanga-rangabhumi-and-the-beginning-theatre-dhaka-1849873|title=Purbabanga Rangabhumi and the beginning of theatre in Dhaka|last=Quayyum|first=Dr. Muhammad Abdul|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=6 January 2020 |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي ميڊيا گهڻ رخي، مقابلي واري، واپاري ۽ منافعي بخش آهي.<ref name="bbc1">{{cite web|url=https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/pdf/bangladesh.pdf|title=Country Case Study: Bangladesh|work=[[BBC Media Action]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=August 2012|access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref> ملڪ جون اهم خبررساں ايجنسين [[بنگلاديش سنگباد سنگسٿا]] (BSS) ۽ [[بي ڊي نيوز 24 ڊاٽ ڪام]] آهن.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12650946|title=Bangladesh media guide|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=16 August 2024|access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref> ٽيليويزن ميڊيا جي استعمال جو سڀ کان مقبول ذريعو آهي.<ref name="bbc1"/> [[بنگلاديش ٽيليويزن]] (BTV) واحد سرڪاري ٽيليويزن نيٽورڪ آهي، جنهن جي رسائي سڄي ملڪ تائين آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/bangladesh-others/131125/the-life-and-obscurity-of-btv|title=The life and obscurity of BTV|last=Irani|first=Bilkis|date=20 November 2017|access-date=14 January 2025|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]}}</ref> خانگي ٽيليويزن نيٽورڪن ۾ [[اي ٽي اين بنگلا]]، [[چينل آءِ]]، [[اين ٽي وي (بنگلاديشي ٽي وي چينل)|اين ٽي وي]]، [[آر ٽي وي (بنگلاديشي ٽي وي چينل)|آر ٽي وي]]، [[ايڪوشي ٽي وي]]، [[ايڪاتور ٽي وي]]، [[جمونا ٽي وي]] ۽ [[شوموئي ٽي وي]] شامل آهن.<ref name="bbc"/> ڇپيل ميڊيا ٻيو سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ذريعو آهي، ۽ اخبارون خانگي ملڪيت هيٺ هجڻ باوجود کليل راءِ رکندڙ آهن. انهن ۾ [[دي ڊيلي اسٽار]]، [[ڍاڪا ٽربيون]]، [[دي فنانشل ايڪسپريس (بنگلاديش)|دي فنانشل ايڪسپريس]]، [[بنگلاديش پرتيدن]]، [[ڪالر ڪنٿو]]، [[پروٿوم آلو]]، [[دي ڊيلي اتفاق]] ۽ [[جوگانتور]] شامل آهن.<ref name="bbc"/><ref name="bbc1"/> {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = | caption1 = [[انوار حسين (اداڪار)|انوار حسين]] 1967ع جي فلم ''[[نواب سراج الدوله (فلم)|نواب سراج الدوله]]'' ۾ [[سراج الدوله]]، بنگال جي آخري خودمختيار [[بنگال جا نواب|نواب]] جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي | image2 = Headquarters of Ekushey Television, Kawran Bazar, Dhaka.jpg | caption2 = ڍاڪا جي [[ڪاوران بازار]] ۾ [[ايڪوشي ٽي وي]] جو مرڪزي دفتر }} [[بنگلاديش بيتار]] واحد سرڪاري ريڊيو سروس آهي.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/radio-silence-bangladesh-betars-external-service-inoperative-three-years-3221291|title=Radio Silence: Bangladesh Betar's external service inoperative for three years|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=15 January 2023|access-date=14 January 2025|last1=Hossain|first1=Sajjad|last2=Rahaman|first2=Arafat}}</ref><ref name="bbc1"/> [[ريڊيو فورتي]]، [[ريڊيو ٽوڊي]]، [[ريڊيو آمار]] ۽ اي بي سي ريڊيو مشهور خانگي ريڊيو اسٽيشنون رهيون آهن، پر ريڊيو جي مقبوليت ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.<ref name="bbc"/><ref name="bbc1"/> مشهور پرڏيهي ميڊيا ذريعن ۾ [[بي بي سي نيوز]] ([[بي بي سي بنگلا]])، [[سي اين اين]]، [[وائس آف آمريڪا]] ۽ [[الجزيره]] شامل آهن.<ref name="bbc1"/> خاص طور تي [[هندستاني ٽيليويزن ڊراما]] بنگلاديشي سيٽلائيٽ ٽيليويزن تي هڪ قسم جي "ثقافتي بالادستي" قائم ڪري چڪا آهن.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rahman|first=Anis|title=The politico-commercial nexus and its implications for television industries in Bangladesh and South Asia|volume=42|number=7–8|doi=10.1177/016344372090818|date=13 March 2020|journal=[[Media, Culture & Society]]|publisher=[[SAGE Publishers]]|pages=1153–1174|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}</ref><ref name="bbc1"/> [[بنگلاديش ۾ صحافتي آزادي|صحافت جي آزادي]] اڃا تائين هڪ اهم مسئلو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته حڪومت پاران سنسرشپ ۽ صحافين کي هراسان ڪرڻ بابت خدشا موجود آهن. 2026ع جي [[ورلڊ پريس فريڊم انڊيڪس]] ۾ بنگلاديش 180 ملڪن مان 152هين نمبر تي رهيو، جيڪو دنيا جي هيٺين درجن بندين مان هڪ آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Index 2026 – Global score |url=https://rsf.org/en/index?year=2026 |access-date=2026-05-01 |website=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |language=en}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي [[بنگلاديش جي سئنيما|فلمي صنعت]] جي تاريخ 1898ع ۾ [[بائيوسڪوپ]] جي نمائش سان شروع ٿئي ٿي.<ref name="easmin">{{cite journal |last1=Easmin |first1=Mst. Farjana |last2=Hossain |first2=Afjal |last3=Mandal |first3=Anup Kumar |title=Determinants of Watching a Film: A Case Study on Dhallywood Film Industry, Bangladesh |journal=Asian Business Review |date=2018 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.18034/abr.v8i3.164 }}</ref>{{rp|129}}<ref name="back"/> [[ڍاڪا جا نواب|ڍاڪا جي نوابن]] 1900ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ ڪيترين خاموش فلمن جي تياري جي سرپرستي ڪئي.<ref name="back">{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/first-anniversary/looking-back-forgotten-industry-193126|title=Looking back on a forgotten industry|last1=Tahnia|first1=Rawnak|last2=Rahman|first2=Arin|last3=Aziz|first3=Deena Afroza|last4=Reza|first4=Arafat|work=[[Business Standard]]|access-date=14 January 2024|date=28 January 2021}}</ref> ڍاڪا جو ''پڪچر هائوس''، جيڪو پهريون مستقل سئنيما گهر هو، 1913ع ۽ 1914ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ قائم ٿيو.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}} ''[[سڪماري (فلم)|سڪماري]]'' (سٺي ڇوڪري)، جيڪا 1929ع ۾ جاري ٿي، بنگلاديش ۾ تيار ڪيل پهرين فلم هئي.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}} ''[[دي لاسٽ ڪس (1931ع فلم)|دي لاسٽ ڪس]]''، جيڪا 1931ع ۾ جاري ٿي، پهرين مڪمل ڊگهي فيچر فلم هئي.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name="back"/> 1947ع تائين ملڪ ۾ 80 سئنيما گهر موجود هئا.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}} اوڀر پاڪستان ۾ پهرين بنگالي ٻوليءَ جي فلم ''[[مکھ او مکھوش]]'' (چهرو ۽ نقاب) 1956ع ۾ جاري ٿي.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name="back"/> 1959ع ۾ رليز ٿيل ''آڪاش آر مٽي'' (آسمان ۽ ڌرتي) اهڙي قسم جي ٻي فلم هئي. [[بنگلاديش فلم ڊولپمينٽ ڪارپوريشن]] 1957ع–1958ع ۾ اوڀر پاڪستان فلم ڊولپمينٽ ڪارپوريشن جي نالي سان ڍاڪا ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا مڪمل فلم سازي مرڪز طور ڪم ڪندي هئي.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name="back"/> [[ظهير ريحان]] هن دور ۾ ڪيترين اثرائتين فلمن جي هدايتڪاري ڪئي، جن ۾ ''[[ڪخونو آشيني]]'' (1961ع)، ''شنگم'' (1964ع، پاڪستان جي پهرين رنگين فلم)، ۽ ''جيبون ٿيڪي نيووا'' (1970ع) شامل آهن.<ref name="back"/> 1960ع کان پوءِ ڍاڪا جي فلمي صنعت پاڻ کي بنگالي مسلمان سئنيما جي مرڪز طور قائم ڪيو.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}} آزاديءَ کان پوءِ پهرين فلم ''[[اورا ايگارو جون]]'' هئي، جنهن جي هدايت [[چاشي نذرل اسلام]] ڪئي ۽ اها 1972ع ۾ جاري ٿي.<ref name="back"/> فلمي صنعت جي عروج واري دور ۾، 1996ع کان 2003ع تائين هر سال لڳ ڀڳ 80 فلمون تيار ٿينديون هيون، پر ان کان پوءِ اهو انگ مسلسل گهٽجندو رهيو آهي.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name="back"/> مشهور هدايتڪارن ۾ [[خان عطاور رحمان]]، [[عالمگير ڪبير]]، [[امجد حسين]]، [[همايون احمد]]، [[مرشد الاسلام]]، [[تنوير مقمل]]، [[طارق مسعود]]، [[صلاح الدين لاولو]] ۽ [[انعام الڪريم نرجھر]] شامل آهن.<ref name="easmin"/>{{rp|130}} [[طارق مسعود]] کي سندس فلم ''[[ماتير موئنا]]'' (مٽيءَ جو پکي) تي 2002ع جي [[ڪان فلم ميلو|ڪان فلم ميلي]] ۾ [[فيپريسي]] انعام سان نوازيو ويو. [[فلم سوسائٽي]]ن بنگلاديش ۾ سئنيما جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/reviews/how-film-societies-influence-cinema-1559231122|title=How film societies influence cinema|date=31 May 2019|access-date=14 January 2025|last=Sarkar|first=Shihab|work=[[The Financial Express (Bangladesh)|The Financial Express]]}}</ref> === کاڌ خوراڪ === {{Main|بنگلاديشي کاڌا}} {{Further|بنگالي کاڌا}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Kala bhuna 1.jpg | caption1 = ''[[ڪالا ڀونا]]''، [[چٽاگانگ ڊويزن]] جو [[گوشت جي کاڌن جي فهرست|ڳائو گوشت جو کاڌو]] | image2 = রুই মাছের ভুনা.jpg | caption2 = [[روهو]] ڪڙي، مڇيءَ تي ٻڌل کاڌو | image3 = Morog Polao 1.jpg | caption3 = ڪڪڙ [[پلاءُ]] (''موروگ پولائو'')، [[پراڻو ڍاڪا]] جو روايتي کاڌو }} بنگلاديشي کاڌا، جيڪي ملڪ جي جاگرافيائي هنڌ، آبهوا ۽ تاريخ سان ٺهيا آهن، نهايت شاهوڪار ۽ گهڻ رخي آهن.<ref name="cuisine">{{cite book |last=Osman |first=Shawkat|title=খুনতি কড়াই: Bangladeshi Cuisine |publisher=Mapin Publishing|date=16 February 2009|isbn=978-1-890-20602-4}}</ref>{{rp|14}} بنيادي خوراڪ [[اڇا چانور]] آهي، جيڪا مڇيءَ سان گڏ کاڌ خوراڪ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿي. [[پنن واري ڀاڄي]]ن، آلو، [[ڪدو]]ن ۽ [[دال]]ن جا مختلف قسم پڻ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا. ڳائو گوشت، [[ٻڪري جو گوشت]]، ڪڪڙ ۽ بدڪ جون [[ڪڙي]]ون عام طور تي کاڌيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref name="shaheda">{{cite web|last=Yesmin|first=Shaheda|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/bangladesh-cuisine-part-i-delectable-and-diverse-1325551|title=Bangladesh cuisine part I – delectable and diverse|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=6 December 2016|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=6 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206142722/https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/bangladesh-cuisine-part-i-delectable-and-diverse-1325551|url-status=live}}</ref> گڏوگڏ [[ڀرتا]]ن (چيڀاٽيل ڀاڄيون)،<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/mashed-1723366 |title=MASHED |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |last=Huda |first=Shahana |date=2 April 2019 |access-date=2 October 2022 |quote=Bhorta is just another staple for Bengalis... |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002091752/https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/mashed-1723366 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''ڀاجي''ن ([[تريل ڀاڄيون]]) ۽ [[ترڪاري]]ن ([[ڪڙي|ڪڙي ٿيل]] ڀاڄيون) جا ڪيترائي قسم پڻ کائبا آهن.<ref name="cuisine"/>{{rp|8}} مغل اثر هيٺ آيل کاڌن ۾ [[قورمو]]، ڪاليا، [[برياني]]ون، [[پلاءُ]]، [[تهري (کاڌو)|تهري]]ون ۽ [[کچڙي]]ون شامل آهن.<ref name="shaheda"/> استعمال ٿيندڙ مختلف مصالحن ۾ [[هيڊ]]، [[ميٿي]]، [[ڪلونجي]]، [[ڌاڻا]]، [[سونف]]، [[ڦوٽو]] ۽ [[مرچ پائوڊر]] وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿين ٿا؛ هڪ مشهور مصالحو ملاوٽ [[پانچ فورن]] آهي. استعمال ٿيندڙ چٽڻين ۽ خوشبودار ٻوٽن ۾ [[ڳاڙهو بصر]]، [[مرچ|سائا مرچ]]، ٿوم، [[ادرڪ]]، [[ڌاڻا پن]] ۽ [[پودينو]] شامل آهن.<ref name="cuisine"/>{{rp|12}} [[ناريل جو کير]]، [[سرنهن (چٽڻي)|سرنهن جو پيسٽ]]، [[سرنهن جا ٻج]]، [[سرنهن جو تيل]]، [[گيهه]]، [[ڏکڻ ايشيائي اچار|اچار]]<ref name="shaheda"/> ۽ [[چٽڻي]]ون پڻ هن کاڌ خوراڪ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿين ٿيون.<ref name="cuisine"/>{{rp|13–14}} ملڪ جي دريائي جاگرافي سبب مڇي پروٽين جو مکيه ذريعو آهي، ۽ اها اڪثر پنهنجي [[مڇي جا آنا|آڻن]] سميت کائي ويندي آهي. [[هلشا]] قومي مڇي آهي ۽ بيحد مقبول آهي. ٻين گهڻو کائجندڙ مڇين ۾ [[روهو]]، [[پنگاسيس پنگاسيس|پنگاس]] ۽ [[تلپيا]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Md. Naimur |last2=Islam |first2=Abu Reza Md Towfiqul|title=Consumer fish consumption preferences and contributing factors: empirical evidence from Rangpur city corporation, Bangladesh|pmid=33426347|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05864|volume=6|number=12|date=28 December 2020|journal=[[Heliyon]]|article-number=e05864 |publisher=[[Cell Press]]|doi-access=free |pmc=7779775|bibcode=2020Heliy...605864R }}</ref> [[لابسٽر]]، [[جهينگا]] ۽ [[سڪل مڇي]] (''شٽڪي'') پڻ مقامي کاڌن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.<ref name="cuisine"/>{{rp|8}} چٽاگانگ ۾ ڳائو گوشت سان لاڳاپيل کاڌن ۾ [[ڪالا ڀونا]] ۽ [[ميزبان]] شامل آهن؛ ميزبان هڪ روايتي طور مشهور دعوت آهي، جنهن ۾ ''ميزبان گوشت'' پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو تيز ۽ مصالحيدار ڳائو گوشت جو سالن آهي.<ref name="cuisine"/>{{rp|10}}<ref name="shaheda"/><ref name="guardiancuisine">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/21/from-kala-bhuna-to-shatkora-curry-lets-all-get-a-taste-for-bangladesh|last=Akbar|first=Ahsan|title=From kala bhuna to shatkora curry – let's all get a taste for Bangladesh|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=21 March 2021|access-date=2 October 2022|archive-date=2 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902070150/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/21/from-kala-bhuna-to-shatkora-curry-lets-all-get-a-taste-for-bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref> سلهٽ ۾ ''[[شتڪورا]]'' ليمون کاڌن کي ميرينيٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿين ٿا؛ ان جو مشهور مثال [[بيف هتڪورا]] آهي.<ref name="guardiancuisine"/> [[چٽاگانگ هل ٽريڪٽس]] جي قبائلي برادرين ۾ [[بانس جي ڪونپل]]ن سان کاڌو ٺاهڻ مشهور آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/feature/food/bamboo-shoots-now-popular-delicacy-tourists-120037|title=Bamboo shoots now a popular delicacy for tourists|work=[[Business Standard]]|date=16 August 2020|access-date=2 October 2022|archive-date=2 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002095316/https://www.tbsnews.net/feature/food/bamboo-shoots-now-popular-delicacy-tourists-120037|url-status=live}}</ref> کلنا گوشت وارن کاڌن ۾ ''چوئي جهل'' ([[پائپر چابا]]) جي استعمال لاءِ مشهور آهي.<ref name="guardiancuisine"/><ref name="shaheda"/> ''ڪلائي روٽي''، ڳوٺاڻي [[فليٽ بريڊ]] جو هڪ قسم، راجشاهي جي [[چپائي نواب گنج]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي کائي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/198302/kalai-ruti-a-northwestern-must-eat |title=Kalai Ruti, a northwestern must eat |work=[[Dhaka Tribune]] |date=9 January 2020 |access-date=9 January 2026 }}</ref> بنگلاديش ۾ مٺاڻن جي وسيع روايت آهي، جنهن ۾ ''[[رس گلو|روشگولا]]''، ''[[رس ملائي|روشملائي]]''، ''[[چومچوم]]''، ''[[سنديش]]''، ''[[مشٽي دوئي]]''، ''[[گلاب جامن|ڪالوجام]]'' ۽ ''[[جليبي|جلابي]]'' جهڙيون [[مٺايون]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/the-concept-desserts-bangladesh-1244389|title=The Concept of Desserts in Bangladesh|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=24 June 2016|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Karim |first=Elita}}</ref> [[پٿا]] چانورن يا ميون مان ٺهيل روايتي اُٻاريل مٺاڻون آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/deshi-mix/winter-pitha-176893|title=Winter Pitha|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=24 November 2015|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref> [[حلوو]]، [[شيمائي]] ۽ [[فالودو]]، جن مان پوئين ٻه [[سيميون]] جون صورتون آهن، مذهبي ميلن ۽ خوشين ۾ مشهور مٺاڻون آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/shab-e-barat-the-night-fortune-and-forgiveness-2983236|title=Shab-e-Barat: The night of fortune and forgiveness|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=15 March 2022|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Khondokar |first=Faiza}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/aappayon/variations-vermicelli-1250221|title=Variations on Vermicelli|date=5 July 2016|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|access-date=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://images.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/dinas-table-1752979|title=Dina's Table|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=4 June 2019|access-date=11 January 2025}}</ref> [[روٽي|روتي]]، [[نان]]، [[پراٺو]]، [[لوچي]] ۽ [[باڪر خاني]] اهم مقامي مانيون آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/ls-special/bread-101-1566847|title=Bread 101|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Tariq |first=Jahanara}}</ref><ref name="shaheda"/> گرم [[کير واري چانهه]] ملڪ ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ پيئجندڙ مشروب آهي، جيڪا [[اڏا (ڏکڻ ايشيائي)|گڏيل ڪچهري]]ن جو مرڪز بڻيل آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/reader%E2%80%99s-chit/coffee-lifestyle-or-just-another-alternative-tea-1503541|title=Coffee: a lifestyle or just another alternative to tea?|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=12 December 2017|access-date=1 October 2022 |last1=Amatya |first1=Suki |last2=Mahin |first2=Tamanna |last3=Sadaaf |first3=Bushra Humaira |last4=Sarkar |first4=Supriti}}</ref> [[بورھاني]]، [[مٺو]] ۽ [[لسي]] روايتي طور استعمال ٿيندڙ مشهور مشروب آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jyoti Prakash |first1=Tamang |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-2800-4 |pages=77–89}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Supriti|title=Tis' the season (almost) for Lassi|date=13 February 2018|access-date=24 April 2023|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/ls-pick/tis-the-season-almost-lassi-1533559}}</ref> [[ڪباب]] تمام گهڻو مشهور آهن، خاص طور تي [[سيخ ڪباب]]، [[چپلي ڪباب]]، [[شامي ڪباب]]، [[چڪن ٽڪا]] ۽ [[ششليڪ]]، گڏوگڏ ''چاپ'' جا مختلف قسم.<ref name="shaheda"/> مشهور گهٽي کاڌن ۾ [[چٽ پٽي]]، [[جهل موري]]، ''شنگارا''،<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/my-dhaka/news/all-about-shingaras-3396736|title=All about shingaras|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|date=18 August 2023|access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref> [[سموسو]] ۽ [[پاني پوري|فچڪا]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/2010/03/02/centre.htm|title=street food 101|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=9 March 2010 |last=Haider |first=M. H.|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref> === رانديون === {{Main|بنگلاديش ۾ رانديون}} [[File:Mashrafe 2016 (9).jpg|thumb|[[بنگلاديش قومي ڪرڪيٽ ٽيم]]]] ڳوٺاڻن علائقن ۾ ڪيترين ئي [[بنگالي روايتي رانديون|روايتي مقامي راندين]] جهڙوڪ [[ڪبڊي]]، [[بولي کيلا]]، [[لاٺي کيلا]] ۽ [[نوڪا بائيچ]] کي اڃا تائين وڏي مقبوليت حاصل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪبڊي ملڪ جي قومي راند آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Faroqi |first=Gofran |year=2012 |chapter=Kabadi |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kabadi |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> پر [[ڪرڪيٽ]] ملڪ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور راند سمجهي وڃي ٿي. [[بنگلاديش قومي ڪرڪيٽ ٽيم]] 1999ع ۾ پنهنجي پهرين [[ڪرڪيٽ عالمي ڪپ]] ۾ شرڪت ڪئي، ۽ ايندڙ سال ان کي [[ٽيسٽ ڪرڪيٽ]] جو درجو ڏنو ويو. بنگلاديش 2015ع جي [[2015 ڪرڪيٽ عالمي ڪپ]] ۾ چوٿين مرحلي تائين پهتو، [[2017 آءِ سي سي چيمپيئنز ٽرافي]] جي نيم فائنل تائين پهتو، ۽ [[ايشيا ڪپ]] جي فائنل ۾ ٽي ڀيرا (2012ع، 2016ع ۽ 2018ع) پهتو. [[شڪيب الحسن]] کي راند جي تاريخ جي بهترين [[آل رائونڊر]] رانديگرن مان هڪ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 March 2020 |title=Why Shakib Al Hasan is one of cricket's greatest allrounders|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/stats-analysis-why-shakib-al-hasan-is-one-of-cricket-s-greatest-allrounders-1219732 |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref> 2020ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش قومي انڊر-19 ڪرڪيٽ ٽيم]] مردن جو [[2020 انڊر-19 ڪرڪيٽ عالمي ڪپ]] کٽي ورتو.<ref>{{cite news|title=U19s Cricket World Cup: Bangladesh beat India in final to win first title |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/51437334|work=BBC Sport|date=9 February 2020|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Minhaz Uddin Khan|title=Young Tigers become World Champions |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/sport/cricket/2020/02/09/u19wc-final-tilak-out-india-103-2-after-29-overs|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=9 February 2020|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> ساڳي ٽيم 2023ع ۽ 2024ع ۾ لڳاتار [[انڊر-19 مردن جو ايشيا ڪپ]] پڻ کٽيو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2024 |title=Bangladesh reach second consecutive U-19 Asia Cup final with dominant win over Pakistan |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/bangladesh-reach-second-consecutive-u-19-asia-cup-final-dominant-win-over-pakistan-1011861 |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=Business Standard |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 December 2024 |title=Under-19 Asia Cup winners list: Bangladesh win second title in Dubai over India |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/under-19-asia-cup-full-winners-list-india-vs-bangladesh-dubai-9713377/ |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش عورتن جي قومي ڪرڪيٽ ٽيم]] [[2018 عورتن جو ٽوئنٽي 20 ايشيا ڪپ]] کٽيو.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-live/women-asia-cup-t20-champions-2018-bangladesh-womens-cricket-team-got-victory-1590118 |title=Champions of Asia T20 Cup 2018: Bangladesh Women's Cricket Team |work=The Daily Star |date=12 June 2018 |access-date=14 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829153434/https://www.thedailystar.net/star-live/women-asia-cup-t20-champions-2018-bangladesh-womens-cricket-team-got-victory-1590118 |archive-date=29 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Bangladesh National Football Team in Maldives in the SAFF Championship 2021.jpg|thumb|[[بنگلاديش قومي فٽبال ٽيم]]]] [[فٽبال]] ڪرڪيٽ کان پوءِ بنگلاديش جي ٻي سڀ کان مشهور راند آهي.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/football-the-game-which-makes-us-come-alive|title=Football ... the game which makes us come alive|date=14 December 2022|work=The Financial Express|type=Opinion}}</ref> قومي فٽبال ٽيم جو پهريون روپ 1971ع جي آزاديءَ واري جنگ دوران [[شادھين بنگلا فٽبال ٽيم]] جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيو.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/shadhin-bangla-football-dal-team-no-other |title='Shadhin Bangla Football Dal': A team like no other |date=16 December 2019 |work=Business Standard |access-date=15 August 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815160845/https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/shadhin-bangla-football-dal-team-no-other |url-status=live }}</ref> 25 جولاءِ 1971ع تي ٽيم جي ڪپتان [[ذاڪريا پِنٽو]] پاڙيسري هندستان ۾ ميچ کان اڳ بنگلاديش جو جهنڊو پرڏيهي سرزمين تي ڦڙڪائيندڙ پهريون شخص بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/133717/i-am-luckier-than-pele-zakaria-pintoo|title=I am luckier than Pele: Zakaria Pintoo|date=26 March 2021|work=New Age|archive-date=18 February 2022|access-date=20 June 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218173354/https://www.newagebd.net/article/133717/i-am-luckier-than-pele-zakaria-pintoo|url-status=dead}}</ref> آزاديءَ کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش قومي فٽبال ٽيم]] 1973ع ۾ پنهنجو پهريون بين الاقوامي مقابلو کيڏيو ۽ پوءِ [[اي ايف سي ايشيا ڪپ]] (1980ع) ۾ شرڪت ڪرڻ جو اعزاز حاصل ڪيو، اهڙي ريت اها ڏکڻ ايشيا جي صرف ٻي ٽيم بڻجي وئي جيڪا هن مقابلي ۾ پهتي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prothomalo.com/sports/football/যে-ম্যাচগুলো-'আফসোস'-বাংলাদেশের-ফুটবলে|title=যে ম্যাচগুলো 'আফসোস' বাংলাদেশের ফুটবলে|first=Niar|last=Iqbal|language=bn|work=Prothom Alo|date=6 April 2020|archive-date=10 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230910082413/https://www.prothomalo.com/sports/football/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87|url-status=live}}</ref> فٽبال ۾ بنگلاديش جون سڀ کان نمايان ڪاميابيون [[2003 ساف گولڊ ڪپ]] ۽ [[1999 ڏکڻ ايشيائي رانديون]] آهن. [[بنگلاديش عورتن جي قومي فٽبال ٽيم]] 2022ع ۽ 2024ع ۾ لڳاتار [[ساف عورتن جي چيمپيئن شپ]] کٽي.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bangladesh retain SAFF Women's Champs title |url=https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/first-page/bangladesh-retain-saff-womens-champs-title-1730307628 |access-date=2025-01-05 |work=The Financial Express |language=en|archive-date=2025-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251208052130/https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/first-page/bangladesh-retain-saff-womens-champs-title-1730307628|url-status=live}}</ref> بنگلاديشي تيرانداز [[ايتي خاتون]] ۽ [[رومان سنا]] [[2019 ڏکڻ ايشيائي رانديون]] دوران تيراندازي جي سڀني 10 مقابلن (انفرادي ۽ ٽيمي) ۾ سون جا تمغا کٽي تاريخ رقم ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/sports/athletics/bangladesh-win-all-10-golds-in-archery-sa-games-2019-1837909 |title=Ety, Sana complete Bangladesh's clean sweep in archery |date=9 December 2019 |work=The Daily Star}}</ref> [[قومي راندين جي ڪائونسل]] ملڪ جي 42 راندين جي وفاقن کي منظم ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite web|title=All Affiliated National Federation/Association |url=http://nsc.gov.bd/n/?cat=11 |publisher=[[National Sports Council]] |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121160742/http://nsc.gov.bd/n/?cat=11 |archive-date=21 January 2013}}</ref> [[شطرنج]] پڻ بنگلاديش ۾ تمام گهڻي مقبول آهي. ملڪ وٽ شطرنج جا پنج گرينڊ ماسٽر آهن، جن مان [[نياز مرشد]] ڏکڻ ايشيا جو پهريون گرينڊ ماسٽر هو.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdchessfed.com/grand-masters|title=Bangladesh Chess Federation|website=bdchessfed.com|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=29 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129112718/http://bdchessfed.com/grand-masters/}}</ref> 2010ع ۾ جبل چاڙهيندڙ [[موسيٰ ابراهيم]] [[مائونٽ ايورسٽ]] تي پهچندڙ پهريون بنگلاديشي بڻيو.<ref name="dailystardetail">{{cite news |title=Musa conquers Everest |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=139787 |work=The Daily Star |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027015045/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-139787 |archive-date=27 October 2017 |date=24 May 2010}}</ref> [[واصفيا نذرين]] پهرين بنگلاديشي جبل چاڙهيندڙ آهي، جنهن [[ست چوٽيون]] (Seven Summits) ۽ [[ڪي ٽو]] سر ڪيا.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Mary Anne Potts |title=Bangladeshi Climber Shares Her Spiritual Journey for the Women of Her Country |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/adventure-blog/2016/05/27/bangadeshi-climber-wasfia-nazreen-shares-her-spiritual-journey-for-the-women-of-her-country/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119031640/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/adventure-blog/2016/05/27/bangadeshi-climber-wasfia-nazreen-shares-her-spiritual-journey-for-the-women-of-her-country/ |archive-date=19 November 2019 |website=National Geographic |date=27 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/wasfia-nazreen-becomes-first-bangladeshi-summit-k2-3076801|title=Wasfia Nazreen becomes first Bangladeshi to summit K2|magazine=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|access-date=16 January 2024|date=22 July 2022}}</ref> مئي 2026ع ۾ [[بابر علي]] [[مائونٽ مڪالو]] سر ڪندڙ پهريون بنگلاديشي بڻيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/babar-ali-becomes-first-bangladeshi-summit-mount-makalu-1427111 |title=Babar Ali becomes first Bangladeshi to summit Mount Makalu |website=[[The Business Standard]] |date=2026-05-02 |access-date=2026-05-02}}</ref> == اهم شخصيتون == * [[شيخ مجيب الرحمان]] * [[شيخ حسينه واجد]] * [[بيگم خالده ضياء]] * [[ڊاڪٽر محمد يونس]] ([[نوبل انعام]] ماڻيندڙ) * [[رونا ليلا]] == پڻ ڏسندا == * [[بنگلاديش جا صدر]] * [[بنگلاديش جا وزير اعظم]] == وڌيڪ مطالعي لاءِ == {{Refbegin|30em}} * احمد، نظام. ''بنگلاديش جي پارليامينٽ'' (روٽليج، 2018ع). * {{cite book |last=Ali |first=S. Mahmud |date=2010 |title=Understanding Bangladesh |url={{GBurl|id=FD2KzBG1ejwC}} |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70143-3}} * {{cite book |title=Bangladesh War: Report from Ground Zero |last=Ghosh |first=Manash |year=2021 |publisher=Niyogi Books |isbn=978-93-91125-37-0}} * بيڪسٽر، ڪريگ. ''بنگلاديش: قوم کان رياست تائين'' (روٽليج، 2018ع). * {{cite book |last=Bose |first=Sarmila |date=2012 |title=Dead Reckoning Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War |publisher=Hachette UK |isbn=978-93-5009-426-6}} * {{cite book |last=Chakrabarty |first=Bidyut |date=2004 |title=The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932-1947: Contour of Freedom |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-33274-8 |url={{GBurl|id=in1_AgAAQBAJ}}}} * گروور، ويريندر. ''بنگلاديش: حڪومت ۽ سياست'' (ڊيپ اينڊ ڊيپ پبليڪيشنز، 2000ع). * {{cite book |editor1-last=Guhathakurta |editor1-first=Meghna |editor2-last=van Schendel |editor2-first=Willem |year=2013 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-5304-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Hasnat |first1=G. N. Tanjina |last2=Kabir |first2=Md. Alamgir |last3=Hossain |first3=Md. Akhter |title=Handbook of Environmental Materials Management |chapter=Major Environmental Issues and Problems of South Asia, Particularly Bangladesh |date=2018 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_7-1 |isbn=978-3-319-58538-3}} * افتخار اقبال (2010ع) ''بنگال ڊيلٽا: ماحوليات، رياست ۽ سماجي تبديلي، 1840–1943'' (پالگريو ميڪملن) {{ISBN|0-230-23183-7}} * {{cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Saiful |last2=Khan |first2=Md. Ziaur Rahman |title=A Review of Energy Sector of Bangladesh |journal=Energy Procedia |date=March 2017 |volume=110 |pages=611–618 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.193 |bibcode=2017EnPro.110..611I}} * جينوزي، ايف. ٽاماسن، ۽ جيمس ٽي. پيچ. ''بنگلاديش جو زرعي ڍانچو: ترقيءَ ۾ هڪ رڪاوٽ'' (روٽليج، 2019ع). * {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Mojlum |year=2013 |title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal |publisher=Kube Publishing |isbn=978-1-84774-052-6}} * {{cite book |last=Mookherjee |first=Nayanika |date=2015 |title=The Spectral Wound: Sexual Violence, Public Memories, and the Bangladesh War of 1971 |url={{GBurl|id=JjUWrgEACAAJ}} |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-5949-4}} * ايم. مفخرالاسلام (مرتب)، (2004ع)، ''بنگلاديش جي سماجي ۽ معاشي تاريخ: پروفيسر شفيق الرحمان جي ياد ۾ مقالا''، پهريون ڇاپو، ايشياٽڪ سوسائٽي آف بنگلاديش، {{oclc|156800811}} * ايم. مفخرالاسلام (2007ع)، ''بنگال جي زراعت 1920–1946: هڪ مقداري مطالعو'' (ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس)، {{ISBN|0-521-04985-7}} * {{cite journal |last1=Prodhan |first1=Mohit |title=The educational system in Bangladesh and scope for improvement |journal=Journal of International Social Issues |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=2016 |pages=11–23 |url=https://www.winona.edu/socialwork/Media/Prodhan%20The%20Educational%20System%20in%20Bangladesh%20and%20Scope%20for%20Improvement.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830215748/https://www2.winona.edu/socialwork/Media/Prodhan%20The%20Educational%20System%20in%20Bangladesh%20and%20Scope%20for%20Improvement.pdf |date=2024-08-30 }} * {{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |year=2013 |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72864-6}} * {{cite book |last=Rashid |first=Haroun Er |year=1977 |title=Geography of Bangladesh |publisher=University Press |oclc=4638928}} * رياز، علي. ''بنگلاديش: آزاديءَ کان پوءِ جي سياسي تاريخ'' (بلومزبري پبلشنگ، 2016ع). * {{cite book |last=Riaz |first=Ali |date=2010 |title=Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-92624-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Riaz |first1=Ali |last2=Rahman |first2=Mohammad Sajjadur |date=2016 |title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Bangladesh |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-30877-5}} * {{cite book |last=Schendel |first=Willem van |year=2009 |title=A History of Bangladesh |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86174-8}} * {{cite journal |last1=J. Shelley |first1=Israt |last2=Takahashi-Nosaka |first2=Misuzu |last3=Kano-Nakata |first3=Mana |last4=S. Haque |first4=Mohammad |last5=Inukai |first5=Yoshiaki |title=Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh: Present Scenario, Problems, and Prospects |journal=Journal of International Cooperation for Agricultural Development |date=2016 |volume=14 |doi=10.50907/jicad.14.0_20}} * سراج الاسلام (مرتب)، (1997ع)، ''بنگلاديش جي تاريخ 1704–1971'' (ٽن جلدن ۾: جلد 1 سياسي تاريخ، جلد 2 معاشي تاريخ، جلد 3 سماجي ۽ ثقافتي تاريخ)، ٻيون نظرثاني ٿيل اشاعت، ايشياٽڪ سوسائٽي آف بنگلاديش، {{ISBN|984-512-337-6}} * سراج الاسلام (مکيه ايڊيٽر)، (2003ع)، ''بنگلاپيڊيا: بنگلاديش جو قومي انسائيڪلوپيڊيا'' (10 جلد)، ايشياٽڪ سوسائٽي آف بنگلاديش، {{ISBN|984-32-0585-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Richard |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |date=1991 |title=War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07665-5}} * {{cite book |last=Sogra |first=Khair Jahan |date=2014 |title=The Impact of Gender Differences on the Conflict Management Styles of Managers in Bangladesh: An Analysis |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6854-9}} * {{cite book |last=Umar |first=Badruddin |date=2006 |title=The Emergence of Bangladesh: Rise of Bengali Nationalism, 1958–1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-597908-4}} * وان اسڪينڊل، وليم. ''بنگلاديش جي تاريخ'' (ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس، 2020ع). * {{cite book |last=Uddin |first=Sufia M. |date=2006 |title=Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-7733-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Wahid |first1=Abu N.M. |last2=Weis |first2=Charles E. |date=1996 |title=The Economy of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-275-95347-8}} === حڪومت === * [https://bangladesh.gov.bd حڪومت] – بنگلاديش حڪومت جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [https://bangabhaban.gov.bd صدر] – بنگلاديش جي صدر جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [https://cao.gov.bd چيف ايڊوائيزر] – بنگلاديش جي چيف ايڊوائيزر جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [https://cabinet.gov.bd ڪابينا] – ڪابينا ڊويزن جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [https://www.parliament.gov.bd پارليامينٽ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219045531/https://www.parliament.gov.bd/ |date=2026-02-19 }} – بنگلاديش جي پارليامينٽ جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [https://www.supremecourt.gov.bd سپريم ڪورٽ] – بنگلاديش جي سپريم ڪورٽ جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ * [http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/en شماريات] – [[بنگلاديش شماريات بيورو]] جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ === تاريخ === * [https://bffwt.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bffwt.portal.gov.bd/page/e2b55969_0e0c_4337_bb4e_ddcc801df7db/History%2520of%2520Bangladesh%2520(4).docx "تاريخ"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241108211600/https://bffwt.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bffwt.portal.gov.bd/page/e2b55969_0e0c_4337_bb4e_ddcc801df7db/History%20of%20Bangladesh%20(4).docx |date=2024-11-08 }} – بنگلاديش فريڊم فائٽر ويلفيئر ٽرسٽ وٽ بنگال جي تاريخ === سياحت === * [https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd خوبصورت بنگلاديش] – بنگلاديش جو سرڪاري سياحتي پورٽل === نقشا === * {{Wikiatlas}} * {{OSM relation|184640}} {{Refend}} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} == خارجي ڳنڍڻا == {{Library resources box}} * [https://ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BD بنگلاديش لاءِ اهم ترقياتي اڳڪٿيون] تان [[انٽرنيشنل فيوچرز]] {{Bangladesh topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Asia}} {{South Asian topics}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation}} {{Socialist rulers}} }} {{Subject bar|Bangladesh|Asia|Countries|auto=yes|voy=Bangladesh}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|24|N|90|E|type:country_region:BD|display=title}} [[Category:Bangladesh| ]]<!--مهرباني ڪري معياري صورت موجب خالي جاءِ برقرار رکو--> [[Category:بنگال]] [[Category:ايشيا جا ملڪ]] [[Category:اهي ملڪ ۽ علائقا جتي بنگالي سرڪاري ٻولي آهي]] [[Category:دولت مشترڪه جي جمهوريتون]] [[Category:ڊيولپنگ 8 ملڪن جا رڪن ملڪ]] [[Category:ايشيا ۾ اڳوڻيون برطانوي نوآباديون ۽ محافظت هيٺ علائقا]] [[Category:گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ]] [[Category:دولت مشترڪه جا رڪن ملڪ]] [[Category:اسلامي سهڪار تنظيم جا رڪن ملڪ]] [[Category:ڏکڻ ايشيائي علائقائي سهڪار تنظيم جا رڪن ملڪ]] [[Category:گڏيل قومن جا رڪن ملڪ]] [[Category:ڏکڻ ايشيا جا ملڪ]] [[Category:1971ع ۾ قائم ٿيل رياستون ۽ علائقا]] [[Category:1971ع ۾ ايشيا ۾ قائم ٿيل ادارا]] [[Category:جاگرافيائي مضمون جن ۾ تصويرن لاءِ متبادل متن موجود ناهي]] [[Category:برڪس ترقياتي بئنڪ جا رڪن ملڪ]] * [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/ بنگلا ديش جي سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ] {{سارڪ}} {{OIC}} [[زمرو:بنگلاديش]] [[زمرو:ملڪ]] [[زمرو:بنگال]] [[زمرو:اسلامي رياستون]] [[زمرو:ايشيا ۾ ملڪ]] [[زمرو:ڏکڻ ايشيا جا ملڪ]] [[زمرو:او آئي سي جا ڀاتي ملڪ]] [[زمرو:گڏيل قومن جا ڀاتي ملڪ]] [[زمرو:دولت مشترڪه جون رڪن قومون]] <references group="lower-alpha"/> 9w17l3u0qemh508q2p1drwq9dgj02pc ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ 0 3259 394718 287799 2026-07-16T00:51:06Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ | honorific_suffix = | image = Ernst-trumpp-ex-schimmel.jpg|thumb| | imagesize = | caption = ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ | other_names = | birth_name = | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1828|03|12}} | birth_place = [[ايليزفيلڊ]], [[جرمني]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1885|04|05|1828|03| 12}} | death_place = ميونخ | burial_place = ميونخ | occupation = پادري، لائبريرين ۽ ليکڪ | nationality = جرمن | alma_mater = اسٽيفن ڪاليج، ڏکڻ جرمني | notable_works = شاھ جو رسالو پھريون دفعو مرتب ڪري جرمني مان ڇپايو | spouse = | influences = | signature = }} '''ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ''' 12 مارچ 1828 تي [[جرمني]]ءَ جي شهر السفيلڊ ۾ ڄائو. هن جي والد جو نانءُ جارج ٿامس ٽرمپ هو. جيڪو [[واڍائپ|واڍڪو]] ڪم به ڪندو هو. ٽرمپ جي والد هن جو نانءُ ساراني بدير رکيو هو. السفيلڊ هڪ ننڍڙو ڳوٺ آهي ۽ ميون جي ڪري مشهور آهي. ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ جنهن گهراڻي ۾ پليو نپيو سو هڪ سادگي پسند ۽ مذهبي خيالن جو گهراڻو هو. ٽرمپ سنڌي ٻولي جي وڏي خدمت ڪئي. پاڻ [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائي]] جو [[شاهه جو رسالو|رسالو]] پڻ جرمني مان ڇپرايو. 5 [[اپريل]] 1885 ۾ لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو. == تعليم == ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ- چئن سالن جي عمر ۾ پنهنجي وڏي -ڀاءُ- سان گڏ اسڪول وڃڻ شروع ڪيو. سندس انهيءَ شوق کي ڏسندي سندس والد کيس ڀر واري هاءِ اسڪول ۾ -تعليم- لاءِ موڪليو، -جتي- هن لاطيني، يوناني ۽ ٻيون ٻوليون سکيون، 17 سالن جي ننڍيءَ عمر ۾ هن امتحان پاس ڪري ورتو. ٽرمپ جي مائٽن کيس -پادري- بنائڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو، جنهن لاءِ هن کي ڏکڻ جرمنيءَ جي مشهور اداري اسٽيفن ڪاليج ۾ داخل ڪرايو ويو، -جتي- هن نه فقط مذهبي علمن جو مطالعو ڪيو، پر مختلف ٻولين جو اڀياس پڻ -جاري- رکيو. ٽرمپ کي عبراني، عربي ۽ سنسڪرت ٻولين سان خاص دلچسپي هئي. جرمنيءَ کان پوءِ هي لنڊن پهتو، -جتي- هڪ پرائيويٽ اسڪول مان يوناني ۽ لاطيني ٻوليون پڙھيون == ڪيريئر ۽ خدمتون == لنڊن جي اسڪول ۾ يوناني ۽ لاطيني سکڻ کان پوءِ ايسٽ -انڊيا- هائوس ۾ اسسٽنٽ لائبررين طور ڪم ڪرڻ لڳو. هتي ئي چرچ مشنريءَ وارن سندس قابليت ڏسي، کيس هندستان وڃي اتان جي ٻولين جي گرامر ۽ لغتن تيار ڪرڻ جي آڇ ڪئي، ۽ -برطانيا- سرڪار به هن جي اهڙن ڪتابن ڇپرائڻ جو واعدو ڪيو. 1854ع ۾ هو پهرين -بمبئي- پهتو، -جتي- اچي ”ائنڪلن چرچ“ جو -پادري- ٿيو ۽ اتي رهائش دوران فارسي زبان ۾ ايتري ته مهارت حاصل ڪيائين، جو -ان- ۾ -انگريزي- ”ڪامن پرائمر بڪ“ جو ترجمو ڪيائين. ڪجهه وقت کان پوءِ پنهنجي بنيادي پروگرام موجب ڪراچيءَ آيو. ڪراچيءَ جي آبهوا ابتدا ۾ هن تي خراب اثر ڪيو، جنهن ڪري ”چرچ مشن“ طرفان هن کي علاج جي خيال سان فلسطين موڪليو ويو، -جتي- هن عربي زبان جو اڀياس -جاري- رکيو. سنڌ ۾ هن سنڌي زبان جو ايترو ته اڀياس ڪري ورتو، جو 1866ع ۾ ”شاهه جو رسالو“ هٿ ڪري ۽ پاڻ هندستاني (اردو) طرز جي سنڌي ”الف بي“ جي لوهي ٽائيپ وجود ۾ آڻي، -ان- جي ذريعي لپسيا (ليپزگ) جي ”بروخوس ڪمپنيءَ“ جي مدد سان -ان- کي جرمنيءَ مان ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيائين. هي رسالو 1218 صفحن تي مشتمل آهي، جنهن ۾ شاهه جي ڪلام جا 26 سر ڏنل آهن. -ان- کان اڳ ۾ 1858ع هن هڪ ڪتاب “Sindhi Reading Book in the Sanskrit and Arabic Characters” نالي سان لنڊن جي واٽس پريس مان ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيو هو، جنهن ۾ ”سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ“ جي قصي جا -بيت- درج ڪيا ويا. ڪجهه عرصي کان پوءِ هي صاحب ٻيڙيءَ تي چڙهي، سنڌونديءَ رستي 22 ڏينهن جي لاڳيتي مسافريءَ کان پوءِ لاهور پهتو ۽ اتان وري -پشاور- پهتو، -جتي- هن پشتو ۽ ڪافري ٻولين جو مطالعو ڪيو. هن ’براهوي زبان‘ جو به سٺو مطالعو ڪيو، -پشاور- ۾ رهندي وري طبيعت خراب ٿي پيس ۽ وطن موٽي ”اسٽگارٽ“ شهر ۾ وڃي رهيو، -جتي- به مشرقي ٻولين جو مطالعو -جاري- رهيس. 1864ع ۾ پفلنگن شهر ۾ -پادري- مقرر ٿيو ۽ 6 سالن اندر ڪيترا ڪتاب لکيائين. 1870ع ۾ برطانوي سرڪار هن کي سِکن جي مذهبي ڪتاب ”گرنٿ صاحب“ جي ترجمي جي آڇ ڪئي. 1872ع ۾ گرنٿ جو ترجمو مڪمل ڪيائين، جيڪو 1877ع ۾ ڇپيو، جنهن سان هن کي وڏي شهرت ملي. 1883ع ۾ ميونخ يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ سامي ٻولين جو پروفيسر مقرر ٿيو، -جتي- هن عربي گرامر ’مروحيه‘ جو انگريزيءَ ۾ ترجمو ڪيو . سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي -باري- ۾ ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ جا رايا نهايت عالماڻا ۽ فاضلاڻا آهن. 19 هين صديءَ جي آخر ڌاري سندس قائم ڪيل اهي رايا اڄ به ڪنهن حد تائين درست تسليم ڪيا وڃن ٿا. البت سندس اهو رايو ته ”سنڌي -ٻولي- نج سنسڪرتي -ٻولي- آهي يا سنسڪرت ئي سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو سرچشمو آهي“، اڄ جي لسانيات جي ماهرن جي نظر ۾ رد ٿي چڪو آهي. ٽرمپ سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو گرامر لکيو، جنهن ۾ هن سنڌيءَ جون ڪيتريون بناوٽون شاهه لطيف جي بيتن مان مثال ڏئي سمجهايون، ٽرمپ جي گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا اشارا ملن ٿا، -جن- ۾ هن سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي جدا حيثيت ۽ نرالائيءَ کي پڻ نروار ڪيو آهي. ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو تقابلي گرامر به لکيو، ٽرمپ سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي مخصوص آوازن ”ٻ“، ”ڏ“، ”ڄ“ ۽ ”ڳ“ تي پڻ کوجنائون ڪيون، ۽ انهن آوازن جي ڀرپور -تشريح- ڪئي. ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ ئي اهو ماڻهو هو، جنهن سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي لپيءَ لاءِ 1853ع ۾ جوڙيل عربي سنڌي لپيءَ خلاف رايو ڏنو، ۽ چيو ته ”اها لپي سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي صوتياتي سرشتي جون سموريون ضرورتون پوريون نٿي ڪري“. -ان- کان سواءِ هن ڪاروبار لاءِ جوڙيل واڻڪي لپيءَ تي پڻ -تنقيد- ڪئي. سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي لهجن تي پڻ ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ -تحقيق- ڪئي، ۽ سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي مکيه لهجن اترادي، وچولي ۽ لاڙي وغيره تي لکيائين. ڊاڪٽر -ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ- جون سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۽ شاهه جي رسالي لاءِ ڪيل خدمتون يادگار آهن ۽ سنڌ واسين لاءِ فخر جو باعث آهن. هو سنڌي لسانيات ۽ لطيف شناسيءَ واري ميدان ۾ سدائين زندهه رهندو.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%BD%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%BE |access-date=2020-07-08 |archive-date=2018-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821121957/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%BD%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%BE |url-status=dead }}</ref> ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ 1848 ع واري جرمنيءَ جي آزاديءَ جي تحريڪ (Liberal Movement) ۾ شريڪ ٿيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ جيل به ڀوڳڻو پيس جيل مان آزاد ٿيڻ کان پوءِ برطانيه آيو، جتي کيس ”انڊيا آفيس“ ۾ ملازمت ملي ويئي. اتان هيءُ ”چرچ مشن سوسائٽي“ جي سنگ ۾ آيو ۽ آخرڪار پادري بڻجي اچي بمبئيءَ پهتو. هن ”چرچ مشن سوسائٽي“ طرفان سنڌ، فلسطين، پشاور ۽ ڪافرستان ۾ ڪم ڪيو. هي صاحب ڪجهه وقت لاءِ ”ٽيومنگن يونيورسٽي“ ۾ مشرقي زبانن جو ريڊر ۽ اسسٽنٽ پروفيسر ٿي .ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ جرمنيءَ کان سواءِ انگريزي، فرانسسي، لاطيني، حبشي، سنڌي، عربي پارسي، پنجابي، پشتو، سنسڪرت ۽ بروهي ٻولين تي به دسترس رکندو ھو.ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ صاحب جو سنڌين ۽ بلوچن کي شڪر گذار ٿيڻ گهرجي. هن صاحب نه رڳو سنڌي گرامر سنڌين لاءِ تيار ڪيو، پر بلوچن ۽ بروهين تي به احسان ڪيو. سندس بروهڪي زبان جو گرامر سنه 1880ع ۾ ميونچ مان شايع ٿيو. ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ صاحب جي مٿين گرامر شايع ٿيڻ کانپوءِ ٻئي هڪڙي جرمن محقق ڊاڪٽر ڊيوڪا ٿيوڊور جو مضمون رائل ايشياٽڪ سوسائٽي لنڊن ۾ بروهڪي گرامر متعلق سنه 1887ع ۾ شايع ٿيو<ref name ="بروھي">عزيز الله ”عزيز“ بروهي جو مضمون: بروهڪي زبان جا گرامر؛ رسالي جو نالو ؛ مهراڻ 1982ع ايڊيٽر؛ نفيس احمد ناشاد جلد؛ 31 نمبر 1.2- 1982ع ڇپيندڙ؛ سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو</ref>. == گھرو زندگي == فلسطين ۾ رهندي، هن جي هڪ -انگريز- خاتون سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان 1856ع ۾ شادي ڪيائين، جنهن مان کيس هڪ پٽ به ڄائو. هي صاحب 1856ع ۾ وري ڪراچيءَ آيو، -جتي- هن جي گهرواري بيمار ٿي پئي ۽ آخر گذاري وئي. سال کن بعد وري جرمنيءَ ويو، اتي ٻي شادي ڪري وري سنڌ ۾ موٽي آيو ۽ -ٿورو- وقت اچي سنڌ ۾ رهيو.جرمن گهرواريءَ مان ٻه پٽ ۽ ٻه نياڻيون ٿيس. == وفات == مسلسل مطالعي ۽ لکپڙهه سبب سندس -اکيون- موڪلائي ويون، جنهن تي هن کي سخت صدمو پهتو. سندس زندگيءَ جا آخري ڏينهن ذهني مريضن جي اسپتال ۾ گذريا. 5 -اپريل- 1885ع تي هيءُ عظيم اسڪالر، 57 سالن جي عمر ۾ وفات ڪري ويو. == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌ جون شخصيتون]] [[زمرو:1828ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1885ع جون فوتگيون]] dz9snvkc7at7ta81lznh3rdygslaz87 قصبو 0 6546 394629 394502 2026-07-15T14:51:58Z Memon2025 21315 394629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], Russia]] <nowiki>:</nowiki>قصبن Unlike English, the Russian language does not distinguish the terms ''city'' and ''town''—both are translated as {{lang|ru|город}} ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}). Occasionally the term {{lang|ru|город}} is applied to [[urban-type settlement]]s as well, even though the status of those is not the same as that of a city/town proper. In Russia, the criteria an inhabited locality needs to meet in order to be granted city/town ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}) status vary in different [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]. In general, to qualify for this status, an inhabited locality should have more than 12,000 inhabitants and the occupation of no less than 85% of inhabitants must be other than agriculture. However, inhabited localities which were previously granted the city/town status but no longer meet the criteria can still retain the status for historical reasons. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> === Philippines === {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز ( ''[[poblacion]])'' طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. the [[Philippines]], the local official equivalent of the town is the [[Philippine municipality|municipality]] (Filipino: {{lang|fil|bayan}}). Every municipality, or town, in the country has a mayor ({{lang|fil|alkalde}}) and a vice mayor ({{lang|fil|bise alkalde}}) as well as local town officials ([[Sangguniang Bayan]]). Philippine towns, otherwise called municipalities, are composed of a number of villages and communities called ''[[barangays]]'' with one (or a few cluster of) {{lang|fil|barangay}}(s) serving as the town center or . Unique in Philippine towns is that they have fixed budget, population and land requirements to become as such, i.e. from a {{lang|fil|barangay}}, or a cluster of such, to a town, or to become cities, i.e. from town to a city. Respectively, examples of these are the town of [[Braulio E. Dujali, Davao del Norte|B. E. Dujali]] in [[Davao del Norte]] province, which was formed in 1998 from a cluster of five {{lang|fil|barangays}}, and the city of [[El Salvador, Misamis Oriental|El Salvador]], which was converted from a town to a city in 2007. Each town in the Philippines was classified by its [[Municipalities of the Philippines#Income classification|annual income and budget]]. A sharp, hierarchical distinction exists between Philippine [[Philippine city|cities]] ({{lang|fil|lungsod}} or {{lang|fil|siyudad}}) and towns, as towns in the country are juridically separate from cities, which are typically larger and more populous (some smaller and less populated) and which political and economic status are above those of towns. This was further supported and indicated by the income classification system implemented by the National Department of Finance, to which both cities and towns fell into their respective categories that indicate they are such as stated under Philippine law. However, both towns and cities equally share the status as [[Administrative divisions of the Philippines#Local government units|local government units]] (LGUs) grouped under and belong to [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] and [[Regions of the Philippines|regions]]; both each are composed of {{lang|fil|barangays}} and are governed by a mayor and a vice mayor supplemented by their respective LGU legislative councils. However, despite this some towns in the Philippines are significantly larger than some cities in the Philippines such as [[Rodriguez, Rizal]], [[Santa Maria, Bulacan]] and [[Minglanilla, Cebu]] are actually bigger than some regional centers. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] ed8qg2wz9v0kdz4t2sy2j1l905wi9tw 394630 394629 2026-07-15T14:52:56Z Memon2025 21315 394630 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], Russia]] <nowiki>:</nowiki>قصبن Unlike English, the Russian language does not distinguish the terms ''city'' and ''town''—both are translated as {{lang|ru|город}} ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}). Occasionally the term {{lang|ru|город}} is applied to [[urban-type settlement]]s as well, even though the status of those is not the same as that of a city/town proper. In Russia, the criteria an inhabited locality needs to meet in order to be granted city/town ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}) status vary in different [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]. In general, to qualify for this status, an inhabited locality should have more than 12,000 inhabitants and the occupation of no less than 85% of inhabitants must be other than agriculture. However, inhabited localities which were previously granted the city/town status but no longer meet the criteria can still retain the status for historical reasons. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> === Philippines === {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز ( ''[[poblacion]])'' طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. the [[Philippines]], the local official equivalent of the town is the [[Philippine municipality|municipality]] (Filipino: {{lang|fil|bayan}}). Every municipality, or town, in the country has a mayor ({{lang|fil|alkalde}}) and a vice mayor ({{lang|fil|bise alkalde}}) as well as local town officials ([[Sangguniang Bayan]]). Philippine towns, otherwise called municipalities, are composed of a number of villages and communities called ''[[barangays]]'' with one (or a few cluster of) {{lang|fil|barangay}}(s) serving as the town center or . Unique in Philippine towns is that they have fixed budget, population and land requirements to become as such, i.e. from a {{lang|fil|barangay}}, or a cluster of such, to a town, or to become cities, i.e. from town to a city. Respectively, examples of these are the town of [[Braulio E. Dujali, Davao del Norte|B. E. Dujali]] in [[Davao del Norte]] province, which was formed in 1998 from a cluster of five {{lang|fil|barangays}}, and the city of [[El Salvador, Misamis Oriental|El Salvador]], which was converted from a town to a city in 2007. Each town in the Philippines was classified by its [[Municipalities of the Philippines#Income classification|annual income and budget]]. A sharp, hierarchical distinction exists between Philippine [[Philippine city|cities]] ({{lang|fil|lungsod}} or {{lang|fil|siyudad}}) and towns, as towns in the country are juridically separate from cities, which are typically larger and more populous (some smaller and less populated) and which political and economic status are above those of towns. This was further supported and indicated by the income classification system implemented by the National Department of Finance, to which both cities and towns fell into their respective categories that indicate they are such as stated under Philippine law. However, both towns and cities equally share the status as [[Administrative divisions of the Philippines#Local government units|local government units]] (LGUs) grouped under and belong to [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] and [[Regions of the Philippines|regions]]; both each are composed of {{lang|fil|barangays}} and are governed by a mayor and a vice mayor supplemented by their respective LGU legislative councils. However, despite this some towns in the Philippines are significantly larger than some cities in the Philippines such as [[Rodriguez, Rizal]], [[Santa Maria, Bulacan]] and [[Minglanilla, Cebu]] are actually bigger than some regional centers. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] hanndpcdunb420mhqjftyahas2gsx3g 394632 394630 2026-07-15T14:55:39Z Memon2025 21315 394632 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], Russia]] <nowiki>:</nowiki>قصبن Unlike English, the Russian language does not distinguish the terms ''city'' and ''town''—both are translated as {{lang|ru|город}} ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}). Occasionally the term {{lang|ru|город}} is applied to [[urban-type settlement]]s as well, even though the status of those is not the same as that of a city/town proper. In Russia, the criteria an inhabited locality needs to meet in order to be granted city/town ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}) status vary in different [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]. In general, to qualify for this status, an inhabited locality should have more than 12,000 inhabitants and the occupation of no less than 85% of inhabitants must be other than agriculture. However, inhabited localities which were previously granted the city/town status but no longer meet the criteria can still retain the status for historical reasons. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] qf3mtkdxypjfvtyyr8uxt0f4zptb5kv 394634 394632 2026-07-15T14:57:09Z Memon2025 21315 394634 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], Russia]] <nowiki>:</nowiki>قصبن Unlike English, the Russian language does not distinguish the terms ''city'' and ''town''—both are translated as {{lang|ru|город}} ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}). Occasionally the term {{lang|ru|город}} is applied to [[urban-type settlement]]s as well, even though the status of those is not the same as that of a city/town proper. In Russia, the criteria an inhabited locality needs to meet in order to be granted city/town ({{lang|ru-latn|gorod}}) status vary in different [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]. In general, to qualify for this status, an inhabited locality should have more than 12,000 inhabitants and the occupation of no less than 85% of inhabitants must be other than agriculture. However, inhabited localities which were previously granted the city/town status but no longer meet the criteria can still retain the status for historical reasons. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] iuqqnu27bhwqc096797e5rqwf1ss1oe 394635 394634 2026-07-15T15:06:59Z Memon2025 21315 /* روس */ 394635 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] 5qdwk1gtprabq1eofckgw8g6wvlkixy 394636 394635 2026-07-15T15:58:12Z Memon2025 21315 394636 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] l2cxddorrwkds19nh3epkqer54nwbg3 394637 394636 2026-07-15T15:58:55Z Memon2025 21315 394637 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] kh9i4f5bj4jniqfifadgyuxyp0iuthk 394638 394637 2026-07-15T15:59:42Z Memon2025 21315 394638 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] jeoj99lzopmrra70j4jrc79df3njvel 394639 394638 2026-07-15T16:00:24Z Memon2025 21315 394639 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] mq0jsye5lzn9zbryrfbzuhc3kyl7j9i 394640 394639 2026-07-15T16:01:23Z Memon2025 21315 394640 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] grrjefxyccus57x2l3xf36cn7pqcahl 394641 394640 2026-07-15T16:02:10Z Memon2025 21315 394641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] t15e6kmlapc3ek1sjghervqmpu5l8yx 394642 394641 2026-07-15T16:02:51Z Memon2025 21315 394642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] qiv8kl7f13z4cpylxu91pyrdmgkvqf9 394643 394642 2026-07-15T16:04:16Z Memon2025 21315 394643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] 9dsnoo6jtb8c89i9bvry7xo4v4fdeuy 394644 394643 2026-07-15T16:05:10Z Memon2025 21315 394644 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Netherlands === [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] lf1y5n2958axdxujdqvkwiur57un3uj 394645 394644 2026-07-15T16:06:08Z Memon2025 21315 394645 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Netherlands=== [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] n9909okntg5q3s340fs7791z0jq9213 394646 394645 2026-07-15T16:07:04Z Memon2025 21315 394646 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. === France === [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Netherlands=== [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] rdkpqfu2uocj5g19g5mc51t9w0rntjx 394647 394646 2026-07-15T16:08:21Z Memon2025 21315 394647 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===France=== [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Netherlands=== [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === Italy === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|[[Satriano di Lucania]], a town in the [[Melandro|Melandro Valley]], [[Basilicata]], south Italy]] Although Italian provides different words for city ({{lang|it|città}}), town ({{lang|it|cittadina or paese}}) and village ({{lang|it|villaggio}}, old-fashioned, or {{Lang|it|[[frazione]]}}, most common), no legal definitions exist as to how settlements must be classified. Administratively, both towns and cities are ruled as [[comuni]]/[[comune]]s, while villages might be subdivisions of the former. Generally, in everyday speech, a town is larger or more populated than a village and smaller than a city. Various cities and towns together may form a metropolitan area ({{lang|it|area metropolitana}}). A city can also be a culturally, economically, or politically prominent community with respect to surrounding towns. Moreover, a city can be such by [[President of Italy|Presidential]] decree. A town, in contrast, can be an inhabited place which would elsewhere be styled a city, but has not received any official recognition. Remarkable exceptions do exist: for instance, [[Bassano del Grappa]], was given the status of {{lang|it|città}} in 1760 by [[Francesco Loredan]]'s [[Doge (title)|dogal]] decree and has since then carried this title. Also, the Italian word for 'town' ({{lang|it|paese}} with lowercase P) must not be confused with the Italian word for 'country/nation' ({{lang|it|Paese}} usually with uppercase P). === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] io35nf8jy0r82rzpinl5cldwa6vxgqm 394648 394647 2026-07-15T16:22:55Z Memon2025 21315 /* Italy */ 394648 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Type of human settlement}} {{Redirect|Small town||Town (disambiguation)|and|Towns (disambiguation)|and|Small Town (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{multiple image | total_width = 350px | perrow = 1/2/3/2/1 | image1 = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg | alt1 = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading | image2 = Porvoo in January.jpg | alt2 = Old Town of Porvoo in January | image3 = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg | alt3 = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square | image4 = Luftbild Davos2.jpg | alt4 = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps | image5 = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG | alt5 = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica | image6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | alt6 = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg | image7 = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg | alt7 = The Marian town of Fátima | image8 = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg | alt8 = The center of the inland town of Viljandi | footer = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون. }} '''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.<ref name=":1" /> قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. [[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']] قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن. ==تعريف== ==تاريخ== ==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان== === افغانستان === {{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}} [[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي "شهر" (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي <small>20,000</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. . فارسي ٻولي. پشتو. === البانيا === [[البانيا]] ۾ "قيٽيزي" (<small>qytezë</small>) جو مطلب "قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (<small>qytet</small>) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو. ===آسٽريليا=== [[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي <ref>{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي. ===آئس لينڊ=== {{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]] === آسٽريا === {{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ <small>2098</small> ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: <small>Gemeinden</small>) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: <small>Marktgemeinden</small>) يا شهرن (<small>Städte</small>) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>400</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ <small>1200</small> ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. آسٽريا جي <small>201</small> شهرن مان، <small>15</small> قانوني شهر (<small>Statutarstädte</small>) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي. === برازيل === برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. === بلغاريا === {{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]] بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ "<small>'''وڏا شهر'''</small>" ۽ "<small>'''ننڍا شهر'''</small>" اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. "وڏا شهر" عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي <small>2</small><small>,00,000</small> کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي <small>1</small><small>,00,000</small> جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ "وڏا شهر" سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال <small>2005</small>ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ <small>3</small><small>,500</small> ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ <small>1</small><small>,000</small> ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. === ڀارت === [[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]] ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا: # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000 # گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف # آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل) سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو. ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي. ===پاڪستان=== {{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]] پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو آهي. ===پولينڊ=== {{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]] پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}} قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. === جرمني === {{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} [[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]] جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ "اسٽاڊ" (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، "ڊورف" (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو : "لينڊ اسٽاڊ" (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان گهٽ)، "ڪلين اسٽاڊ" (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ <small>5,000</small> کان <small>20,000</small>)، "مٽل اسٽاڊ" (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ <small>20,000</small> ۽ <small>1,00,000</small> ۽ "گروب اسٽاڊ" (Großstadt: "وڏو شهر"؛ <small>1,00,000</small> کان <small>10,00,000</small>) جي وچ ۾<ref>Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund</ref> اصطلاح "گروسسٽڊٽ" کي "شهر" طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ" جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}</ref> تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ "اسٽيڊٽريچٽ" سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ "اسٽيڊٽ" بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ "اسٽيڊٽ" جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ "ميونسپلٽي" (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا "جيمينڊن" ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه. ===روس=== {{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}} [[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]] انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو "گوروڊ" (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا. ===رومانيا=== {{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. ===Singapore=== {{main|New towns of Singapore}} [[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]] In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]]. ===France=== [[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]] From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}</ref> but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all. For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}. ===فلپائن=== {{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}} [[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]] فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن. فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن. ===Finland=== [[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]] In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland. ===ڪينيڊا=== {{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}} ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي. ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي. اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا). === Latvia === [[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]] In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian. === Norway === In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]'). Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}</ref> Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]] The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}</ref> ===Netherlands=== [[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]] Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city. For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities: * {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants * {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}. legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries. The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law. [[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}</ref> Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &#124; AMO }}</ref> Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from "town" to "city" to encourage investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> === Chile === In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity. ===Estonia=== In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}). === Hong Kong === {{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}} [[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]] Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]]. === Iran === In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete. There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city'). Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions. Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]]. The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades. Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'. === Iraq === The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities. === اٽلي === [[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]] جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي. === Japan === In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a "city centre". In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages. The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000. === Korea === {{main|Eup (administrative division)}} In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}</ref> === Lithuania === {{main|List of towns in Lithuania}} In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). === Malaysia === In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}). ===New Zealand=== {{expand-section|date=August 2025}} In [[New Zealand]], the term "town" has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities. ===South Africa=== In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city. === Spain === In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city. === Sweden === {{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}} [[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]] The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]]. Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation. For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.<ref>[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.<ref>[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020</ref> === Ukraine === [[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]] In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)</ref> Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]). === United Kingdom === {{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}} ==== England and Wales ==== {{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}} [[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]] In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a "[[market town]]". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities. In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling. In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish). Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns). Additionally, there are "[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s" which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]]. Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]). The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear. [[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]] It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town. It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888. The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as "London town". (The "[[City of London]]" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre. In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> === United States === [[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]] In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=<a href="https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/">https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/</a> |access-date=2025-09-04}}</ref> They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.<ref name="isd2022">[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref> Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.<ref>[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)</ref> Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections: ====California==== In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}</ref> There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads "City of Los Gatos", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read "Town of Los Gatos." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Los Gatos" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Los Gatos." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county. ====Georgia==== Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.<ref name="Census Georgia 2010">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}</ref><ref name="Census 2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.<ref name="NGE">Perry Hiott & Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).</ref> ====Hawaii==== In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}</ref> However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Illinois==== In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,<ref>See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.</ref> and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.<ref>See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)</ref> In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.<ref>''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.</ref> ====Indiana==== In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> ====Louisiana==== In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.<ref name="isd2022" /> ====Maryland==== While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.<ref name="isd2022" /> The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]]. ====Mississippi==== Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.<ref name="MississippiLaw">{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}</ref> Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.<ref name="MississippiLaw" /> ====Nevada==== In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities. ====New England==== {{Main|New England town}} [[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]] In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government. In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population. Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as "minor civil divisions" for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns. Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country. ====North Carolina==== In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,<ref>{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}</ref> there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government. Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000. ====Oklahoma==== In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.<ref name="OklahomaLaw1" /> Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.<ref name="OklahomaLaw2">{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> ====Pennsylvania==== In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]]. ====South Carolina==== At incorporation, municipalities may choose to be named either "City of" or "Town of", however there is no legal difference between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> ====Tennessee==== Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}</ref> These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}</ref> and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]]. ====Texas==== In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as "towns" or "villages" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]]. ====Utah==== {{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}} In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> ====Virginia==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}} In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population). But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.<ref>{{cite web |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia |access-date=31 May 2011 |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> ====Washington==== {{Further|City government in Washington (state)}} A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}</ref> Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]). ====Wisconsin==== {{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}} {{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}} [[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages. ====Wyoming==== A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered "first-class cities".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}</ref> Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]]. ===ويتنام=== ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện). ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[ڳوٺ]] * [[شهر]] * [[صوبو]] * [[ملڪ]] * مسافر شهر * ڪمپني شهر * ترقي يافته ماحول * آگ جو نشان * شهرن جون فهرستون * مقام * ميگالوپولس * پروٽو-شهر * ٽائون چارٽر * ٽائون هال * ٽائون جون حدون * ٽائون جا مراعات * ٽائون اسڪوائر ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ذريعا== ==ٻاهرين لنڪس== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005] * [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries. * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database {{Types of administrative division}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:قصبو]] [[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]] [[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] [[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]] exdrzt100nxlami6wnxev5agt82ln3p سمارٽ فون 0 10958 394775 290797 2026-07-16T09:23:39Z Memon2025 21315 394775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] kzlubo36abz7rsene2vnh1g7k95qj9f 394777 394775 2026-07-16T09:25:11Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] rwbglo2e2k16yispb8gcqkk7s8k5mf3 394778 394777 2026-07-16T09:26:08Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] mai4iw81on61swqzdbzg841b3408ntz 394779 394778 2026-07-16T09:27:15Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] 0240spqpapzwwv1xrldyueudcaj43qv 394780 394779 2026-07-16T09:30:48Z Memon2025 21315 394780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} myw6eluo61zb3rpiil70ya9g2l7kqw4 394782 394780 2026-07-16T09:40:30Z Memon2025 21315 394782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] iza1y4cpmxin9ddrgxlyt2v62b8yey1 394783 394782 2026-07-16T09:43:08Z Memon2025 21315 /* نوٽس ۽ حوالا */ 394783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==نوٽس ۽ حوالا== ===نوٽس=== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] 3f950nxyx4at2zt0l8au65neq8zs3an 394784 394783 2026-07-16T09:46:53Z Memon2025 21315 /* See also */ 394784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==نوٽس ۽ حوالا== ===نوٽس=== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] 4u1dy84r23387yp6sdnvgnavha9npwd 394785 394784 2026-07-16T09:52:45Z Memon2025 21315 /* وڌيڪ ڏسو */ 394785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==نوٽس ۽ حوالا== ===نوٽس=== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] i8o65crpbw5t39x918xwj6vbwtibd7t 394786 394785 2026-07-16T09:54:19Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==تاريخ== هارڊويئر: سافٽ ويئر: موجوده اسمارٽ فون برانڊن جي فهرست: وڪرو: استعمال: تنقيد ۽ مسئلا: صحت تي اثر: پابنديون ۽ روڪون: مخصوص ڊجيٽل ڪيمرائن جي جاءِ وٺڻ: عمر (استعمال جو مدو): ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==نوٽس ۽ حوالا== ===نوٽس=== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] skn30j5gpeazmjfbk5r16tbyd6bz80m 394789 394786 2026-07-16T10:00:24Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر <small>(MOS)</small> انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (<small>IC</small>) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال <small>2020</small>ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي.<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن.<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. , ==تاريخ== هارڊويئر: سافٽ ويئر: موجوده اسمارٽ فون برانڊن جي فهرست: وڪرو: استعمال: تنقيد ۽ مسئلا: صحت تي اثر: پابنديون ۽ روڪون: مخصوص ڊجيٽل ڪيمرائن جي جاءِ وٺڻ: عمر (استعمال جو مدو): ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==نوٽس ۽ حوالا== ===نوٽس=== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] 2x1t869sgkckgywczh4wtcrbz46byzu 394790 394789 2026-07-16T10:02:14Z Memon2025 21315 /* حوالا */ 394790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر <small>(MOS)</small> انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (<small>IC</small>) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال <small>2020</small>ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي.<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن.<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. , ==تاريخ== هارڊويئر: سافٽ ويئر: موجوده اسمارٽ فون برانڊن جي فهرست: وڪرو: استعمال: تنقيد ۽ مسئلا: صحت تي اثر: پابنديون ۽ روڪون: مخصوص ڊجيٽل ڪيمرائن جي جاءِ وٺڻ: عمر (استعمال جو مدو): ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==نوٽس== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] 14etf5939rs49j5k7dsger28n0muo1g 394791 394790 2026-07-16T10:03:03Z Memon2025 21315 394791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر <small>(MOS)</small> انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (<small>IC</small>) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال <small>2020</small>ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي.<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن.<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. , ==تاريخ== هارڊويئر: سافٽ ويئر: موجوده اسمارٽ فون برانڊن جي فهرست: وڪرو: استعمال: تنقيد ۽ مسئلا: صحت تي اثر: پابنديون ۽ روڪون: مخصوص ڊجيٽل ڪيمرائن جي جاءِ وٺڻ: عمر (استعمال جو مدو): ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==نوٽس== {{notelist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائيل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرائيڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] d0zphnadww1cojwonhx759a6noh01s9 394792 394791 2026-07-16T10:04:38Z Memon2025 21315 /* ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا */ 394792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[فائل:Samsung Galaxy Android Smartphone.jpg|200px|left]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر <small>(MOS)</small> انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (<small>IC</small>) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال <small>2020</small>ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي.<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي.]] 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن.<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> '''سمارٽ فون''' يا ذهين فون (Smartphone) [[عام فون]] جي نسبت ۾ ڪافي خصوصيتن جو مالڪ هوندو آهي. , ==تاريخ== هارڊويئر: سافٽ ويئر: موجوده اسمارٽ فون برانڊن جي فهرست: وڪرو: استعمال: تنقيد ۽ مسئلا: صحت تي اثر: پابنديون ۽ روڪون: مخصوص ڊجيٽل ڪيمرائن جي جاءِ وٺڻ: عمر (استعمال جو مدو): ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==وڌيڪ ڏسو== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[موبائل فون]] * [[اينڊرائيڊ]] * موبائيل ڪمپيوٽرن جون فهرستن * موبائيل ايپ جي تقسيم وارن پليٽ فارمز جي فهرست * ميڊيا ٽرانسفر پروٽوڪول * موبائيل انٽرنيٽ ڊيوائس * پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئر * اسمارٽ فون ڪِل سوئچ * اسمارٽ فون زومبي {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==نوٽس== {{notelist}} ==ٻاهرين ڳنڍڻا== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:اسمارٽ فونز| ]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:اينڊرونئڊ]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]] [[زمرو:انٽرنيٽ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ڪلپس تي مشتمل مضمون]] [[زمرو:ڪلائوڊ ڪلائنٽس]] [[زمرو:صارفين لاءِ اليڪٽرانڪس]] [[زمرو:معلومات فراهم ڪندڙ آلات]] [[زمرو:ذاتي ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ]] malk65xxg4e08b4tix2i7y1pr40l7dn ٽيليفون 0 10959 394668 340138 2026-07-15T20:16:41Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* حوالا */ 394668 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ٽيليفون''' هڪ برقي اوزار آهي، جيڪو ماڻهن کي هڪ جاءِ کان ٻي جاءِ تائين [[آواز]] منتقل ڪرڻ جي سهولت فراهم ڪري ٿو. ٽيليفون جو مکيه مقصد آواز ذريعي رابطي کي آسان بڻائڻ آهي، ۽ اهو عام طور تي شخصي، ڪاروباري ۽ سرڪاري مقصدن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ٽيليفون انساني زندگيءَ ۾ انقلاب آڻي ڇڏيو آهي. ان جي بدولت دنيا جا فاصلا گهٽجي ويا آهن، ۽ رابطي جا ذريعا وڌيڪ تيز ۽ موثر ٿي ويا آهن. [[فائل:Telephone.jpg|thumb|ٽيليفون]] == تاريخ == ٽيليفون جي ايجاد جو اعزاز عام طور تي [[اليگزينڊر گراھم بيل|اليگزينڊر گراهم بيل]] کي ڏنو ويندو آهي، جنهن 1876ع ۾ پهريون ٽيليفون پيٽنٽ حاصل ڪيو. ان کان اڳ ڪيترائي سائنسدان ۽ ايجادڪار آواز منتقل ڪرڻ لاءِ تجربا ڪري رهيا هئا، پر بيل جي ڊوائيس ڪامياب ثابت ٿي. == ڪم ڪرڻ جو اصول == ٽيليفون آواز کي برقي سگنلن ۾ تبديل ڪري، ان کي تار يا وائرليس ذريعن ذريعي ٻي جاءِ تي منتقل ڪري ٿو، جتي ان کي ٻيهر آواز ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي. ٽيليفون جي مکيه حصن ۾ شامل آهن: :'''مائڪروفون''': آواز کي برقي سگنلن ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ لاءِ. :'''اسپيڪر''': برقي سگنلن کي آواز ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ لاءِ. :'''ڊائلنگ سسٽم''': نمبر ڊائل ڪرڻ لاءِ. :'''ڪنيڪشن ميڪانزم''': جيڪا ڪال کي گهربل نمبر تائين پهچائي ٿي. == ارتقا == شروع ۾ ٽيليفون ڪيبلن ذريعي ڪم ڪندا هئا، پر جديد دور ۾ موبائل ٽيليفون ۽ انٽرنيٽ ٽيليفوني عام ٿي وئي آهي. :'''زميني ٽيليفون''' (Landline): هي روايتي قسم آهي، جيڪو تار ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آهي. :'''[[موبائل فون]]''': وائرليس رابطي جو اوزار، جيڪو سيلولر نيٽورڪ ذريعي ڪم ڪري ٿو. :'''[[سمارٽ فون]]''': موبائل فون جو جديد روپ، جنهن ۾ انٽرنيٽ، ڪئميرا، ۽ مختلف ايپس موجود آهن. == ٽيليفون جا فائدا == #'''تيز رابطو''': ڪنهن به جاءِ تان آسانيءَ سان رابطو ڪرڻ جي سهولت. #'''دنيا کي ويجهو آڻڻ''': جغرافيائي حدون ختم ڪري ٿي. #'''ڪاروبار ۾ اهميت''': ڪاروباري رابطن کي آسان بڻائڻ. #'''ايمرجنسي مدد''': جلدي ۽ بروقت مدد حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ. == ٽيليفون جا نقصان == #'''خرچ''': ڊگهي ڪالز يا انٽرنيٽ استعمال ڪرڻ جي قيمت. #'''گهٽ شخصيت پسند رابطا''': سامهون ڳالهائڻ وارو جذباتي رابطو گهٽ ٿي سگهي ٿو. #'''اڻڄاتل خطرا''': فون ذريعي فراڊ ۽ ڌوڪيبازي جا واقعا. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] p8cdwb95xrvtj3135kgyf3q2a9iam70 ٿڻائتا جانور 0 11260 394819 367191 2026-07-16T11:50:11Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Class of animals with milk-producing glands}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox settlement | name = Mammals | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|225|0|[[Late Triassic]] – Recent; 225 or 167–0 Ma|earliest=225|PS=See [[#variations|discussion of dates]] in text}} <!-- Ambondro, Amphilestes and Amphitherium are dated about 167 Ma, providing the date for the monotreme-therian divergence. Adelobasilius and Tikitherium are dated 225 Ma, the date used for the first known mammals as determined morphologically . --> | image = <imagemap> File:Mammal collage.png|300px rect 0 0 400 300 [[Monotreme]] rect 400 0 800 300 [[Opossum]] rect 800 0 1200 300 [[Kangaroo]] rect 0 300 400 600 [[Proboscidea]] rect 400 300 800 600 [[Armadillo]] rect 800 300 1200 600 [[Sloth]] rect 0 600 400 900 [[Bat]] rect 400 600 800 900 [[Cetacea]] rect 800 600 1200 900 [[Deer]] rect 0 900 400 1200 [[Rhinoceros]] rect 400 900 800 1200 [[Hedgehog]] rect 800 900 1200 1200 [[Pinniped]] rect 0 1200 400 1500 [[Raccoon]] rect 400 1200 800 1500 [[Rodent]] rect 800 1200 1200 1500 [[Primate]] </imagemap> | display_parents = 3 | taxon = Mammalia | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Living subgroups | subdivision = * [[Monotremata]] * [[Theria]] ** [[Marsupialia]] ** [[Placentalia]] }} '''ٿن وارا جانور''' يا مئمل (mammals)، <ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dmamma|title=mamma|last1=Lewis|first1=Charlton T.|last2=Short|first2=Charles|dictionary=A Latin Dictionary|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|date=1879|access-date=2022-09-29|archive-date=2022-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929134522if_/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry%3Dmamma|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> مماليا [[درجو (حياتيات)|جماعت]] جو هڪ [[ڪرنگهي وارا جانور|فقاري جانور]] آهي. هن جانورن ۾ ٿن؛ کير پيدا ڪندڙ مئمري گلينڊ، جي موجودگيءَ، سندن ٻارن کي کير پيارڻ لاءِ، [[دماغ]] جو هڪ وسيع نيوڪورٽيڪس (neocortex) علائقو، فر يا [[وار]] ۽ ٽن وچين ڪنن جي هڏا، انهن کي [[ريڙهيون پائيندڙ|ريپٽائلس]] ۽ [[پکي|پکين]] کان ڌار ڪن ٿا، جنهن مان سندن ابن ڏاڏن، ڪاربونيفئرس دور، 30 ڪروڙ سال اڳ، ۾ ڌار ٿي ويا هئا. تقريبن 6,400 موجود مماليا جي [[نوع (حياتيات)|نوعن]] کي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي ۽ 29 [[ترتيب (حياتيات)|آرڊرن]] ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. مئمل جو سڀ کان وڏو آرڊر، نوع جي تعداد جي لحاظ کان، ڪوئا، چمگادڙ ۽ يوليپوٽيفلا شامل آهن. ايندڙ ٽي ۾، پرائيميٽ (بشمول انسان، بندر ۽ ليمر)، اڍ ٿيل پير وارا انگوليٽ (جنهن ۾ سوئر، اُٺ ۽ وهيل شامل آهن) ۽ ڪارنيووروا (بشمول ٻليون، ڪتا ۽ سيل مڇي) شامل آهن. مئمل سائناپسيڊا (Synapsida) جا واحد بچيل جانور آهن؛ هي ڪليڊ، ساروپسيڊا (Sauropsida) (ريڙهيون پائيندڙ ۽ پکين) سان گڏ ٿي، وڏو امنيوٽا (Amniota) ڪليڊ ٺاهي ٿو. ابتدائي سائناپسڊ (synapsids) کي "پيليڪوسارس" سڏيو ويندو آهي. وڌيڪ ترقي يافته، ٿيراپسڊ، گادالوپين دور جي دوران غالب ٿي ويا. مئمل سائنوڊونٽ (cynodonts)، ٿيراپسڊ جو هڪ ترقي يافته گروهه اهي، جيڪو آخري ٽراسيسڪ کان ابتدائي جوراسڪ دور ۾ پيدا ٿيو. مئمل پنهنجو جديد تنوع سينوزوئڪ دور جي پيليوجين ۽ نيوجين دورن ۾، غير ايوين ڊائنوسار جي ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ حاصل ڪيو ۽ 66 ملين سال اڳ کان وٺي اڄ تائين غالب زميني جانورن جو گروهه رهيو آهي. مئمل جي بنيادي جسم جو قسم چوپايو (quadrupedal) آهي، اڪثر مئمل زميني حرڪت لاءِ چار پيرون (Limbs) استعمال ڪندا آهن؛ پر ڪن ۾، هي پير، سمنڊ ۾، هوا ۾، وڻن ۾ يا زير زمين زندگيءَ لاءِ ٺاهيا ويا آهن. بائپئڊ صرف ٻن هيٺين پيرن کي حرڪت ڪرڻ لاء موافقت ڪيو آهي، جڏهن ته سيٽيشين ۽ سامونڊي ڍڳي جا پوئين پير رڳو اندريون نشان آهن. مئمل جو ماپ 30 کان 40 مليميٽر (1.2-1.6 انچ)، ننڍي چمگادڙ کان، 30 ميٽر (98 فوٽ)، نيري وهيل، سڀ کان وڏو جانور جيڪا موجود آهن، تائين هوندو آهي. ڄمار ٻن سالن کان وهيل مڇي لاءِ 211 سالن تائين مختلف ٿئي ٿو. سڀ جديد مئمل ٻار کي جنم ڏين ٿا سواءِ مونوٽريمس جي پنجن قسمن جي، جيڪي آنا ڏين ٿا. سڀ کان وڌيڪ نسلن سان مالا مال گروپ ويويپارس پلئسنٽل مئمل آهي. انهن جو نالو عارضي عضوو (پلاسينٽا) لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي جيڪو اولاد پاران حمل دوران ماءُ کان غذائي حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. اڪثر مئمل ذهانت وارا هوندا آهن، جن ۾ ڪي وڏا دماغ، خود آگاهي ۽ اوزار جي استعمال سان واقفيت وارا هوندا آهن. مئمل ڪيترن ئي طريقن سان ڳالهه ٻولهه ۽ آواز ڏئي سگھن ٿا، جن ۾ الٽراسائونڊ جي پيداوار، خوشبوءِ نشان لڳائڻ، الارم سگنلز، ڳائڻ، ايڪولوڪيشن؛ ۽ انسانن جي صورت ۾، پيچيده ٻولين جا مالڪ آهن. مئمل پاڻ کي ٽٽڻ-جوڙڻ واري خاندان ۽ درجه بندي ۾ منظم ڪري سگهن ٿا، پر اڪيلائي ۽ علائقائي به ٿي سگهن ٿا. گهڻا مئمل پولي گائنس هوندا آهن، پر ڪجهه مونو گائنس يا پولي ائنڊرس ٿي سگهن ٿا. انسانن پاران ڪيترن ئي قسمن جي مئمل جانور کي پالڻ نيو پاولٿڪ انقلاب ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ شڪار ۽ گڏ ڪرڻ جي جاءِ تي زراعت کي انسانن لاءِ خوراڪ جو بنيادي ذريعو بڻايو ويو، ج انساني سماجن جي هڪ وڏي بحاليءَ جو سبب بڻجي ويو، جنهن ۾ خانه بدوشي کان وڏين گروهن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ تعاون سان مستقل رهائش تائين ۽ آخرڪار پهرين تهذيبن جي ترقي ٿي. پالتو جانور ٽرانسپورٽ ۽ زراعت لاء طاقت، گڏوگڏ خوراڪ (گوشت ۽ کير جون شيون)، فر ۽ چمڙي مهيا ڪيا ۽ مهيا ڪرڻ جاري رکو آهي.[[فائل:פארק הכרמל 5 - גנים לאומיים בצפון הארץ - אתרי מורשת 2016 (700).jpg|thumb|ڍڳي، هڪ پالتو ٿڻ وارو جانور]]مئمل پڻ شڪار ڪيا ويندا آهن ۽ راندين لاءِ ڊوڙايا ويندا آهن، انهن کي پالتو جانور ۽ مختلف قسمن جا ڪم ڪندڙ جانورن طور رکيو ويندو آهي ۽ سائنس ۾ ماڊل آرگنزم طور استعمال ٿيندا آهن. مئمل کي پيليولٿڪ زماني کان وٺي فن ۾ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ۽ ادب، فلم ۽ مذهب ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويو آهي. انهن جي انگن ۾ گهٽتائي ۽ ڪيترن ئي ٿڻ واري جانورن جي ختم ٿيڻ جو سبب بنيادي طور تي انساني شڪار ۽ رهائش جي تباهي، بنيادي طور تي جنگلات جي تباهي آهي. ==درجه بندي== {{Main|مماليا جي درجابندي }} {{See also|پلئسينٽل مماليا جي فهرست |مونوٽريمز ۽ مارسوپيئلز جي فهرست |مماليا جي نسلن جي فهرست|مماليا جي نوعن جي فهرست}} {{Pie chart |caption=Over 70% of mammal species are in the orders [[Rodent]]ia, [[Chiroptera]], and [[Eulipotyphla]]. |label1=[[Rodentia]] |value1=40.5 |color1=#63aafe |label2=[[Chiroptera]] |value2=22.2 |color2=#dd2d32 |label3=[[Eulipotyphla]] |value3=8.8 |color3=#fff58c |label4=[[Primates]] |value4=7.8 |color4=#4ee257 |label5=[[Artiodactyla]] |value5=5.4 |color5=#fea746 |label6=[[Carnivora]] |value6=4.7 |color6=#6711ff |label7=[[Diprotodontia]] |value7=2.3 |color7=#865357 |label8=[[Didelphimorphia]] |value8=1.9 |color8=#00ccff |label9=[[Lagomorpha]] |value9=1.7 |color9=#a2bd90 |label10=[[Dasyuromorphia]] |value10=1.3 |color10=#ccffcc |label11=[[Afrosoricida]] |value11=0.8 |color11=#ffff99 |label12=[[Cingulata]] |value12=0.3 |color12=#ff99cc |label13=[[Macroscelidea]] |value13=0.3 |color13=#33cccc |label14=[[Peramelemorphia]] |value14=0.3 |color14=#cc99ff |label15=[[Perissodactyla]] |value15=0.3 |color15=#3366ff |label16=[[Pilosa]] |value16=0.3 |color16=#99cc00 |label17=[[Scandentia]] |value17=0.3 |color17=#ffcc99 |label18=[[Paucituberculata]] |value18=0.1 |label19=[[Pholidota]] |value19=0.1 |label20=[[Hyracoidea]] |value20=0.09 |color20=#99ccff |label21=[[Monotremata]] |value21=0.08 |color21=#ff6600 |label22=[[Sirenia]] |value22=0.06 |label23=[[Proboscidea]] |value23=0.05 |color23=#003366 |label24=[[Dermoptera]] |value24=0.03 |color24=#ccffff |label25=[[Microbiotheria]] |value25=0.03 |label26=[[Notoryctemorphia]] |value26=0.03 |label27=[[Tubulidentata]] |value27=0.02 }} جڏهن کان [[ڪارل لينئي|ڪارل لينيئي]] شروعاتي طور تي [[درجو (حياتيات)|طبقن]] جي وضاحت ڪئي هئي ۽ هن وقت جڏهن، ڪابه درجه بندي نظام کي عالمي طور تي قبول نه ڪيو ويو آهي، مماليا جي درجي بندي ڪيترن ئي ترميمن جي ذريعي ڪئي وئي آهي. ميڪينا ۽ بئل (1997) ۽ ولسن ۽ ريڊر (2005) مفيد مجموعا مهيا ڪن ٿا.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Vaughan TA, Ryan JM, Czaplewski NJ|year=2013|chapter=Classification of Mammals|title=Mammalogy|edition=6th|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-1-284-03209-3}}</ref> سمپسن (1945) مماليا جي اصليت ۽ رشتن جي نظميات مهيا ڪري ٿو جيڪا 20هين صدي جي آخر تائين عالمي طور تي سيکاريا ويا هئا.<ref name="Simpson-19452">{{cite journal|vauthors=Simpson GG|author-link=George Gaylord Simpson|title=Principles of classification, and a classification of mammals|journal=[[American Museum of Natural History]]|volume=85|year=1945}}</ref> بهرحال، سال 1945ع کان وٺي، نئين ۽ وڌيڪ تفصيلي ڄاڻ جو هڪ وڏو مقدار آهستي آهستي مليو آهي؛ پيلئنٽالاجي رڪارڊ کي ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنو ويو آهي ۽ وچئين سالن ۾، جزوي طور تي ڪليڊسٽڪس جي نئين تصور ذريعي، خود نظام سازي جي نظرياتي بنيادن جي باري ۾ تمام گهڻو بحث ۽ پيش رفت ڏٺو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ فيلڊ ورڪ ۽ ليبارٽري ڪم ترقي يافته طور تي سمپسن جي درجه بندي کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو آهي، اهو معلوم مسئلن جي باوجود، مماليا جي آفيشيل درجه بندي جي ويجهو آهي.<ref name="Szalay2">{{cite journal|vauthors=Szalay FS|year=1999|title=Classification of mammals above the species level: Review|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=19|number=1|pages=191–195|jstor=4523980|doi=10.1080/02724634.1999.10011133|issn=0272-4634}}</ref> سڀ کان وڌيڪ مماليا، جن ۾ ڇھ سڀ کان وڌيڪ [[نوع (حياتيات)|نوعن]] سان مالا مال [[ترتيب (حياتيات)|آرڊر]] شامل آھن، پلئسينٽل گروپ سان تعلق رکن ٿا. [[نسل (حياتيات)|نسلن]] جي تعداد ۾ ٽي سڀ کان وڏا آرڊر آهن؛ # روڊينشيا: ڪوئا، پورڪيوپينز، بيور، ڪيپيبارا ۽ ٻيا ٿڌڙا جانور # ڪروپٽيرا: چمگادڙون ۽ # يوليپوٽائيڦلا: شريو، مولز ۽ سولينوڊون ايندڙ ٽي وڏا آرڊر، جيڪا استعمال ٿيل حياتياتي درجه بندي منصوبي تي منحصر ڪرن ٿا، هيٽ آهن؛ # پرائيميٽ: بن مانس، بندر ۽ ليمر # سئٽارٽيوڊڪٽائلا: وهيل مڇي، اٺ، سوئر وغيره ۽ # ڪارنيوورا: جنهن ۾ شينهن، ڪتا، ٻليون، ريڙ، سيل مڇي ۽ اتحادي شامل آهن.<ref name="MSW3intro2">{{MSW3|heading=Preface and introductory material|page=xxvi|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> ميمل اسپيسيز آف دي ورلڊ جي مطابق، 2006ع ۾ 5,416 نوعن جي سڃاڻپ ڪئي وئي. انھن کي 1,229 [[نسل (حياتيات)|نسلن]]، 153 [[خاندان (حياتيات)|خاندانن]] ۽ 29 [[ترتيب (حياتيات)|آرڊرن]] ۾ ورهايو ويو.<ref name="MSW3intro3">{{MSW3|heading=Preface and introductory material|page=xxvi|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> 2008ع ۾، انٽرنيشنل يونين فار ڪنزرويشن آف نيچر (IUCN) پنهنجي IUCN جي ريڊ لسٽ لاءِ پنجن سالن جي عالمي درجابندي جو جائزو مڪمل ڪيو، جنهن ۾ 5,488 نسلن جي ڳڻپ ڪئي وئي.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mammals|work=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|date=April 2010|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN)|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=3 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903200637/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals|url-status=live}}</ref> سال 2018ع ۾ جرنل آف ميمالاجي ۾ شايع ٿيل تحقيق مطابق، تسليم ٿيل مماليا جي نسلن جو تعداد 6,495 آهي، جن ۾ 96 تازو ئي معدوم/ختم ٿي ويا آهن.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Burgin CJ, Colella JP, Kahn PL, Upham NS|date=1 February 2018|title=How many species of mammals are there?|journal=[[Journal of Mammalogy]]|volume=99|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyx147|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===تعريف=== لفظ "مئمل" جديد آهي، جيڪو سائنسي نالي "مئمليا" (Mammalia) مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو 1758ع ۾ ڪارل لنيئي ٺاهيو هو، جيڪو لاطيني لفظ، "مما" (Mamma يعني پستان) مان نڪتل آهي. 1988ع جي هڪ با اثر جرنل ۾، ٽموٿي روئي "مئمليا" جي ڦائلوجئنيٽيڪل طور تي وضاحت ڪئي ته مماليا جو تاج گروپ، ڪليڊ جنهن ۾ سڀ کان تازو عام جاندار مونوٽريمس (ڪڊناس ۽ پلئٽيپس) ۽ ٿيريئن مماليا (مارسوپيئلز ۽ پلئسينٽل) ۽ ان جي سڀني نسلن تي مشتمل آهي. جيئن ته هن جا ابا ڏاڏا جراسڪ دور ۾ رهندا هئا، روئي جي تعريف سڀني جانورن کي اڳئين ٽراسڪ دور مان خارج ڪري ٿي، ان حقيقت جي باوجود ته هارميڊيا ۾ ٽراسڪ فوسلز 19هين صدي جي وچ کان وٺي مماليا جي حوالي ڪيا ويا آهن. جيڪڏهن مئمليا کي تاج گروهه سمجهيو وڃي، ته ان جي اصليت جو اندازو لڳائي سگهجي ٿو جيئن جانورن جي پهرين ڄاتل ظاهري طور تي ٻين جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه موجود مماليا سان وڌيڪ ويجهي سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ٽي.ايس. ڪيمپ هڪ وڌيڪ روايتي تعريف مهيا ڪئي آهي ته "سائناپسڊ جن ۾، مٿين ۽ هيٺين دانت جي وچ ۾، حرڪت لاء هڪ ٽرانسورس جزو سان، يا برابر طور تي، ڏندن جي علامت آهي"، ڪيمپ جي نظر ۾، سينوڪونڊون ۽ جيئري مماليا جي آخري عام ابن ڏاڏن سان پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪليڊ آهي. سڀ کان پهرين مشهور سائناپسڊ، ڪيمپ جي تعريف کي مطمئن ڪندڙ، ٽڪيٿيريئم (Tikitherium) آهي، تنهنڪري مماليا جي ظاهر ٿيڻ هن وسيع معنى ۾ هن آخري ٽرائيئسڪ تاريخ ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. The word "[[:wikt:mammal|mammal]]" is modern, from the scientific name ''Mammalia'' coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''[[wikt:mamma#Latin|mamma]]'' ("teat, pap"). In an influential 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia [[phylogenetically]] as the [[crown group]] of mammals, the [[clade]] consisting of the [[most recent common ancestor]] of living [[monotreme]]s ([[echidna]]s and [[platypus]]es) and [[theria]]n mammals ([[marsupial]]s and [[placental]]s) and all descendants of that ancestor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rowe T |year=1988 |title=Definition, diagnosis, and origin of Mammalia |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=241–264 |url=https://www.geo.utexas.edu/faculty/rowe/Publications/pdf/010%20Rowe%201988.pdf |doi=10.1080/02724634.1988.10011708 |bibcode=1988JVPal...8..241R |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118163712/http://www.geo.utexas.edu/faculty/rowe/Publications/pdf/010%20Rowe%201988.pdf |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118163712/http://www.geo.utexas.edu/faculty/rowe/Publications/pdf/010%20Rowe%201988.pdf |date=18 January 2024 }}</ref> Since this ancestor lived in the [[Jurassic]] period, Rowe's definition excludes all animals from the earlier [[Triassic]], despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the [[Haramiyida]] have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Student's Elements of Geology | vauthors = Lyell C |author-link=Charles Lyell |year=1871 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |page=347 |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=634gAQAAIAAJ|page=347}} |isbn=978-1-345-18248-4}}</ref> If Mammalia is considered as the crown group, its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others. ''[[Ambondro mahabo|Ambondro]]'' is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while ''[[Amphilestes]]'' and ''[[Amphitherium]]'' are more closely related to the therians; as fossils of all three genera are dated about {{ma|167|million years ago}} in the [[Middle Jurassic]], this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cifelli RL, Davis BM |title=Paleontology. Marsupial origins |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5652 |pages=1899–1900 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14671280 |doi=10.1126/science.1092272|s2cid=83973542 }}</ref> [[T. S. Kemp]] has provided a more traditional definition: "[[Synapsid]]s that possess a [[dentary]]–[[squamosal bone|squamosal]] jaw articulation and [[occlusion (dentistry)|occlusion]] between upper and lower molars with a transverse component to the movement" or, equivalently in Kemp's view, the clade originating with the last common ancestor of ''[[Sinoconodon]]'' and living mammals.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://doc.rero.ch/record/200125/files/PAL_E3904.pdf |location=United Kingdom |title=The Origin and Evolution of Mammals |vauthors=Kemp TS |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-850760-4 |page=3 |oclc=232311794 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=26 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926060152/https://doc.rero.ch/record/200125/files/PAL_E3904.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The earliest-known synapsid satisfying Kemp's definitions is ''[[Tikitherium]]'', dated {{ma|225|Ma}}, so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this [[Late Triassic]] date.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Datta PM |year=2005 |title=Earliest mammal with transversely expanded upper molar from the Late Triassic (Carnian) Tiki Formation, South Rewa Gondwana Basin, India |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=200–207 |doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0200:EMWTEU]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=131236175 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Luo ZX, Martin T |year=2007 |title=Analysis of Molar Structure and Phylogeny of Docodont Genera |journal=Bulletin of Carnegie Museum of Natural History |volume=39 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.2992/0145-9058(2007)39[27:AOMSAP]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=29846648 |url=https://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/13543816/1018125207/name/Luo+y+Martin+2007-+molar+structure+and+phylogeny+of+docodonts.pdf |access-date=8 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225517/http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/13543816/1018125207/name/Luo+y+Martin+2007-+molar+structure+and+phylogeny+of+docodonts.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225517/http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/13543816/1018125207/name/Luo+y+Martin+2007-+molar+structure+and+phylogeny+of+docodonts.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> However, this animal may have actually evolved during the Neogene.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Averianov |first1=Alexander O. |last2=Voyta |first2=Leonid L. |date=March 2024 |title=Putative Triassic stem mammal Tikitherium copei is a Neogene shrew |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10914-024-09703-w |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/s10914-024-09703-w |issn=1064-7554}}</ref> ===Molecular classification of placentals=== [[File:OrthoMaM v10b 2019 116genera circular tree.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Genus-level molecular phylogeny of 116 extant mammals inferred from the gene tree information of 14,509 [[coding region|coding DNA sequences]].<ref name=Scornavacca2019>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scornavacca C, Belkhir K, Lopez J, Dernat R, Delsuc F, Douzery EJ, Ranwez V | title = OrthoMaM v10: Scaling-up orthologous coding sequence and exon alignments with more than one hundred mammalian genomes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 861–862 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30698751 | pmc = 6445298 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msz015 }}</ref> The major clades are colored: marsupials (magenta), xenarthrans (orange), afrotherians (red), laurasiatherians (green), and euarchontoglirans (blue).]] As of the early 21st century, molecular studies based on [[DNA]] analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families. Most of these findings have been independently validated by [[retrotransposon]] [[retrotransposon marker|presence/absence data]].<ref name=Kriegs2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kriegs JO, Churakov G, Kiefmann M, Jordan U, Brosius J, Schmitz J | title = Retroposed elements as archives for the evolutionary history of placental mammals | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = e91 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16515367 | pmc = 1395351 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placental mammals—[[Afrotheria]], [[Xenarthra]] and [[Boreoeutheria]]—which [[speciation|diverged]] in the [[Cretaceous]]. The relationships between these three lineages is contentious, and all three possible hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]]. These hypotheses are [[Atlantogenata]] (basal Boreoeutheria), [[Epitheria]] (basal Xenarthra) and [[Exafroplacentalia]] (basal Afrotheria).<ref name=Nishiharaetal2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nishihara H, Maruyama S, Okada N | title = Retroposon analysis and recent geological data suggest near-simultaneous divergence of the three superorders of mammals | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 106 | issue = 13 | pages = 5235–5240 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19286970 | pmc = 2655268 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0809297106 | bibcode = 2009PNAS..106.5235N | doi-access = free }}</ref> Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages—[[Euarchontoglires]] and [[Laurasiatheria]]. Estimates for the divergence times between these three placental groups range from 105 to 120&nbsp;million years ago, depending on the type of DNA used (such as [[nuclear DNA|nuclear]] or [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]])<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Springer MS, Murphy WJ, Eizirik E, O'Brien SJ | title = Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 1056–1061 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12552136 | pmc = 298725 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0334222100 | bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.1056S | doi-access = free }}</ref> and varying interpretations of [[paleogeographic]] data.<ref name=Nishiharaetal2009/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=1 | Tarver et al. 2016<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tarver JE, Dos Reis M, Mirarab S, Moran RJ, Parker S, O'Reilly JE, King BL, O'Connell MJ, Asher RJ, Warnow T, Peterson KJ, Donoghue PC, Pisani D | display-authors = 6 | title = The Interrelationships of Placental Mammals and the Limits of Phylogenetic Inference | journal = Genome Biology and Evolution | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 330–344 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26733575 | pmc = 4779606 | doi = 10.1093/gbe/evv261 | hdl = 1983/64d6e437-3320-480d-a16c-2e5b2e6b61d4 }}</ref> ! colspan=1 | Sandra Álvarez-Carretero et al. 2022<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Álvarez-Carretero S, Tamuri AU, Battini M, Nascimento FF, Carlisle E, Asher RJ, Yang Z, Donoghue PC, dos Reis M |display-authors=8 |title=A species-level timeline of mammal evolution integrating phylogenomic data |journal=Nature |volume= 602|issue=7896 |pages=263–267 |date=2022 |pmid= 34937052|pmc= |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04341-1|bibcode=2022Natur.602..263A |hdl=1983/de841853-d57b-40d9-876f-9bfcf7253f12 |s2cid=245438816 |url=https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/75979 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |website=Figshare |title=Data for A Species-Level Timeline of Mammal Evolution Integrating Phylogenomic Data |date=2021 |doi=10.6084/m9.figshare.14885691.v1 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_for_A_Species-Level_Timeline_of_Mammal_Evolution_Integrating_Phylogenomic_Data_/14885691 |access-date=2023-11-11 |last1=Alvarez-Carretero |first1=Sandra |last2=Tamuri |first2=Asif |last3=Battini |first3=Matteo |last4=Nascimento |first4=Fabricia F. |last5=Carlisle |first5=Emily |last6=Asher |first6=Robert |last7=Yang |first7=Ziheng |last8=Donoghue |first8=Philip |last9=dos Reis |first9=Mario |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216063755/https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_for_A_Species-Level_Timeline_of_Mammal_Evolution_Integrating_Phylogenomic_Data_/14885691 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- | style="vertical-align:top| {{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:70% |label1='''Mammalia''' |1={{Clade |1=[[Monotremata]] |label2=[[Theria]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Marsupialia]] |label2=[[Placentalia]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Atlantogenata]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Xenarthra]] |2=[[Afrotheria]] }} |label2=[[Boreoeutheria]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Euarchontoglires]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Glires]] |2=[[Euarchonta]] [[File:Bechuana of Distinction-1841 (white background).jpg|50 px|''Homo sapiens'']] }} |label2=[[Laurasiatheria]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Eulipotyphla]] |label2=[[Scrotifera]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Chiroptera]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Ferae]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Pholidota]] |2=[[Carnivora]] [[File:Zalophus californianus J. Smit (white background).jpg|50 px|''Zalophus californianus'']] }} |label2=[[Euungulata]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Perissodactyla]] [[File:Rhino white background.jpg|50 px|''Diceros bicornis'']] |2=[[Artiodactyla]] [[File:Eubalaena glacialis NOAA.jpg|70 px|''Eubalaena glacialis'']] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} | {{Clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:70% |label1='''Mammalia''' |1={{Clade |label1=[[Yinotheria]] |1=[[Monotremata]] [[File:Genera mammalium Ornithorhynchus anatinus.jpg|50 px|''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'']] |label2=[[Theria]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Marsupialia]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Paucituberculata]] [[File:Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data (Paucituberculata).png|50 px]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Didelphimorphia]] [[File:A hand-book to the marsupialia and monotremata (Plate XXXII) (white background).jpg|50 px]] |label2=[[Australidelphia]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Microbiotheria]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Agreodontia]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Notoryctemorphia]] [[File:Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data (Notoryctemorphia).png|50 px]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Peramelemorphia]] [[File:Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data (Paramelemorphia).png|50 px]] |2=[[Dasyuromorphia]] [[File:Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data (Dasyuromorphia).png|50 px]] }} }} |2=[[Diprotodontia]] [[File:A monograph of the Macropodidæ, or family of kangaroos (9398404841) white background.jpg|50 px|Macropodidæ]] }} }} }} }} |label2=[[Placentalia]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Atlantogenata]] |1={{Clade |label1=[[Xenarthra]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Cingulata]] [[File:Nine-banded-Armadillo white background.jpg|50 px|''Dasypus novemcinctus'']] |2=[[Pilosa]] [[File:Natural history of the animal kingdom for the use of young people (Plate XV) (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).jpg|50 px|''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'']] }} |label2=[[Afrotheria]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Paenungulata]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Hyracoidea]] [[File:DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg|50 px]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Sirenia]] [[File:Manatee white background.jpg|50 px|''Trichechus'']] |2=[[Proboscidea]] [[File:Indian elephant white background.jpg|50 px|''Elephas maximus'']] }} }} |label2=[[Afroinsectiphilia]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Tubulidentata]] [[File:Aardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png|50 px]] |label2=[[Afroinsectivora]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Macroscelidea]] [[File:Rhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg|50 px]] |2=[[Afrosoricida]] [[File:Potamogale velox illustration.jpg|50 px]] }} }} }} }} |label2=[[Boreoeutheria]] |2={{Clade |label1=[[Laurasiatheria]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Eulipotyphla]] [[File:Mole white background.jpg|50 px|Talpidae]] |label2=[[Scrotifera]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Chiroptera]] [[File:Vampire bat white background.jpg|50 px|Desmodontinae]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Pholidota]] [[File:FMIB 46859 Pangolin a grosse queue white background.jpeg|50 px|Manidae]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Carnivora]] [[File:Cynailurus guttata - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg|50px|''Acinonyx jubatus'']] |label2=[[Euungulata]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Perissodactyla]] [[File:Equus quagga (white background).jpg|50 px|''Equus quagga'']] |2=[[Artiodactyla]] [[File:Walia ibex illustration white background.png|50 px|''Capra walie'']] }} }} }} }} }} |label2=[[Euarchontoglires]] |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=[[Scandentia]] [[File:Die Säugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen (Plate 34) (white background).jpg|50 px]] |label2=[[Glires]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Lagomorpha]] [[File:Bruno Liljefors - Hare studies 1885 white background.jpg|50 px|''Lepus'']] |2=[[Rodentia]] [[File:Ruskea rotta.png|50 px|''Rattus'']] }} }} |2={{Clade |label1=[[Primatomorpha]] |1={{Clade |1=[[Dermoptera]] [[File:Cynocephalus volans Brehm1883 (white background).jpg|50 px]] |2=[[Primate]]s [[File:Die Säugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen (Plate 8) (white background).jpg|50 px|''Cebus olivaceus'']] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} |} == ارتقا == == اناتومي == == رويا == ==انسان ۽ ٻيا مئمل== {{Main|Human uses of mammals}} ===انساني تهذيب ۾=== [[File:Lascaux painting.jpg|thumb|[[Upper Paleolithic]] [[cave painting]] of a variety of large mammals, [[Lascaux]], {{circa|17,300}} years old]] Non-human mammals play a wide variety of roles in human culture. They are the most popular of [[pet]]s, with tens of millions of dogs, cats and other animals including [[rabbit]]s and mice kept by families around the world.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Murthy R, Bearman G, Brown S, Bryant K, Chinn R, Hewlett A, George BG, Goldstein EJ, Holzmann-Pazgal G, Rupp ME, Wiemken T, Weese JS, Weber DJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Animals in healthcare facilities: recommendations to minimize potential risks | journal = Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 495–516 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25998315 | doi = 10.1017/ice.2015.15 |doi-access=free | s2cid = 541760 | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/7086725BAB2AAA4C1949DA5B90F06F3B/S0899823X1500015Xa.pdf/div-class-title-animals-in-healthcare-facilities-recommendations-to-minimize-potential-risks-div.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103092334/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/7086725BAB2AAA4C1949DA5B90F06F3B/S0899823X1500015Xa.pdf/div-class-title-animals-in-healthcare-facilities-recommendations-to-minimize-potential-risks-div.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=The Humane Society of the United States |title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url=https://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |access-date=27 April 2012 |archive-date=7 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407193941/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=USDA |title=U.S. Rabbit Industry profile |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergingissues/downloads/RabbitReport1.pdf |access-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807115557/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergingissues/downloads/RabbitReport1.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mammals such as [[mammoth]]s, horses and deer are among the earliest subjects of art, being found in [[Upper Paleolithic]] [[cave painting]]s such as at [[Lascaux]].<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=McKie R |title=Prehistoric cave art in the Dordogne |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/may/26/prehistoric-cave-art-dordogne |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=9 November 2016 |date=26 May 2013 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531050457/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/may/26/prehistoric-cave-art-dordogne |url-status=live }}</ref> Major artists such as [[Albrecht Dürer]]<!--rhino-->, [[George Stubbs]]<!--horses--> and [[Edwin Landseer]]<!--red deer--> are known for their portraits of mammals.<ref name="Jones">{{cite news |vauthors=Jones J |title=The top 10 animal portraits in art |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/jun/27/top-10-animal-portraits-in-art |access-date=24 June 2016 |agency=[[The Guardian]] |date=27 June 2014 |archive-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518105922/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/jun/27/top-10-animal-portraits-in-art |url-status=live }}</ref> Many species of mammals have been [[hunting|hunted]] for sport and for food; deer and [[wild boar]] are especially popular as [[game (hunting)|game animals]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Deer Hunting in the United States: An Analysis of Hunter Demographics and Behavior Addendum to the 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation Report 2001-6 | url=https://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/ref/collection/document/id/292 | publisher=Fishery and Wildlife Service (US) | access-date=24 June 2016 | archive-date=13 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813200949/http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/ref/collection/document/id/292 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Shelton L | work = The Natchez Democrat | title=Recreational Hog Hunting Popularity Soaring | url=https://www.grandviewoutdoors.com/big-game-hunting/recreational-hog-hunting-popularity-soaring/ | publisher=Grand View Outdoors | access-date=24 June 2016 | date=2014-04-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193350/https://www.grandviewoutdoors.com/big-game-hunting/recreational-hog-hunting-popularity-soaring/ | archive-date=12 December 2017 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Nguyen J, Wheatley R | title=Hunting For Food: Guide to Harvesting, Field Dressing and Cooking Wild Game | url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=3XN6CgAAQBAJ|page=6}} | year=2015 | publisher=F+W Media | isbn=978-1-4403-3856-4 | pages=6–77}} Chapters on hunting deer, wild hog (boar), rabbit, and squirrel.</ref> Mammals such as [[horse racing|horses]] and [[greyhound racing|dogs]] are widely raced for sport, often combined with [[gambling|betting on the outcome]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Horse racing | encyclopedia = The Encyclopædia Britannica |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/272329/horse-racing |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221033444/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/272329/horse-racing |archive-date= 21 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Genders R |title=Encyclopaedia of Greyhound Racing |year=1981 |publisher=Pelham Books |isbn=978-0-7207-1106-6|oclc=9324926}}</ref> There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with [[animal rights|rights of their own]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Role of Animals in Human Society | vauthors = Plous S |date=1993 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00906.x |journal=Journal of Social Issues |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–9}}</ref> Mammals further play a wide variety of roles in literature,<ref>{{Cite news|vauthors=Fowler KJ|title=Top 10 books about intelligent animals<!--all 10 are mammals...-->|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/26/top-10-books-intelligent-animals-watership-down-animal-farm|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=9 November 2016|date=26 March 2014|archive-date=28 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528154902/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/26/top-10-books-intelligent-animals-watership-down-animal-farm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gamble N, Yates S |title=Exploring Children's Literature |year=2008 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4129-3013-0 |edition=2nd |location=Los Angeles |oclc=71285210}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Books for Adults|url=https://www.sealsitters.org/marine_mammals/reading.html|website=Seal Sitters|access-date=9 November 2016|archive-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711034305/http://www.sealsitters.org/marine_mammals/reading.html|url-status=live}}</ref> film,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paterson J |title=Animals in Film and Media |journal=Oxford Bibliographies |year=2013 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199791286-0044}}</ref> mythology, and religion.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Johns C |date=2011 |title=Cattle: History, Myth, Art |publisher=The British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-5084-0 |location=London |oclc=665137673}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Hayagrīva: The Mantrayānic Aspect of Horse-cult in China and Japan |publisher=Brill Archive |page=9 | vauthors = van Gulik RH }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Grainger R |title=Lion Depiction across Ancient and Modern Religions |url=https://lionalert.org/page/Lion_Depiction_Across_Ancient_and_Modern_Religions |publisher=ALERT |access-date=6 November 2016 |date=24 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923134807/https://lionalert.org/page/Lion_Depiction_Across_Ancient_and_Modern_Religions |archive-date=23 September 2016 }}</ref> ===استعمال ۽ اهميت=== {{See also|Livestock|Laboratory animal|Pack animal}} [[File:Hand milking a cow at Cobbes Farm Museum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Cattle]] have been [[dairy farming|kept for milk]] for thousands of years.]] The domestication of mammals was instrumental in the [[Neolithic Revolution|Neolithic development of agriculture]] and of [[civilization]], causing farmers to replace [[hunter-gatherer]]s around the world.{{efn|Diamond discussed this matter further in his 1997 book ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]''.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Diamond JM |author-link=Jared Diamond |year=1997 |title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies|chapter=Part 2: The rise and spread of food production |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-03891-0 |oclc=35792200 |chapter-url={{Google books|plainurl=yes |id=PWnWRFEGoeUC |page=176 }}}}</ref>}}<ref name="Larson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson G, Burger J | title = A population genetics view of animal domestication | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 197–205 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23415592 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2013.01.003 | url = https://www.palaeobarn.com/sites/domestication.org.uk/files/downloads/98.pdf | access-date = 9 November 2016 | archive-date = 8 June 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190608065300/http://www.palaeobarn.com/sites/domestication.org.uk/files/downloads/98.pdf | url-status = dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608065300/http://www.palaeobarn.com/sites/domestication.org.uk/files/downloads/98.pdf |date=8 June 2019 }}</ref> This transition from hunting and gathering to [[pastoralism|herding flocks]] and [[agriculture|growing crops]] was a major step in human history. The new agricultural economies, based on domesticated mammals, caused "radical restructuring of human societies, worldwide alterations in biodiversity, and significant changes in the Earth's landforms and its atmosphere... momentous outcomes".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zeder MA | title = Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = 33 | pages = 11597–11604 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18697943 | pmc = 2575338 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0801317105 | bibcode = 2008PNAS..10511597Z | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Domestication|Domestic]] mammals form a large part of the [[livestock]] raised for [[meat]] across the world. They include (2009) around 1.4&nbsp;billion [[cattle]], 1&nbsp;billion [[sheep]], 1&nbsp;billion [[domestic pig]]s,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Graphic detail Charts, maps and infographics. Counting chickens |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts |access-date=6 November 2016 |date=27 July 2011 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715181213/http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Cattle Today |url=https://cattle-today.com/ |title=Breeds of Cattle at CATTLE TODAY |publisher=Cattle-today.com |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-date=15 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715234745/https://cattle-today.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and (1985) over 700&nbsp;million rabbits.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Lukefahr SD, Cheeke PR |title=Rabbit project development strategies in subsistence farming systems |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/U4900T/u4900T0m.htm |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506105314/https://www.fao.org/docrep/U4900T/u4900T0m.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Working animal|Working domestic animals]] including cattle and horses have been used for work and [[transport]] from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised transport and [[agricultural machinery]]. In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, [[pack animal]]s continue to transport goods.<ref name="Pond2004">{{cite book |vauthors=Pond WG |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA248 |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |oclc=57033325 |isbn=978-0-8247-5496-9 |pages=248–250 |access-date=5 October 2018 |archive-date=23 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123110032/https://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA248 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mammal skins provide [[leather]] for [[shoe]]s, [[clothing]] and [[upholstery]]. [[Wool]] from mammals including sheep, goats and [[alpaca]]s has been used for centuries for clothing.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Braaten AW |title=Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion |year=2005 |volume=3 |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |isbn=978-0-684-31394-8 |oclc=963977000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofcl00vale/page/441 441–443] | veditors = Steele V |chapter=Wool |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofcl00vale/page/441 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Quiggle C | title = Alpaca: An Ancient Luxury | journal = Interweave Knits | date = Fall 2000 | pages = 74–76 }}</ref> [[File:Distribution of Mammals on Earth.png|thumb|504x504px|Livestock make up 62% of the world's mammal biomass; humans account for 34%; and wild mammals are just 4%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wild mammals make up only a few percent of the world's mammals |url=https://ourworldindata.org/wild-mammals-birds-biomass |access-date=2023-08-08 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]] Mammals serve a major role in science as [[animal model|experimental animals]], both in fundamental biological research, such as in genetics,<ref>{{cite web |title=Genetics Research |url=https://www.aht.org.uk/cms-display/genetics.html |publisher=Animal Health Trust |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193051/http://www.aht.org.uk/cms-display/genetics.html |archive-date=12 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively to demonstrate their [[pharmacovigilance|safety]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Drug Development |url=https://www.animalresearch.info/en/drug-development/ |publisher=Animal Research.info |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-date=8 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608124406/https://www.animalresearch.info/en/drug-development/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in [[animal testing|experiments]] each year.<ref name="EUstatistics2013">{{cite web |title=EU statistics show decline in animal research numbers |url=https://speakingofresearch.com/2013/12/12/eu-statistics-show-decline-in-animal-research-numbers/ |publisher=Speaking of Research |year=2013 |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-date=24 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424155141/https://speakingofresearch.com/2013/12/12/eu-statistics-show-decline-in-animal-research-numbers/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[knockout mouse]] is a [[genetically modified mouse]] with an inactivated [[gene]], replaced or disrupted with an artificial piece of DNA. They enable the study of [[sequencing|sequenced]] genes whose functions are unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pilcher HR |url=https://www.nature.com/news/1998/030512/full/news030512-17.html |title=It's a knockout |journal=Nature |date=2003 |access-date=6 November 2016 |doi=10.1038/news030512-17 |archive-date=10 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110084106/http://www.nature.com/news/1998/030512/full/news030512-17.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A small percentage of the mammals are non-human primates, used in research for their similarity to humans.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin-the-supply-and-use-of-primates-in-the-eu_17.htm | title=The supply and use of primates in the EU | year=1996 | publisher=European Biomedical Research Association | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117061036/http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin-the-supply-and-use-of-primates-in-the-eu_17.htm | archive-date=2012-01-17}}</ref><ref name="Carlsson2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlsson HE, Schapiro SJ, Farah I, Hau J | title = Use of primates in research: a global overview | journal = American Journal of Primatology | volume = 63 | issue = 4 | pages = 225–237 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15300710 | doi = 10.1002/ajp.20054 | s2cid = 41368228 }}</ref><ref name="Weatherall_etal2006">{{Cite report| vauthors = Weatherall D |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=The use of non-human primates in research |location=London |publisher=Academy of Medical Sciences |url=https://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323084639/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-23 }}</ref> Despite the benefits domesticated mammals had for human development, humans have an increasingly detrimental effect on wild mammals across the world. It has been estimated that the mass of all ''wild'' mammals has declined to only 4% of all mammals, with 96% of mammals being humans and their livestock now (see figure). In fact, terrestrial wild mammals make up only 2% of all mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=[[Hannah Ritchie|Ritchie H]], [[Max Roser|Roser M]] |date=2021-04-15 |title=Biodiversity |url=https://ourworldindata.org/mammals |journal=Our World in Data |access-date=29 August 2021 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211132929/https://ourworldindata.org/mammals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bar-On_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R | title = The biomass distribution on Earth | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 25 | pages = 6506–6511 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29784790 | pmc = 6016768 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1711842115 | bibcode = 2018PNAS..115.6506B | doi-access = free }}</ref> ===مخلوط نسلون=== {{Main|Hybrid (biology)}} {{Multiple image |image1=Equus quagga quagga, coloured.jpg |image2=Rau Quagga on Devils Peak.jpg |width=200 |footer=A true [[quagga]], 1870 (left) vs. a [[Quagga Project|bred-back quagga]], 2014 (right) }} Hybrids are offspring resulting from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals, which usually will result in a high degree of heterozygosity, though hybrid and heterozygous are not synonymous. The deliberate or accidental hybridizing of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown for economic purposes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Price E |year=2008 |title=Principles and applications of domestic animal behavior: an introductory text |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=Ww07sIWTYAAC|page=228}}|location=Sacramento |isbn=978-1-84593-398-2|oclc=226038028}}</ref> Hybrids between different subspecies within a species (such as between the [[Bengal tiger]] and [[Siberian tiger]]) are known as intra-specific hybrids. Hybrids between different species within the same genus (such as between lions and tigers) are known as interspecific hybrids or crosses. Hybrids between different genera (such as between sheep and goats) are known as intergeneric hybrids.<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=O3M4qfxtGhIC|page=13}} |location=Heidelberg | vauthors = Taupitz J, Weschka M |year=2009|title=Chimbrids – Chimeras and Hybrids in Comparative European and International Research |publisher=Springer |page=13 |isbn=978-3-540-93869-9 |oclc=495479133}}</ref> Natural hybrids will occur in [[hybrid zone]]s, where two populations of species within the same genera or species living in the same or adjacent areas will interbreed with each other. Some hybrids have been recognized as species, such as the [[red wolf]] (though this is controversial).<ref>{{cite journal |title=An account of the taxonomy of North American wolves from morphological and genetic analyses |year=2012 |journal=North American Fauna |volume=77 |page=2 |doi=10.3996/nafa.77.0001 |vauthors=Chambers SM, Fain SR, Fazio B, Amaral M |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc700981/ |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2019 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531050233/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc700981/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Artificial selection]], the deliberate [[selective breeding]] of domestic animals, is being used to [[breeding back|breed back]] [[Holocene extinction|recently extinct]] animals in an attempt to achieve an animal breed with a [[phenotype]] that resembles that extinct [[wildtype]] ancestor. A breeding-back (intraspecific) hybrid may be very similar to the extinct wildtype in appearance, ecological niche and to some extent genetics, but the initial [[gene pool]] of that wild type is lost forever with its [[extinction]]. As a result, bred-back breeds are at best vague look-alikes of extinct wildtypes, as [[Heck cattle]] are of the [[aurochs]].<ref name="vanVuure">{{cite book | vauthors = van Vuure T |title=Retracing the Aurochs – History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox |year=2005 |isbn=978-954-642-235-4 |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |oclc=940879282}}</ref> [[Purebred]] wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mooney HA, Cleland EE | title = The evolutionary impact of invasive species | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 10 | pages = 5446–5451 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11344292 | pmc = 33232 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.091093398 | bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.5446M | doi-access = free }}</ref> through the process of [[genetic pollution]], the uncontrolled hybridization, [[introgression]] genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or [[Fitness (biology)|out-competition]] from the [[heterosis|heterosic]] hybrid species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Le Roux JJ, Foxcroft LC, Herbst M, MacFadyen S | title = Genetic analysis shows low levels of hybridization between African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and domestic cats (F. s. catus) in South Africa | journal = Ecology and Evolution | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 288–299 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25691958 | pmc = 4314262 | doi = 10.1002/ece3.1275| bibcode = 2015EcoEv...5..288L }}</ref> When new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact, extinction in some species, especially rare varieties, is possible.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Wilson A |title= Australia's state of the forests report |page=107 |year=2003}}</ref> [[Interbreeding]] can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool. For example, the endangered [[wild water buffalo]] is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the [[Water buffalo|domestic water buffalo]]. Such extinctions are not always apparent from a [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] standpoint. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is a normal evolutionary process, nevertheless, hybridization threatens the existence of rare species.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression | vauthors = Rhymer JM, Simberloff D |journal = Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |date=November 1996 |volume= 27 |pages= 83–109 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Potts BM | veditors = Barbour RC, Hingston AB |year=2001 |title=Genetic pollution from farm forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids: a report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program |publisher= Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation of Australia|isbn= 978-0-642-58336-9|oclc=48794104}}</ref> ===خطرا=== {{See also|Holocene extinction}} [[File:Extinctions Africa Austrailia NAmerica Madagascar.gif|thumb|upright=1.4|Biodiversity of large mammal species per continent before and after humans arrived there]] The loss of species from ecological communities, [[defaunation]], is primarily driven by human activity.<ref name=dirzo/> This has resulted in [[empty forest]]s, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates.<ref name=primack2014>{{Cite book|title=Essentials of Conservation Biology | vauthors = Primack R |publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-60535-289-3 |location=Sunderland, MA |pages=217–245 |edition=6th |oclc=876140621}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vignieri S | title = Vanishing fauna. Introduction | journal = Science | volume = 345 | issue = 6195 | pages = 392–395 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25061199 | doi = 10.1126/science.345.6195.392 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014Sci...345..392V }}</ref> In the [[Quaternary extinction event]], the mass die-off of [[megafauna]]l variety coincided with the appearance of humans, suggesting a human influence. One hypothesis is that humans hunted large mammals, such as the [[woolly mammoth]], into extinction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Burney DA, Flannery TF | title = Fifty millennia of catastrophic extinctions after human contact | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 395–401 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16701402 | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2005.04.022 | url = https://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/Fieldschools/Kauai/Publications/Publication%204.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100610061434/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/Fieldschools/Kauai/Publications/Publication%204.pdf | archive-date = 2010-06-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Diamond J | year=1984 |chapter=Historic extinctions: a Rosetta stone for understanding prehistoric extinctions |title=Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution | veditors = Martin PS, Klein RG | pages=824–862 | location=Tucson| publisher=University of Arizona Press | isbn=978-0-8165-1100-6|oclc=10301944}}</ref> The 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' by [[IPBES]] states that the total [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of wild mammals has declined by 82 percent since the beginning of human civilization.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Watts J |date=6 May 2019 |title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=1 July 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614160705/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|vauthors=McGrath M|date=6 May 2019|title=Nature crisis: Humans 'threaten 1m species with extinction'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48169783|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=30 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630044916/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48169783|url-status=live}}</ref> Wild animals make up just 4% of mammalian [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]] on earth, while humans and their domesticated animals make up 96%.<ref name="Bar-On_2018"/> Various species are predicted to [[list of critically endangered species|become extinct in the near future]],<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Main D | url = https://www.livescience.com/41421-animals-threatened-with-extinction.html | title = 7 Iconic Animals Humans Are Driving to Extinction | work = [[Live Science]] | date = 22 November 2013 | access-date = 25 January 2024 | archive-date = 6 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230106233208/https://www.livescience.com/41421-animals-threatened-with-extinction.html | url-status = live }}</ref> among them the [[rhinoceros]],<ref>{{cite web | url = https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/2011/10/25/poachers-drive-javan-rhino-to-extinction-in-vietnam/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150406103742/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/2011/10/25/poachers-drive-javan-rhino-to-extinction-in-vietnam/ | archive-date = 6 April 2015 | title = Poachers Drive Javan Rhino to Extinction in Vietnam | vauthors = Platt JR | date = 25 October 2011 | publisher = [[Scientific American]] }}</ref> [[giraffe]]s,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/08/giraffe-red-list-vulnerable-species-extinction |title=Giraffes facing extinction after devastating decline, experts warn |vauthors=Carrington D |date=8 December 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813122004/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/08/giraffe-red-list-vulnerable-species-extinction |url-status=live }}</ref> and species of [[primate]]s<ref name="primates">{{cite journal | vauthors = Estrada A, Garber PA, Rylands AB, Roos C, Fernandez-Duque E, Di Fiore A, Nekaris KA, Nijman V, Heymann EW, Lambert JE, Rovero F, Barelli C, Setchell JM, Gillespie TR, Mittermeier RA, Arregoitia LV, de Guinea M, Gouveia S, Dobrovolski R, Shanee S, Shanee N, Boyle SA, Fuentes A, MacKinnon KC, Amato KR, Meyer AL, Wich S, Sussman RW, Pan R, Kone I, Li B | display-authors = 6 | title = Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: Why primates matter | journal = Science Advances | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e1600946 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28116351 | pmc = 5242557 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1600946 | bibcode = 2017SciA....3E0946E }}</ref> and [[pangolin]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/11370277/Pangolins-why-this-cute-prehistoric-mammal-is-facing-extinction.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/11370277/Pangolins-why-this-cute-prehistoric-mammal-is-facing-extinction.html |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Pangolins: why this cute prehistoric mammal is facing extinction| vauthors = Fletcher M |date=31 January 2015 |work=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> According to the WWF's 2020 ''[[Living Planet Report]]'', vertebrate [[wildlife]] populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of human activities, particularly [[overconsumption]], [[population growth]] and [[intensive farming]], which is evidence that humans have triggered a [[sixth mass extinction]] event.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Greenfield P |date=9 September 2020 |title=Humans exploiting and destroying nature on unprecedented scale – report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/10/humans-exploiting-and-destroying-nature-on-unprecedented-scale-report-aoe |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021225045/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/10/humans-exploiting-and-destroying-nature-on-unprecedented-scale-report-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |vauthors=McCarthy D |date=1 October 2020 |title=Terrifying wildlife losses show the extinction end game has begun – but it's not too late for change |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/wildlife-loss-humans-population-agriculture-extinction-b738367.html |work=The Independent |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407003854/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/wildlife-loss-humans-population-agriculture-extinction-b738367.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Hunting alone threatens hundreds of mammalian species around the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/people-are-hunting-primates-bats-and-other-mammals-extinction |title=People are hunting primates, bats, and other mammals to extinction |vauthors=Pennisi E |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=18 October 2016 |work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |access-date=3 February 2017 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020025827/https://www.science.org/content/article/people-are-hunting-primates-bats-and-other-mammals-extinction |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ripple WJ, Abernethy K, Betts MG, Chapron G, Dirzo R, Galetti M, Levi T, Lindsey PA, Macdonald DW, Machovina B, Newsome TM, Peres CA, Wallach AD, Wolf C, Young H | display-authors = 6 | title = Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world's mammals | journal = Royal Society Open Science | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 160498 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27853564 | pmc = 5098989 | doi = 10.1098/rsos.160498 | bibcode = 2016RSOS....360498R | hdl = 1893/24446 }}</ref> Scientists claim that the growing demand for [[meat]] is contributing to [[biodiversity loss]] as this is a significant driver of [[deforestation]] and [[habitat destruction]]; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the [[Amazon rainforest]], are being converted to agricultural land for meat production.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams M, Zalasiewicz J, Haff PK, Schwägerl C, Barnosky AD, Ellis EC |author-link5=Anthony David Barnosky |year=2015 |title=The Anthropocene Biosphere |journal=The Anthropocene Review |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=196–219 |doi=10.1177/2053019615591020|bibcode=2015AntRv...2..196W |s2cid=7771527 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |vauthors=Morell V |date=11 August 2015 |work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |access-date=3 February 2017 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Machovina B, Feeley KJ, Ripple WJ | title = Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 536 | pages = 419–431 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26231772 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022 | bibcode = 2015ScTEn.536..419M }}</ref> Another influence is over-hunting and [[species affected by poaching|poaching]], which can reduce the overall population of game animals,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Redford KH |year=1992 |title=The empty forest |journal=BioScience |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=412–422 |url=http://www.dse.ufpb.br/alexandre/Redford%201992%20-The%20empty%20forest.pdf |doi=10.2307/1311860 |jstor=1311860 |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-date=28 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228092214/http://www.dse.ufpb.br/alexandre/Redford%201992%20-The%20empty%20forest.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> especially those located near villages,<ref name=peres2006>{{cite book| vauthors = Peres CA, Nascimento HS |title=Human Exploitation and Biodiversity Conservation |chapter=Impact of game hunting by the Kayapó of south-eastern Amazonia: implications for wildlife conservation in tropical forest indigenous reserves |volume=3 |issue=8 |year=2006 |pages=287–313 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-5283-5 |oclc=207259298}}</ref> as in the case of [[peccary|peccaries]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altrichter M, Boaglio G |title=Distribution and Relative Abundance of Peccaries in the Argentine Chaco: Associations with Human Factors | journal=Biological Conservation |volume=116 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=217–225 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00192-7|bibcode=2004BCons.116..217A }}</ref> The effects of poaching can especially be seen in the [[ivory trade]] with African elephants.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Gobush K |title=Effects of Poaching on African elephants |url=https://conservationbiology.uw.edu/research-programs/effects-of-poaching-on-african-elephants/ |website=Center For Conservation Biology |publisher=University of Washington |access-date=12 May 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208132610/https://conservationbiology.uw.edu/research-programs/effects-of-poaching-on-african-elephants/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Marine mammals are at risk from entanglement from fishing gear, notably [[Cetacean bycatch|cetaceans]], with discard mortalities ranging from 65,000 to 86,000 individuals annually.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t4890e/T4890E03.htm#ch1.1.10 |chapter=Bycatch of Marine Mammals |title=A global assessment of fisheries bycatch and discards |vauthors=Alverson DL, Freeburg MH, Murawski SA, Pope JG |year=1996 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome |isbn=978-92-5-103555-9 |oclc=31424005 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=17 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217074707/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T4890E/T4890E03.htm#ch1.1.10 |url-status=live }}</ref> Attention is being given to endangered species globally, notably through the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], otherwise known as the Rio Accord, which includes 189 signatory countries that are focused on identifying endangered species and habitats.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Glowka L, Burhenne-Guilmin F, Synge HM, McNeely JA, Gündling L |title=IUCN environmental policy and law paper |series=Guide to the Convention on Biodiversity |year=1994 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |isbn=978-2-8317-0222-3 |oclc=32201845}}</ref> Another notable conservation organization is the IUCN, which has a membership of over 1,200 governmental and [[Non-governmental organization|non-governmental]] organizations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/about |title=About IUCN |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |access-date=3 February 2017 |date=2014-12-03 |archive-date=15 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415031632/https://www.iucn.org/about/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[List of recently extinct mammals|Recent extinctions]] can be directly attributed to human influences.<ref name=ceballos>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD, García A, Pringle RM, Palmer TM | title = Accelerated modern human-induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction | journal = Science Advances | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages = e1400253 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26601195 | pmc = 4640606 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1400253 | bibcode = 2015SciA....1E0253C }}</ref><ref name=dirzo>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dirzo R, Young HS, Galetti M, Ceballos G, Isaac NJ, Collen B | title = Defaunation in the Anthropocene | journal = Science | volume = 345 | issue = 6195 | pages = 401–406 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25061202 | doi = 10.1126/science.1251817 | url = https://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf | bibcode = 2014Sci...345..401D | s2cid = 206555761 | access-date = 25 January 2024 | archive-date = 7 August 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190807115621/https://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> The IUCN characterizes 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fisher DO, Blomberg SP | title = Correlates of rediscovery and the detectability of extinction in mammals | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 278 | issue = 1708 | pages = 1090–1097 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20880890 | pmc = 3049027 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2010.1579 }}</ref> and around 80 mammal species have gone extinct since that time and 2015.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Ceballos G, Ehrlich AH, Ehrlich PR |year=2015|title=The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals |location=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-1-4214-1718-9 |page=69}}</ref> Some species, such as the [[Père David's deer]]<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Jiang, Z. |author2=Harris, R.B. |date=2016 |title=''Elaphurus davidianus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T7121A22159785 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T7121A22159785.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> are [[extinct in the wild]], and survive solely in captive populations. Other species, such as the [[Florida panther]], are [[Ecological extinction|ecologically extinct]], surviving in such low numbers that they essentially have no impact on the ecosystem.<ref name=mckinney2013>{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|plainurl=yes |id=hBntufCOxAsC |page=318}} | vauthors = McKinney ML, Schoch R, Yonavjak L |year=2013 |title=Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions|edition=5th|chapter=Conserving Biological Resources |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-1-4496-6139-7|oclc=777948078}}</ref>{{rp|318}} Other populations are only [[Local extinction|locally extinct]] (extirpated), still existing elsewhere, but reduced in distribution,<ref name=mckinney2013/>{{rp|75–77}} as with the extinction of [[gray whale]]s in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of marine mammals |page=404 |year=2009 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 | vauthors = Perrin WF, Würsig BF, Thewissen JG | author-link3 = Hans Thewissen |oclc=455328678}}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * مماليا جي نسلن جي فهرست - موجود مماليا * مئمالوجسٽ جي فهرست * مونوٽريمز ۽ مارسوپيئلز جي فهرست * پلئسينٽل مماليا جي فهرست * قبل از تاريخ مماليا جي فهرست * خطري جي زد ۾ مماليا جي فهرست * آبادي جي ماپ جي لحاظ کان مماليا جي فهرست * علائقي جي لحاظ کان مماليا جي فهرست * 2000s ۾ بيان ڪيل مماليا جي فهرست * مماليا ثقافت ۾ * ننڍا مماليا {{div col end}} '''ٿن وارا جانور يا مئمل''' (mammals) يا کير ڌارائيندڙ جانور اها [[جانور]] آهن، جنهن جا ٿڻ هوندا آهن ۽ جيڪي پنهنجي ٻچن کي کير پياريندا آهن. ھي جانور [[ڪرنگهي وارا جانور|ڪرنگهي واري جانورن]] جي هڪ جماعت آهن. ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Mammalia}} {{EB1911 poster|Mammalia}} * [https://www.mammaldiversity.org ASM Mammal Diversity Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225111803/https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html |date=25 December 2022 }} * [https://www.biodiversitymapping.org/mammals.htm Biodiversitymapping.org – All mammal orders in the world with distribution maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926130232/http://www.biodiversitymapping.org/mammals.htm |date=2016-09-26 }} * [https://paleocene-mammals.de/ Paleocene Mammals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203140812/http://www.paleocene-mammals.de/ |date=3 February 2024 }}, a site covering the rise of the mammals, paleocene-mammals.de * [https://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Evolution.shtml Evolution of Mammals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125191350/https://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Evolution.shtml |date=25 January 2024 }}, a brief introduction to early mammals, enchantedlearning.com * [https://www.european-mammals.org/php/mapmaker.php European Mammal Atlas EMMA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125191351/https://www.european-mammals.org/php/mapmaker.php |date=25 January 2024 }} from Societas Europaea Mammalogica, European-mammals.org * [https://swfsc.noaa.gov/uploadedFiles/Divisions/PRD/Publications/Jeffersonetal93(14).pdf Marine Mammals of the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608065724/https://swfsc.noaa.gov/uploadedFiles/Divisions/PRD/Publications/Jeffersonetal93(14).pdf |date=8 June 2019 }} – An overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, both fully aquatic and semi-aquatic, noaa.gov * [https://www.mammalogy.org Mammalogy.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301013904/http://www.mammalogy.org/ |date=1 March 2020 }} The American Society of Mammalogists was established in 1919 for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals, and this website includes a mammal image library {{Chordata}} {{Cynodontia|M.|state=autocollapse}} {{Basal mammals|Y.|state=autocollapse}} {{Mammals}} {{Portal bar|Mammals}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q7377}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Mammals| ]] <!-- [[Category:Therapsids]] is a container of the previous [[Category:Synapsids]] is a container of the previous [[Category:Animal classes]] moved to Latin name (Mammalia) redirect --> [[Category:Bathonian first appearances]] [[Category:Extant Middle Jurassic first appearances]] [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:مماليا]] [[زمرو:حيوانات]] [[زمرو:ڪرنگھيدار جانور]] dg5s4jozzk969t6rsooaf8qgjwz27kx بلاول ڀٽو زرداري 0 11447 394737 372858 2026-07-16T02:50:57Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{صندوق معلومات شخص}} '''بلاول ڀٽو زرداري''' پاڪستان پيپلز پارٽي پارليامينٽيرين جو سربراهه آهي۔ هو 21 سيپٽمبر، 1988ع تي پيدا ٿيو. بلاول اڳوڻي وزير اعظم پاڪستان محترمه [[بينظير ڀٽو]] ۽ موجوده شريڪ چيئرمين پاڪستان پيپلز پارٽي پارلمينٽرين [[آصف علي زرداري]] جي اولاد ۾ سڀ کان وڏو آهي. اهڙي طرح هو [[ذوالفقار علي ڀٽو]] جو ڏوهٽو به آهي.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=بلاول%20ڀٽو%20زرداري ''انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد پھريون.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230052646/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%20%DA%80%D9%BD%D9%88%20%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A |date=2019-12-30 }} ''سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو، حيدرآباد، سال 2012ع.</ref> == تعليم == پنهنجي والده جي ٻي دور حڪومت جي دوران بلاول [[ڪراچي گرامر اسڪول]]، [[ڪراچي]] مان ابتدائي تعليم حاصل ڪئي۔ هن [[فوربلز انٽرنيشنل اسڪول]]، [[اسلام آباد]] مان به ابتدائي تعليم حاصل ڪئي۔ بعد ۾ جبڏهن هو [[دبئي]] منتقل ٿيا ته هن پنهنجي تعليم راشد پبلڪ اسڪول، دبئي ۾ جاري رکي۔ جتي هو اسٽوڊنٽ ڪائونسل جو نائب چيئرمين هيو۔ راشد پبلڪ اسڪول، دبئي جي شهزادن ۽ اميرن جي ليء خاص اسڪول آهي۔ هو تائيڪوانڊو ۾ بليڪ بيلٽ به رکي ٿو۔ هاڻي هو ڪرائسٽ چرچ اسڪول، [[جامعه آڪسفورڊ]] ۾ زير تعليم آهي۔ 2008ء ۾ اتي هن جو پهريون تعليمي سال هيو۔ هن جامعه ۾ انجي ناني ۽ والده به تعليم حاصل ڪئي. == مشغلا == بلاول کي [[گھوڙي سواري]]، [[تيراڪي]] ، [[نشاني بازي]] پسند آهي۔ == سياسي پارٽي جي سربراهي == بلاول، پنهنجي والده جي قتل کان بعد 30 ڊسمبر، [[2007|2007ء]] تي [[پاڪستان پيپلز پارٽي]] جو سربراهه نامزد ٿيو۔ پر جئن ته اڃان تعليم مڪمل نه آهي ان ڪري والد آصف علي زرداري پارٽي جو شريڪ سربراهه آهي جيڪو جماعت کي هلائي رهيو آهي۔ والده جي قتل کان بعد هن جو نالي بلاول علي زرداري مان تبدیل ڪري بلاول بڀٽو زرداري ڪيو ويو هو ڇو ته پيپلز پارٽي پنهنجي باني [[ذوالفقار علي ڀٽو]] جي ڪرشماتي شخصيت جي ڪري ملڻ واري شهرت کي وڃائڻ نٿي چاهي "ڀٽو عنصر" جو استعمال ئي بلاول جي نالي جي تبديلي جو سبب بڻيو۔ هن جي پيپلز پارٽي جي چيئرمين جي عهدي تي تعيناتي کي ملڪ جي جمهوري حلقن چڱي نگاهه سان نه ڏٺو ڇو ته ملڪ جي سڀ کان وڏي جمهوري قوت هجڻ جي ناطي پيپلز پارٽي کي پنهنجي سربراهه جو انتخاب جمهوري طريقي سان ڪرڻ گھرجي ها۔ ٻي طرف پيپلز پارٽي جي اعلٰي حلقن (بشمول آصف زرداري) جو چوڻ آهي ته بينظير ڀٽو پنهنجي وصيت ۾ وفات کان بعد آصف زرداري کي جماعت جي قيادت ڏيڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو هو پر آصف قيادت جو وزن بلاول جي ڪلهن تي وجھي ڇڏيو۔ == مستقبل == هن وقت بلاول جي پهرين ترجیح پنهنجي تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ آهي۔ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ بعد ئي هن جو [[سياست]] ۾ اچڻ جو ارادو آهي۔ == حوالا == {{حوالا}} == خارجي ڳنڍڻا == {{ڪومنز زمرو|Bilawal Bhutto Zardari}} {{wikiquote|Bilawal Bhutto Zardari}} * [http://www.geo.tv/GeoDetail.aspx?ID=50847 Musharraf 'murdered my mother': Bilawal Bhutto Zardari] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529123209/http://www.geo.tv/GeoDetail.aspx?ID=50847 |date=2012-05-29 }}, Geo News Pakistan, 28 May 2012] * {{Twitter|https://twitter.com/BBhuttoZardari}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:پاڪستاني سياستدان]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني شخصيتون]] [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي سياستدان]] [[زمرو:سنڌي شخصيتون]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا سياستدان]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:1988ع جون پيدائشون]] 9jtza6ozinq3th8a97xd3dvxqrwribg لسانيات 0 18295 394601 316902 2026-07-15T13:03:16Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي اڀياس جو علم}} {{ٻين استعمالن لاءِ|لسانيات (سلجھائپ)}} '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] jlg7z202pndacfs4p5he88pke4okxbk 394602 394601 2026-07-15T13:05:42Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394602 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] gfecsf08fs494jlv4i5g3xtcu0djk92 394603 394602 2026-07-15T13:07:26Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394603 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == لسانيات ڪيترن ئي ذيلي شعبن تي مشتمل آهي، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي مختلف پاسن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪن ٿا. === تاريخي لسانيات === {{مکيه|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (Historical linguistics) ٻولين ۾ وقت سان ٿيندڙ تبديلين ۽ انهن جي ارتقا جو سائنسي اڀياس آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ ڪنهن هڪ ٻولي يا ٻولين جي خاندان جي تاريخ، صوتياتي، صرفي، نحوي ۽ معنوي تبديلين جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. هي علم ٻن بنيادي طريقن سان ڪم ڪندو آهي: * '''هم وقتي اڀياس''' (Synchronic)، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن مخصوص دور دوران ٻوليءَ جي مختلف صورتن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. * '''تاريخي يا ارتقائي اڀياس''' (Diachronic)، جنهن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي وقت سان ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Saussure |first=Ferdinand |title=Course in General Linguistics |year=2011}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات جو هڪ اهم حصو '''تقابلي لسانيات''' آهي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي ڀيٽ ذريعي انهن جي لاڳاپن ۽ اصل ٻولين (Proto-languages) جي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان لاءِ '''تقابلي طريقو''' (Comparative method) ۽ '''داخلي تعمير''' (Internal reconstruction) جهڙا علمي طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. هن شعبي ۾ ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي (Language change)، [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (Grammaticalization)، لهجن جي ارتقا، ٻولين جي خاندانن ۽ معياري ٻولين جي تاريخي واڌ ويجهه تي پڻ تحقيق ڪئي ويندي آهي. === نحو === {{مکيه|نحو}} '''نحو''' (Syntax) ٻوليءَ جي ان شعبي کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (Morphemes) جي گڏجڻ سان [[جملو|جملا]] ۽ [[فقره|فقرا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |year=2015}}</ref> نحو جا اهم موضوع هي آهن: * لفظن جي ترتيب (Word order) * گرامري لاڳاپا * جملن جي جوڙجڪ * مطابقت (Agreement) * مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي فرقن جو اڀياس * صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ تعلق === صرف === {{مکيه|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (Morphology) لفظن جي بناوت، تشڪيل ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |chapter=Morphology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |title=What is Morphology?}}</ref> صرف ۾ لفظن کي انهن جي ننڍن معنيدار جزن، يعني '''صرفين''' (Morphemes)، ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. صرفيو ٻوليءَ جو سڀ کان ننڍو معنيدار جزو هوندو آهي. اهي ٻن قسمن جا ٿي سگهن ٿا: * '''بنيادي صرفيو''' (Root)، جيڪو پاڻ به لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. * '''واڌارو يا لاحقو''' (Affix)، جيڪو ڪنهن ٻئي لفظ سان گڏجي نئون لفظ يا نئين گرامري صورت ٺاهي ٿو. صرف ۾ لفظن جي قسمن، صرفي ڦيرڦار (Inflection)، ۽ گرامري خاصيتن جهڙوڪ: * عدد * زمان * پهلو (Aspect) جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي. هي شعبو اهو پڻ ڏسي ٿو ته ٻولين ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺهن ٿا ۽ وقت سان لفظن جي بناوت ۾ ڪهڙيون تبديليون اچن ٿيون. '''صرفياتي صوتيات''' (Morphophonology) صرف جو اهو ذيلي شعبو آهي، جيڪو صرفين جي ملڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو اڀياس ڪري ٿو. == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] ms0k0155ii5nmcvxb3nwlp4unxbwkni 394604 394603 2026-07-15T13:14:21Z Intisar Ali 8681 394604 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{مکيه|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (Formalism) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (Generative grammar) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=March 2026}} بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 8c593hrhc90o4ie87pwnpc2lbsm422f 394605 394604 2026-07-15T13:16:07Z Intisar Ali 8681 394605 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{مکيه|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 60gvups7en5a74v4cmise7pc8fiuf69 394606 394605 2026-07-15T13:16:29Z Intisar Ali 8681 394606 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 03v1bhqvch7e1ie6y5jgbimo1c2d2t7 394607 394606 2026-07-15T13:20:11Z Intisar Ali 8681 394607 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] hagdlme0hdlw6ssrdvdjsk7vhczs9ut 394608 394607 2026-07-15T13:24:48Z Intisar Ali 8681 394608 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 5g9eoy544u25pocfrtegjacinrt6yl1 394609 394608 2026-07-15T13:30:42Z Intisar Ali 8681 394609 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 531hs6ie8uyulco6r3677jynxsq5e50 394610 394609 2026-07-15T13:32:37Z Intisar Ali 8681 394610 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{مکيه|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 6a7ljmdmxmf8gz8d51c7pewphn7xu9p 394611 394610 2026-07-15T13:32:55Z Intisar Ali 8681 394611 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] cwz5dfe5j70dwwvyztr9tbzg4acdmhj 394612 394611 2026-07-15T13:37:51Z Intisar Ali 8681 394612 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == تفصيل == '''لسانيات''' يا '''علم اللسان''' (Linguistics) ٻولين جي داخلي ۽ خارجي مطالعي کي ’علم اللسان‘ چئجي ٿو. علم اللسان ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي آوازن، انهن جي مقرر تنظيم ۽ ترڪيب، ساخت ۽ سٽاءَ جي، اهلِ زُبان توڙي ڌارين لاءِ هڪ تشريح آهي، علم اللسان ٻوليءَ جي صَوتي، صَرفي ۽ نَحوِي سٽاءَ جو هڪ بيان آهي. هي علم، انهن جي اصولن، گهراين، معنوي ۽ صَوتي تبديلين جو رڪارڊ آهي. علم اللسان زنده ۽ روزمره وارين ٻولين جي سرشتي ۽ نظام جي اُپٽار ۽ اُن جو بيان بلڪل ايئن ٿو ڪري، جيئن اُهي ٻوليون، اُن وقت ۽ ان حالت ۾ ڳالهائبيون يا ٻڌبيون آهن. لسانيات جو علم ٻولين جي ماضيءَ، ماضيءَ جي ترڪيبن، لفظن جي اشتقاقن ۽ ڌاتن تي به روشني وجهي ٿو. <ref>ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر:[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات جي معنيٰ آهي زبان جو علم. لسانيات، يا علم اللسان، زبان جي اهميت، زندگي ۾ انساني ٻوليءَ جي علم کي چئبو آهي. فرانس جو مشهور عالم اي گوبلو پهريون ماڻهو هو، جنهن ڪتاب "علم جي ورهاست (1898ع)" ۾ علم اللسان جي تعريف بيان ڪندي ان جي اهميت تي پڻ بحث ڪيو اٿس. ايف سي باڪٽ لسانيات جي تعريف هن نموني ڪري ٿو؛ "زبان جي باري ۾ منظوم علم کي لسانيات چيو ويندو آهي". گلسين وري لسانيات جي باري ۾ ڪجهه هن ريت خيال ونڊي ٿو؛ "لسانيات اها سائنس آهي جيڪا زبانن جي ٻاهرين ساخت جي اعتبار کي سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.“<ref name="autogenerated1">.ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]</ref> لسانيات ھڪ اھڙو مضمون آھي جنھن ۾ انساني [[ٻولي|ٻولين]]جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين جي موجوده صورت جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ٻولين ۾ وقت سان گڏ ٿيڻ واريون تبديلين جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ مشابھت جي باري ۾ مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي. ان سان گڏوگڏ ھن شيءِ جو به مطالعو ڪيو ويندو آھي تہ ٻولين جو ھن دنيا جي ٻين شين سان ڇا تعلق آھي؟ ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] pwnsgchgh07zzyxcwlwydgdelsfgbp6 394613 394612 2026-07-15T13:43:08Z Intisar Ali 8681 394613 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوتون == {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2019}} لساني بناوتون (''Linguistic structures'') معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (pairings) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] (Ferdinand de Saussure) جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''linguistic sign'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] qsiawvv32nhhal6w24o0raxz9aazwab 394614 394613 2026-07-15T13:45:45Z Intisar Ali 8681 394614 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} ==اهم ذيلي شعبا== ===تاريخي لسانيات=== تاريخي لسانيات ٻولين جي انهن تبديلين جو جائزو وٺي ٿي، جيڪي زماني گذرڻ بعد ٻولين ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. انهن تبديلين جا سبب ۽ نتيجا معلوم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي ٻولين ۾ اندران ۽ ٻاهران ظاهر ٿين ٿا؛ تنهنڪري اها بحث هيٺ ٻوليءَ کي مختلف ۽ مسلسل دورن ۾ ورهائي، ٻن ٻن ڀر وارن دورن کي ڀيٽي ڏسي ٿي ته جيئن تبديلين جون لاڳيتيون ڪڙيون جوڙي سگهجن انهيءَ لحاظ کان تقابلي لسانيات خود تاريخي لسانيات جو جزو آهي.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] iedanqup1zju4i43v43tm95kwn26m23 394615 394614 2026-07-15T13:52:28Z Intisar Ali 8681 394615 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. ==ساختون== ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 72cot565bmxws2olho330aba567d70a 394616 394615 2026-07-15T13:55:49Z Intisar Ali 8681 394616 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. ==طريقا== ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] ngn0mvjlyu5jge9e3169stmuw8elqjq 394617 394616 2026-07-15T13:59:47Z Intisar Ali 8681 394617 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> ==تاريخ== ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] pn7n52lzvpm4wnhfgewdu1m53o3iqwv 394619 394617 2026-07-15T14:05:12Z Intisar Ali 8681 394619 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF ==تحقيق جا علائقا== ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] gof4b5lp1pkvm78x3ilskjtpjczkuaz 394621 394619 2026-07-15T14:11:43Z Intisar Ali 8681 394621 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] otnhcsimo90azx9mxi6vknvezsmfrz9 394623 394621 2026-07-15T14:24:47Z Intisar Ali 8681 394623 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] 3biakcktima35zav3ssl6kt5d4fzfyu 394624 394623 2026-07-15T14:25:58Z Intisar Ali 8681 394624 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس]] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] fbwp0nxbaoq1f6fi1a021gov713p2ih 394625 394624 2026-07-15T14:33:32Z Intisar Ali 8681 394625 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس]] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> == تحقيقي شعبا == === سماجي لسانيات === {{main|سماجي لسانيات}} '''سماجي لسانيات''' (سوشيولنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا اڀياس ڪري ٿي ته ٻولي سماجي عنصرن جي اثر هيٺ ڪيئن شڪل اختيار ڪري ٿي. هي ذيلي شعبي بنيادي طور لسانيات جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات|هم وقتي]] نقطهٔ نظر تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، ۽ اهو ڏسي ٿو ته ڪنهن خاص وقت تي هڪ ٻولي يا ٻولين جو مجموعو ڪهڙي نموني تبديلي، تنوع ۽ مختلف قسمن جو اظهار ڪري ٿو. ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي ۽ ان جي مختلف صورتن، جهڙوڪ [[لهجو|لهجن]]، [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] ۽ [[آئيڊيو ليڪٽ]] (Idiolects)، جو مطالعو اسلوب جي اڀياس ۽ [[گفتاري تجزيو|گفتاري تجزيي]] ذريعي ڪري سگهجي ٿو. سماجي لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ ۾ اسلوب ۽ گفتاري ٻنهي جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، گڏوگڏ انهن نظرياتي عنصرن جو به جائزو وٺن ٿا، جيڪي ٻولي ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. === ترقياتي لسانيات === {{main|ترقياتي لسانيات}} '''ترقياتي لسانيات''' (ڊولپمينٽل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا فردن ۾ لساني صلاحيت جي ارتقا ۽ واڌ ويجهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] دوران ننڍپڻ ۾ ٻولي سکڻ جي عمل جو. هن شعبي ۾ اهڙن سوالن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيئن ٻار مختلف ٻوليون ڪيئن حاصل ڪن ٿا، بالغ ماڻهو ٻي ٻولي ڪيئن سکن ٿا، ۽ ٻولي حاصل ڪرڻ جو عمل ڪهڙي نموني پيش اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Charles-James N. |title=Developmental Linguistics |journal=Folia Linguistica |date=1981 |volume=15 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29 }}</ref> === عصبي لسانيات === {{main|عصبي لسانيات}} '''عصبي لسانيات''' (نيورو لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا انساني دماغ جي انهن بناوتن ۽ نظامن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جيڪي گرامر ۽ رابطي جي بنياد بڻجن ٿا. هن شعبي ۾ مختلف علمي پسمنظر رکندڙ محقق ڪم ڪن ٿا، جيڪي مختلف تجربي وارا طريقا ۽ نظرياتي نقطهٔ نظر استعمال ڪن ٿا. عصبي لسانيات ۾ ٿيندڙ گهڻي تحقيق [[نفسياتي لسانيات]] (سائڪو لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[نظرياتي لسانيات]] (ٿيوريٽيڪل لنگئسٽڪس) جي ماڊلن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي، ۽ ان ڳالهه جي جاچ تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي ته دماغ انهن عملن کي ڪيئن سرانجام ڏئي ٿو، جن کي نظرياتي لسانيات ۽ نفسياتي لسانيات ٻوليءَ جي پيداوار ۽ فهم لاءِ ضروري قرار ڏين ٿيون. عصبي لسانيات جا ماهر انهن جسماني طريقن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، جن جي ذريعي دماغ ٻوليءَ سان لاڳاپيل معلومات تي عمل ڪري ٿو. اهي [[افيزيا جي علم]] (افيزيالاجي)، [[دماغي تصويرڪاري]] (برين اميجنگ)، [[برقي فعليات]] (اليڪٽروفزيولاجي) ۽ ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ جي مدد سان لسانياتي ۽ نفسياتي لسانياتي نظرين جو جائزو وٺن ٿا. دماغ جي انهن بناوتن مان، جيڪي عصبي لسانيات جي عملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، [[ننڍو دماغ]] (سيريبلم) نمايان حيثيت رکي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نيورون موجود هوندا آهن ۽ اهو ٻولي پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل اڳڪٿين ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mariën |first1=Peter |last2=Manto |first2=Mario |title=Cerebellum as a Master-Piece for Linguistic Predictability |journal=The Cerebellum |date=April 2018 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1007/s12311-017-0894-1 |pmid=29071518 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] smri0cetvn7n2v5b9923mc2n193wjcj 394626 394625 2026-07-15T14:36:01Z Intisar Ali 8681 394626 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس]] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> == تحقيقي شعبا == === سماجي لسانيات === {{main|سماجي لسانيات}} '''سماجي لسانيات''' (سوشيولنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا اڀياس ڪري ٿي ته ٻولي سماجي عنصرن جي اثر هيٺ ڪيئن شڪل اختيار ڪري ٿي. هي ذيلي شعبي بنيادي طور لسانيات جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات|هم وقتي]] نقطهٔ نظر تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، ۽ اهو ڏسي ٿو ته ڪنهن خاص وقت تي هڪ ٻولي يا ٻولين جو مجموعو ڪهڙي نموني تبديلي، تنوع ۽ مختلف قسمن جو اظهار ڪري ٿو. ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي ۽ ان جي مختلف صورتن، جهڙوڪ [[لهجو|لهجن]]، [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] ۽ [[آئيڊيو ليڪٽ]] (Idiolects)، جو مطالعو اسلوب جي اڀياس ۽ [[گفتاري تجزيو|گفتاري تجزيي]] ذريعي ڪري سگهجي ٿو. سماجي لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ ۾ اسلوب ۽ گفتاري ٻنهي جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، گڏوگڏ انهن نظرياتي عنصرن جو به جائزو وٺن ٿا، جيڪي ٻولي ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. === ترقياتي لسانيات === {{main|ترقياتي لسانيات}} '''ترقياتي لسانيات''' (ڊولپمينٽل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا فردن ۾ لساني صلاحيت جي ارتقا ۽ واڌ ويجهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] دوران ننڍپڻ ۾ ٻولي سکڻ جي عمل جو. هن شعبي ۾ اهڙن سوالن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيئن ٻار مختلف ٻوليون ڪيئن حاصل ڪن ٿا، بالغ ماڻهو ٻي ٻولي ڪيئن سکن ٿا، ۽ ٻولي حاصل ڪرڻ جو عمل ڪهڙي نموني پيش اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Charles-James N. |title=Developmental Linguistics |journal=Folia Linguistica |date=1981 |volume=15 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29 }}</ref> === عصبي لسانيات === {{main|عصبي لسانيات}} '''عصبي لسانيات''' (نيورو لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا انساني دماغ جي انهن بناوتن ۽ نظامن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جيڪي گرامر ۽ رابطي جي بنياد بڻجن ٿا. هن شعبي ۾ مختلف علمي پسمنظر رکندڙ محقق ڪم ڪن ٿا، جيڪي مختلف تجربي وارا طريقا ۽ نظرياتي نقطهٔ نظر استعمال ڪن ٿا. عصبي لسانيات ۾ ٿيندڙ گهڻي تحقيق [[نفسياتي لسانيات]] (سائڪو لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[نظرياتي لسانيات]] (ٿيوريٽيڪل لنگئسٽڪس) جي ماڊلن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي، ۽ ان ڳالهه جي جاچ تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي ته دماغ انهن عملن کي ڪيئن سرانجام ڏئي ٿو، جن کي نظرياتي لسانيات ۽ نفسياتي لسانيات ٻوليءَ جي پيداوار ۽ فهم لاءِ ضروري قرار ڏين ٿيون. عصبي لسانيات جا ماهر انهن جسماني طريقن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، جن جي ذريعي دماغ ٻوليءَ سان لاڳاپيل معلومات تي عمل ڪري ٿو. اهي [[افيزيا جي علم]] (افيزيالاجي)، [[دماغي تصويرڪاري]] (برين اميجنگ)، [[برقي فعليات]] (اليڪٽروفزيولاجي) ۽ ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ جي مدد سان لسانياتي ۽ نفسياتي لسانياتي نظرين جو جائزو وٺن ٿا. دماغ جي انهن بناوتن مان، جيڪي عصبي لسانيات جي عملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، [[ننڍو دماغ]] (سيريبلم) نمايان حيثيت رکي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نيورون موجود هوندا آهن ۽ اهو ٻولي پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل اڳڪٿين ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mariën |first1=Peter |last2=Manto |first2=Mario |title=Cerebellum as a Master-Piece for Linguistic Predictability |journal=The Cerebellum |date=April 2018 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1007/s12311-017-0894-1 |pmid=29071518 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === اطلاقي لسانيات === لسانيات جا ماهر بنيادي طور تي مخصوص ٻولين ۽ سمورين ٻولين ۾ موجود مشترڪ خاصيتن ۽ تنوع کي ڳولڻ، بيان ڪرڻ ۽ سمجهڻ سان واسطو رکن ٿا. '''اطلاقي لسانيات''' (اپلائيڊ لنگئسٽڪس) انهن تحقيقاتي نتيجن کي عملي ميدانن ۾ استعمال ڪري ٿي. انهن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تعليم]]، [[لغت نگاري]]، [[ترجمو]]، [[ٻوليءَ جي رٿابندي]]، جنهن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال بابت سرڪاري پاليسين تي عملدرآمد شامل هوندو آهي، ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] جهڙا شعبا شامل آهن. "اطلاقي لسانيات" جي اصطلاح کي ڪن عالمن مناسب اصطلاح نه پڻ قرار ڏنو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbara Seidlhofer |title=Controversies in Applied Linguistics (pp. 288) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-437444-6}}</ref> انهن جي راءِ موجب اطلاقي لسانيات جا ماهر رڳو موجود لساني علم کي "لاڳو" نٿا ڪن، بلڪه حقيقي دنيا ۾ پيش ايندڙ لساني مسئلن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جا حل تيار ڪرڻ تي ڌيان ڏين ٿا. ان کان علاوه، اهي اڪثر ڪري سماجيات (جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري تجزيو]]) ۽ بشريات (اينٿروپولاجي) سميت ڪيترن ئي ٻين علمن مان به فني ڄاڻ حاصل ڪري استعمال ڪن ٿا. ([[مصنوعي ٻولي]] پڻ اطلاقي لسانيات جي دائري ۾ اچي ٿي.) اڄڪلهه اطلاقي لسانيات جي ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ ڪمپيوٽرن جو وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو. [[گفتار جي ترڪيب]] ۽ [[گفتار جي سڃاڻپ]] فونياتي ۽ فونيمي ڄاڻ کي استعمال ڪندي ڪمپيوٽرن لاءِ [[آوازي رابطا]] مهيا ڪن ٿيون. [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] جون [[مشيني ترجمو]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر جي مدد سان ترجمو]] ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] واريون اطلاقون اطلاقي لسانيات جا اهڙا شعبا آهن، جيڪي تازن سالن ۾ نمايان اهميت حاصل ڪري چڪا آهن. انهن ترقيَن ڪمپيوٽرن تي نحوي ۽ معنوي نظرين جي ماڊلنگ ذريعي انهن نظرين جي تشڪيل ۽ ارتقا تي پڻ اثر وڌو آهي. '''لساني تجزيو''' اطلاقي لسانيات جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جنهن کي ڪيترائي ملڪ انهن پناهگيرن جي دعوائن جي جاچ لاءِ استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيڪي پنهنجي شهريت ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل دستاويز پيش نٿا ڪري سگهن.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis">{{Cite journal |last=Eades |first=Diana |year=2005 |title=Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases |url=http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Applied Linguistics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–26 |doi=10.1093/applin/ami021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327083553/http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 |access-date=31 January 2009}}</ref> اهو عمل عام طور تي اميگريشن کاتي جي عملي طرفان ورتل انٽرويو تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي. ملڪ جي نظام مطابق، اهو انٽرويو يا ته درخواست ڏيندڙ جي [[مادري ٻولي]] ۾ ترجمان جي وسيلي ورتو ويندو آهي، يا وري انگريزي جهڙي ڪنهن بين الاقوامي ''[[لساني رابطائي ٻولي]]'' ۾.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> مثال طور آسٽريليا پهريون طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته جرمني ٻيو طريقو استعمال ڪري ٿو؛ جڏهن ته نيدرلينڊ ٻنهي طريقن مان مناسب طريقو چونڊي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولين تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> انٽرويو جون آڊيو رڪارڊنگون بعد ۾ لساني تجزيي لاءِ موڪليون وينديون آهن، جيڪو يا ته نجي ادارا انجام ڏيندا آهن يا وري حڪومت جا لاڳاپيل شعبا. هن تجزيي دوران ماهر درخواست ڏيندڙ جي ٻوليءَ جون خاصيتون، لهجو، لفظن جي چونڊ ۽ ٻيون لساني علامتون جانچي سندس ممڪن قوميت بابت راءِ قائم ڪندا آهن. لساني تجزيي جون هيون رپورٽون پناهگير جي حيثيت بابت حڪومت جي فيصلي ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] nzc0q3mo9d034djmbk6vflbcut53qzv 394627 394626 2026-07-15T14:39:42Z Intisar Ali 8681 394627 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022}} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس]] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> == تحقيقي شعبا == === سماجي لسانيات === {{main|سماجي لسانيات}} '''سماجي لسانيات''' (سوشيولنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا اڀياس ڪري ٿي ته ٻولي سماجي عنصرن جي اثر هيٺ ڪيئن شڪل اختيار ڪري ٿي. هي ذيلي شعبي بنيادي طور لسانيات جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات|هم وقتي]] نقطهٔ نظر تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، ۽ اهو ڏسي ٿو ته ڪنهن خاص وقت تي هڪ ٻولي يا ٻولين جو مجموعو ڪهڙي نموني تبديلي، تنوع ۽ مختلف قسمن جو اظهار ڪري ٿو. ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي ۽ ان جي مختلف صورتن، جهڙوڪ [[لهجو|لهجن]]، [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] ۽ [[آئيڊيو ليڪٽ]] (Idiolects)، جو مطالعو اسلوب جي اڀياس ۽ [[گفتاري تجزيو|گفتاري تجزيي]] ذريعي ڪري سگهجي ٿو. سماجي لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ ۾ اسلوب ۽ گفتاري ٻنهي جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، گڏوگڏ انهن نظرياتي عنصرن جو به جائزو وٺن ٿا، جيڪي ٻولي ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. === ترقياتي لسانيات === {{main|ترقياتي لسانيات}} '''ترقياتي لسانيات''' (ڊولپمينٽل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا فردن ۾ لساني صلاحيت جي ارتقا ۽ واڌ ويجهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] دوران ننڍپڻ ۾ ٻولي سکڻ جي عمل جو. هن شعبي ۾ اهڙن سوالن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيئن ٻار مختلف ٻوليون ڪيئن حاصل ڪن ٿا، بالغ ماڻهو ٻي ٻولي ڪيئن سکن ٿا، ۽ ٻولي حاصل ڪرڻ جو عمل ڪهڙي نموني پيش اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Charles-James N. |title=Developmental Linguistics |journal=Folia Linguistica |date=1981 |volume=15 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29 }}</ref> === عصبي لسانيات === {{main|عصبي لسانيات}} '''عصبي لسانيات''' (نيورو لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا انساني دماغ جي انهن بناوتن ۽ نظامن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جيڪي گرامر ۽ رابطي جي بنياد بڻجن ٿا. هن شعبي ۾ مختلف علمي پسمنظر رکندڙ محقق ڪم ڪن ٿا، جيڪي مختلف تجربي وارا طريقا ۽ نظرياتي نقطهٔ نظر استعمال ڪن ٿا. عصبي لسانيات ۾ ٿيندڙ گهڻي تحقيق [[نفسياتي لسانيات]] (سائڪو لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[نظرياتي لسانيات]] (ٿيوريٽيڪل لنگئسٽڪس) جي ماڊلن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي، ۽ ان ڳالهه جي جاچ تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي ته دماغ انهن عملن کي ڪيئن سرانجام ڏئي ٿو، جن کي نظرياتي لسانيات ۽ نفسياتي لسانيات ٻوليءَ جي پيداوار ۽ فهم لاءِ ضروري قرار ڏين ٿيون. عصبي لسانيات جا ماهر انهن جسماني طريقن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، جن جي ذريعي دماغ ٻوليءَ سان لاڳاپيل معلومات تي عمل ڪري ٿو. اهي [[افيزيا جي علم]] (افيزيالاجي)، [[دماغي تصويرڪاري]] (برين اميجنگ)، [[برقي فعليات]] (اليڪٽروفزيولاجي) ۽ ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ جي مدد سان لسانياتي ۽ نفسياتي لسانياتي نظرين جو جائزو وٺن ٿا. دماغ جي انهن بناوتن مان، جيڪي عصبي لسانيات جي عملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، [[ننڍو دماغ]] (سيريبلم) نمايان حيثيت رکي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نيورون موجود هوندا آهن ۽ اهو ٻولي پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل اڳڪٿين ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mariën |first1=Peter |last2=Manto |first2=Mario |title=Cerebellum as a Master-Piece for Linguistic Predictability |journal=The Cerebellum |date=April 2018 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1007/s12311-017-0894-1 |pmid=29071518 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === اطلاقي لسانيات === لسانيات جا ماهر بنيادي طور تي مخصوص ٻولين ۽ سمورين ٻولين ۾ موجود مشترڪ خاصيتن ۽ تنوع کي ڳولڻ، بيان ڪرڻ ۽ سمجهڻ سان واسطو رکن ٿا. '''اطلاقي لسانيات''' (اپلائيڊ لنگئسٽڪس) انهن تحقيقاتي نتيجن کي عملي ميدانن ۾ استعمال ڪري ٿي. انهن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تعليم]]، [[لغت نگاري]]، [[ترجمو]]، [[ٻوليءَ جي رٿابندي]]، جنهن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال بابت سرڪاري پاليسين تي عملدرآمد شامل هوندو آهي، ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] جهڙا شعبا شامل آهن. "اطلاقي لسانيات" جي اصطلاح کي ڪن عالمن مناسب اصطلاح نه پڻ قرار ڏنو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbara Seidlhofer |title=Controversies in Applied Linguistics (pp. 288) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-437444-6}}</ref> انهن جي راءِ موجب اطلاقي لسانيات جا ماهر رڳو موجود لساني علم کي "لاڳو" نٿا ڪن، بلڪه حقيقي دنيا ۾ پيش ايندڙ لساني مسئلن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جا حل تيار ڪرڻ تي ڌيان ڏين ٿا. ان کان علاوه، اهي اڪثر ڪري سماجيات (جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري تجزيو]]) ۽ بشريات (اينٿروپولاجي) سميت ڪيترن ئي ٻين علمن مان به فني ڄاڻ حاصل ڪري استعمال ڪن ٿا. ([[مصنوعي ٻولي]] پڻ اطلاقي لسانيات جي دائري ۾ اچي ٿي.) اڄڪلهه اطلاقي لسانيات جي ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ ڪمپيوٽرن جو وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو. [[گفتار جي ترڪيب]] ۽ [[گفتار جي سڃاڻپ]] فونياتي ۽ فونيمي ڄاڻ کي استعمال ڪندي ڪمپيوٽرن لاءِ [[آوازي رابطا]] مهيا ڪن ٿيون. [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] جون [[مشيني ترجمو]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر جي مدد سان ترجمو]] ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] واريون اطلاقون اطلاقي لسانيات جا اهڙا شعبا آهن، جيڪي تازن سالن ۾ نمايان اهميت حاصل ڪري چڪا آهن. انهن ترقيَن ڪمپيوٽرن تي نحوي ۽ معنوي نظرين جي ماڊلنگ ذريعي انهن نظرين جي تشڪيل ۽ ارتقا تي پڻ اثر وڌو آهي. '''لساني تجزيو''' اطلاقي لسانيات جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جنهن کي ڪيترائي ملڪ انهن پناهگيرن جي دعوائن جي جاچ لاءِ استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيڪي پنهنجي شهريت ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل دستاويز پيش نٿا ڪري سگهن.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis">{{Cite journal |last=Eades |first=Diana |year=2005 |title=Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases |url=http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Applied Linguistics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–26 |doi=10.1093/applin/ami021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327083553/http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 |access-date=31 January 2009}}</ref> اهو عمل عام طور تي اميگريشن کاتي جي عملي طرفان ورتل انٽرويو تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي. ملڪ جي نظام مطابق، اهو انٽرويو يا ته درخواست ڏيندڙ جي [[مادري ٻولي]] ۾ ترجمان جي وسيلي ورتو ويندو آهي، يا وري انگريزي جهڙي ڪنهن بين الاقوامي ''[[لساني رابطائي ٻولي]]'' ۾.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> مثال طور آسٽريليا پهريون طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته جرمني ٻيو طريقو استعمال ڪري ٿو؛ جڏهن ته نيدرلينڊ ٻنهي طريقن مان مناسب طريقو چونڊي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولين تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> انٽرويو جون آڊيو رڪارڊنگون بعد ۾ لساني تجزيي لاءِ موڪليون وينديون آهن، جيڪو يا ته نجي ادارا انجام ڏيندا آهن يا وري حڪومت جا لاڳاپيل شعبا. هن تجزيي دوران ماهر درخواست ڏيندڙ جي ٻوليءَ جون خاصيتون، لهجو، لفظن جي چونڊ ۽ ٻيون لساني علامتون جانچي سندس ممڪن قوميت بابت راءِ قائم ڪندا آهن. لساني تجزيي جون هيون رپورٽون پناهگير جي حيثيت بابت حڪومت جي فيصلي ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> === ٻوليءَ جي دستاويزڪاري === '''ٻوليءَ جي دستاويزڪاري''' ۾ [[بشرياتي]] تحقيق، جيڪا ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ ۽ ثقافت جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، ۽ لساني تحقيق کي گڏايو ويندو آهي، ته جيئن ٻولين ۽ انهن جي گرامر جي جامع وضاحت تيار ڪري سگهجي. [[لغت نگاري]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي) انهن لفظن جي دستاويزڪاري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪي ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظي ذخيري کي ٺاهين ٿا. ڪنهن خاص ٻوليءَ جي لفظي ذخيري جي اهڙي دستاويزڪاري عام طور هڪ [[لغت]] جي صورت ۾ مرتب ڪئي ويندي آهي. [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي شمارياتي يا قاعدن تي ٻڌل ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ سان واسطو رکي ٿي. ٻوليءَ بابت مخصوص ڄاڻ ترجمي، [[زباني ترجمي]]، [[ٻوليءَ جي تعليم]] ۽ ٻي يا پرڏيهي ٻولي سيکارڻ دوران پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. پاليسي ساز سرڪاري ادارن سان گڏجي لساني تحقيق جي بنياد تي تعليم ۽ تدريس بابت نيون پاليسيون ۽ منصوبا تيار ڪندا آهن. لسانيات جي شعبي جي شروعات کان وٺي لسانيات جي ماهرن جو هڪ اهم مقصد انهن ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو رهيو آهي، جن جي اڳ ۾ ڪا به دستاويزڪاري نه ٿي هئي. ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ [[فرانز بواس]] جي ڪم کان پوءِ، هيءَ آمريڪي لسانيات جو مرڪزي موضوع بڻجي ويو، جيستائين ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[رسمي لسانيات]] وڌيڪ نمايان نه ٿي. ٻولين جي دستاويزڪاري تي اهو زور جزوي طور انهيءَ خدشي سبب به هو ته مقامي قومن جون ڪيتريون ئي ٻوليون تيزيءَ سان [[ٻوليءَ جي زوال]] جو شڪار ٿي رهيون هيون. بواسي (Boasian) طريقي ۾ موجود بشرياتي رخ بعد ۾ [[سماجي لسانيات]]، [[بشرياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[لساني بشريات]] جهڙن شعبن جي ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو، جيڪي ٻولي، ثقافت ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا. ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ دستاويزڪاري تي زور اتر آمريڪا کان ٻاهر به وڌيو آهي، ۽ تيزيءَ سان ختم ٿيندڙ مقامي ٻولين جي دستاويزڪاري دنيا جي ڪيترين ئي يونيورسٽين جي لسانيات جي پروگرامن جو اهم حصو بڻجي چڪي آهي. ٻوليءَ جي وضاحت هڪ محنت طلب ۽ وقتائتو عمل آهي، جنهن لاءِ لسانيات جي ماهر کي لاڳاپيل ٻوليءَ جي ماحول ۾ ڪيترائي سال ميداني تحقيق ڪرڻي پوندي آهي، ته جيئن هو ان ٻوليءَ بابت ڪافي درست ۽ جامع حوالاتي گرامر تيار ڪري سگهي. دستاويزڪاري جي عمل ۾ لسانيات جي ماهر کي ان ٻوليءَ جو هڪ وڏو [[ڪارپس]] پڻ گڏ ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ لکيل متن، آڊيو رڪارڊنگون ۽ وڊيو رڪارڊنگون شامل هونديون آهن. اهي سڀئي مواد اهڙي رسائي لائق ۽ کليل ذخيرن ۾ محفوظ ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتان مستقبل جي تحقيق لاءِ به انهن مان فائدو وٺي سگهجي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Himmelmann |first1=Nikolaus P. |title=Essentials of Language Documentation |chapter=Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? |date=2006 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1515/9783110197730.1 |isbn=978-3-11-018864-6 }}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] qeoflo9x1uiofict5luggpeiksw6xd3 394776 394627 2026-07-16T09:24:14Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394776 wikitext text/x-wiki '''لسانيات''' يا '''علمِ لسان''' ('''Linguistics''') [[ٻولي]] جي سائنسي اڀياس کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ٻولين جي بناوت، آوازن، لفظن، معنائن، جملن جي جوڙجڪ، استعمال ۽ ارتقا جو منظم ۽ علمي جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=Michael A. K. |last2=Webster |first2=Jonathan |title=On Language and Linguistics |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics}}</ref> لسانيات جي بنيادي شاخن ۾ [[صوتيات]] (ڳالهائڻ جا آواز)، [[فونيميات]] (ٻوليءَ جو صوتي نظام)، [[صرف (لسانيات)|صرف]] (لفظن جي بناوت)، [[نحو]] (جملن جي جوڙجڪ)، [[معنيات]] (لفظن ۽ جملن جون معنائون) ۽ [[عملي معنيات]] (استعمال جي حوالي سان معنيٰ) شامل آهن. ان کان سواءِ [[نفسي لسانيات]]، [[حياتي لسانيات]]، [[رياضياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابي لسانيات]] جهڙيون بين الشعبائي شاخون پڻ هن علم جو حصو آهن.<ref name="akmajian" /> لسانيات ۾ ٻولين جو اڀياس نظرياتي ۽ عملي ٻنهي رخن کان ڪيو ويندو آهي. '''نظرياتي لسانيات''' ٻوليءَ جي بنيادي اصولن ۽ انساني ٻوليءَ جي عام خاصيتن کي سمجهڻ تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جڏهن⁠تہ '''عملي لسانيات''' ٻولين جي سکيا، ترجمي، خواندگي، لغت نويسي، ٻوليءَ جي منصوبابندي ۽ ٻين عملي معاملن ۾ لسانياتي اصولن کي استعمال ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying Linguistics |website=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics}}</ref> لساني تحقيق مختلف طريقن سان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جو هڪ مخصوص دور ۾ اڀياس (هم وقتي لسانيات)، ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا جو جائزو (تاريخي لسانيات)، هڪ يا گهڻ لساني سماجن جو مطالعو، ٻولي سکڻ ۽ حاصل ڪرڻ جا عمل، زباني ۽ لکت واري مواد جو تجزيو، ۽ ميداني تحقيق.<ref>{{cite book |last1=François |first1=Alex |last2=Ponsonnet |first2=Maïa |chapter=Descriptive Linguistics |title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia |year=2013 |pages=184–187}}</ref> جديد لسانيات جو بنياد تاريخي طور [[فلالاجي]] (علمِ متن ۽ ٻولي) مان نڪتو، پر وقت سان گڏ اهو هڪ خودمختيار علمي شعبي جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو. اڄڪلهه لسانيات جو ويجهو لاڳاپو [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]]، [[اسلوبيات]]، [[بلاغت]]، [[نشانيات]]، [[لغت نويسي]] ۽ [[ترجمو]] جهڙن علمن سان پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Philosophy of Linguistics |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2022 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> == اهم ذيلي شعبا == [[File:Citation de Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|سوئس لسانيات دان [[فرڊينانڊ ڊي سوسور]] کي [[نشانيات]] (Semiotics) جو باني تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي.]] === تاريخي لسانيات === {{Main|تاريخي لسانيات}} '''تاريخي لسانيات''' (ھسٽاريڪل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص ٻولي يا ٻولين جي ڪنهن گروهه جي حوالي سان. [[مغربي دنيا|مغربي]] تاريخي لسانيات جي روايتن جي شروعات لڳ ڀڳ ارڙهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، جڏهن هي علم [[فلالاجي]] ( مان ارتقا ڪري نڪتو، جيڪا قديم متنن ۽ زباني روايتن جي مطالعي سان لاڳاپيل هئي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2 |location=Edinburgh |page=391}}</ref> تاريخي لسانيات، لسانيات جي شروعاتي اهم ذيلي شعبن مان هڪ هئي، ۽ خاص طور تي اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ دوران وڏي پيماني تي ان تي تحقيق ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amsterdamska |first1=Olga |title=Schools of Thought |chapter=The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians |date=1987 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8175-7 }}</ref> ويهين صديءَ ۾ تحقيق جو مرڪز [[رسميت (لسانيات)|رسميت]] (فارملئزم) ۽ [[توليدي گرامر]] (جنريٽو گرامر) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي [[آفاقي گرامر|آفاقي]] خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، تنهن هوندي به تاريخي لسانيات اڄ به لساني تحقيق جو هڪ اهم ميدان آهي. هن شعبي جي ذيلي شاخن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي]] (لينگئيج چينج) ۽ [[گرامري ٿيڻ]] (گريميٽيڪلائيزيشن) شامل آهن. تاريخي لسانيات ٻوليءَ ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو مطالعو ٻن طريقن سان ڪري ٿي: يا ته '''تاريخي (ڊائڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ماضي ۽ حال جي مختلف دورن جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، يا '''هم وقتي (سنڪرونڪ)''' انداز ۾، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي موجوده مرحلي اندر موجود مختلف قسمن يا لهجن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ فرقن ۽ ترقيءَ جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Saussure |first1=Ferdinand |chapter=Synchronic Linguistics |pages=101–139 |chapter-url={{GBurl|ffzWX9LeeykC|p=101}} |jstor=10.7312/saus15726.11 |editor1-last=Meisel |editor1-first=Perry |editor2-last=Saussy |editor2-first=Haun |translator-last1=Baskin |translator-first1=Wade |title=[[عام لسانيات جو ڪورس]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2011 |oclc=826479070 |isbn=978-0-231-52795-8 }}</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ تاريخي لسانيات جو بنيادي مرڪز [[تقابلي لسانيات]] هئي، جنهن ۾ مختلف ٻولين جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Routledge introduction">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: ''The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' Routledge p.&nbsp;25.</ref> ان وقت جا محقق بنيادي طور ٻولين جي مختلف [[ٻولين جو خاندان|ٻولي خاندانن]] جي درجابندي ۽ [[قبل از تاريخ|قبل از تاريخي]] بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي ٻيهر تعمير تي ڌيان ڏيندا هئا، جنهن لاءِ [[تقابلي طريقو]] (ڪمپريٽو ميٿڊ) ۽ [[داخلي ٻيهر تعمير]] (انٽرنل ريڪنسٽرڪشن) جا طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا. داخلي ٻيهر تعمير اهڙو طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن عنصر کي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ساڳي هجي، مختلف ماحولن يا حالتن ۾ وري استعمال ڪري ان جي صوتياتي يا قياسي (انالاجي) تبديلين جي بنياد تي اڳوڻي صورت جو اندازو لڳايو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Routledge introduction" />{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} ان جو بنيادي سبب اهو هو ته [[هند-يورپي ٻوليون|هند-يورپي ٻولين]] جي وضاحت ڪئي وڃي، ڇو ته انهن مان گهڻين ٻولين جا تفصيلي لکيل رڪارڊ ۽ ڊگهيون تاريخون موجود هيون. تاريخي لسانيات جي ماهرن [[يورالي ٻوليون|يورالي ٻولين]] جو پڻ مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي يورپ جي هڪ ٻي ٻولي خاندان سان تعلق رکن ٿيون، پر ان وقت انهن بابت لکيل مواد تمام ٿورو موجود هو. ان کان پوءِ ٻين ٻولين جي [[متني مجموعو|متني مجموعن]] (ڪارپورا) تي پڻ اهم تحقيق ڪئي وئي، جهڙوڪ [[آسٽرونيشي ٻوليون]] ۽ [[آمريڪي مقامي ٻوليون|آمريڪا جي مقامي ٻولين]] جا خاندان. تاريخي لسانيات ۾ عام طور تي [[يونيفارميٽيرين اصول (لسانيات)|يونيفارميٽيرين اصول]] (يونيفارمٽيريئن پرنسپل) بنيادي مفروضو طور قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جو واضح اظهار به ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labov |first=William |title=Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors |publisher=Blackwell |year=1994 |location=Malden, MA |pages=21–23}}</ref> هن اصول جو ابتدائي اظهار [[وليم ڊوائيٽ وِٽني]] ڪيو، جنهن جو خيال هو ته تاريخي لسانيات لاءِ لازمي آهي ته "ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ جي بلڪل شروعاتي مرحلن ۾ به اهي ئي اصول ڪارفرما سمجهيا وڃن، جيڪي اڄ مشاهدو ڪيا وڃن ٿا."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |title=Language and the Study of Language |publisher=Scribener |year=1867 |page=428 |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212060745/https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous |url-status=live }}</ref> بهرحال، لسانيات ۾ تقابليت وارو هي روايتي طريقو هاڻي تاريخي لسانيات جي تمام وسيع شعبي جو صرف هڪ ننڍڙو حصو رهجي ويو آهي. اڄڪلهه مخصوص هند-يورپي ٻولين جو تقابلي اڀياس هڪ انتهائي تخصصي ميدان سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته تقابلي تحقيق گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي اندروني ارتقا تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي؛ خاص طور تي معياري ٻولين جي جديد قسمن جي ترقي ۽ معياري صورت مان مختلف لهجن ۽ صورتن جي ارتقا تي.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} مثال طور، ڪجهه محققن اهڙن [[ٻولين جو مٿانهون خاندان|مٿانهين خاندانن]] (ميڪرو فيمليز) کي قائم ڪرڻ جي پڻ ڪوشش ڪئي آهي، جن ۾ هند-يورپي، يورالي ۽ ٻين ٻولين جي خاندانن کي هڪ مفروضي [[ناسٽراٽڪ ٻوليون|ناسٽراٽڪ ٻولي خاندان]] سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quiles |first=Carlos |date=29 December 2019 |title=Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe |url=https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/ |archive-date=7 July 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |website=Indo-European.eu}}</ref> بهرحال، اهڙيون ڪوششون اڃا تائين وڏي پيماني تي معتبر علمي طريقا نٿيون سمجهيون وڃن. عام طور تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي ته تقابلي لساني تحقيق لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن تائين جو عرصو عملي حد آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldi |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi |year=2012 |title=Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |journal=Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |archive-date=Jul 17, 2022 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217040906/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf |date=December 17, 2019 }} p.&nbsp;11.</ref> مختلف بنيادي ٻولين (پروٽو-لينگئيجز) جي عمر جو صحيح تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ان لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا موجود آهن، پر انهن ٻولين جي تاريخ صرف اندازي طور ئي مقرر ڪري سگهجي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benj |date=11 August 2019 |title=History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics |url=https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/ |archive-date=2 October 2022 |access-date=10 June 2022 |work=Essay Examples}}</ref> جديد تاريخي لسانيات ۾ اهو اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ٻوليون وقت سان ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿيون، ۽ خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص دور اندر مختلف لهجن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن تي ڌيان ڏنو ويندو آهي. ان ۾ صرفياتي، نحوي ۽ صوتياتي تبديلين جو مطالعو شامل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماضي ۽ حال جي لهجن جي وچ ۾ موجود لاڳاپن جو پڻ جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Acadmia Morphology">{{Cite journal |last=Fábregas |first=Antonio |date=January 2005 |title=The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology |url=https://www.academia.edu/529248 |url-status=live |journal=Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref> === نحو === {{Main|نحو}} '''نحو''' (سنٽيڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا لفظن ۽ [[صرفيو|صرفين]] (مارفيمز) جي پاڻ ۾ گڏجڻ جي اصولن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جن جي ذريعي وڏيون لساني وحدتون، جهڙوڪ [[فقرو|فقرا]] ۽ [[جملو|جملا]]، ٺهن ٿا. نحو جا بنيادي موضوع [[لفظن جي ترتيب]]، [[گرامري لاڳاپا]]، [[جملي جا جزا]]،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luuk |first1=Erkki |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Syntax–Semantics Interface |date=2015 |pages=900–905 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 }}</ref> [[مطابقت (لسانيات)|مطابقت]]، مختلف ٻولين جي نحوي اختلافن جي نوعيت، ۽ صورت ۽ معنيٰ جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو آهن. نحو بابت ڪيترائي مختلف نظريا ۽ طريقا موجود آهن، جيڪي پنهنجن بنيادي مفروضن، تحقيقاتي طريقن ۽ مقصدن جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف آهن. ڪي نظريا جملن جي بناوت ۽ گرامري قاعدن کي وڌيڪ اهميت ڏين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا معنيٰ، استعمال يا ذهني عملن سان سندن لاڳاپي تي زور ڏين ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، سڀني نحوي نظرين جو بنيادي مقصد اهو سمجهڻ آهي ته ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظ منظم نموني سان ڪيئن گڏجي معنيٰ خيز جملا ٺاهين ٿا. === صرف (مارفولاجي) === {{Main|صرف (لسانيات)}} '''صرف''' (مارفولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا [[لفظ|لفظن]] جي بناوت، انهن جي تشڪيل جي اصولن، ۽ ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ لفظن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپن جو سائنسي اڀياس ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=n.d. |publisher=Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University |chapter=Morphology |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729153028/http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aronoff |first1=Mark |title=What is Morphology? |last2=Fudeman |first2=Kirsten |date=n.d. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |chapter=Morphology and Morphological Analysis |access-date=30 July 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> صرف بابت گهڻا نظريا لفظن جي بناوت جو تجزيو '''[[صرفيو|صرفين]]''' (مارفيمز) جي بنياد تي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جون اهڙيون سڀ کان ننڍيون وحدتون آهن، جن کي پنهنجو آزاد معنوي قدر حاصل هوندو آهي. صرفين ۾ '''[[پاڙ (لسانيات)|پاڙون]]''' (روٽس) شامل آهن، جيڪي پاڻ به مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون، ۽ اهڙا عنصر پڻ شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ '''[[لاحقو|لاحقا]]''' (ايفڪسز)، جيڪي رڳو ڪنهن وڏي لفظ جو حصو بڻجي ظاهر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''ڪيچ'' هڪ پاڙ (روٽ) آهي ۽ ''-ing'' هڪ لاحقو (سفڪس) آهي. ''ڪيچ'' پاڻ هڪ مڪمل لفظ طور استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ان سان ''-ing'' ملائڻ سان نئون لفظ ''ڪيچنگ'' ٺهي ٿو. صرف ۾ اهو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو ويندو آهي ته لفظ [[لفظن جا قسم|لفظن جي قسمن]] (پارٽس آف اسپيچ) طور ڪيئن ڪم ڪن ٿا، ۽ اهي [[صرفي ڦيرڦار]] (انفليڪشن) جي ذريعي مختلف [[گرامري درجا|گرامري درجن]] جو اظهار ڪيئن ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ [[عدد]] (گريميٽيڪل نمبر)، [[گرامري زمان|زمان]]، ۽ [[گرامري پهلو|پهلو]] شامل آهن. صرف ۾ '''[[پيداواريت (لسانيات)|پيداواريت]]''' (پراڊڪٽوٽي) جهڙا تصور پڻ اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا، جيڪي اهو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته ڳالهائيندڙ مخصوص حالتن ۾ نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ اهڙي لفظ سازي وقت سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جي تاريخي ارتقا دوران ڪيئن تبديل ٿيندي رهي ٿي. صرف جي اها ذيلي شاخ، جيڪا صرفين جي گڏجڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ صوتياتي تبديلين جو خاص طور تي اڀياس ڪري ٿي، '''[[صرفياتي صوتيات]]''' (مارفوفونولاجي) سڏجي ٿي. === معنويات ۽ عمليات === {{Main|معنويات|عمليات}} '''معنويات''' (سمينٽڪس) ۽ '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ ۾ '''معنيٰ''' جي اڀياس سان واسطو رکن ٿيون. روايتي طور انهن ٻنهي ذيلي شعبن ۾ فرق معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''معنويات''' گرامري ۽ لغوي معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته '''عمليات''' معنيٰ کي ان جي استعمال واري '''سياق ۽ سباق''' (ڪنٽيڪسٽ) جي حوالي سان سمجهي ٿي. لسانيات ۾ '''[[رسمي معنويات (قدرتي ٻولي)|رسمي معنويات]]''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) جو ذيلي شعبو جملن جي '''[[مدلول]]''' (ڊنوٽيشنس) جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهو پڻ جاچي ٿو ته جملن جي معنيٰ انهن جي جزوي اظھارن جي معنائن مان [[ترڪيبيت (لسانيات)|ترڪيبي اصول]] (ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) تحت ڪيئن ٺهي ٿي. رسمي معنويات تي [[لساني فلسفو|ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي]] جو گهرو اثر آهي، ۽ ان ۾ [[منطق]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جا رسمي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، '''[[ادراڪي معنويات]]''' (ڪاگنيٽو سمينٽڪس) لساني معنيٰ کي انساني ادراڪ (ڪاگنيشن) جي عام خاصيتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ ادراڪي سائنس (ڪاگنيٽو سائنس) جي نظرين، جهڙوڪ [[نمونياتي نظريو]] (پروٽو ٽائيپ ٿيوري)، مان گهڻو فائدو وٺي ٿي. '''عمليات''' (پريگميٽڪس) اهڙن موضوعن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري عمل]]، [[اشاري معنا]] (امپليڪيچر)، ۽ [[ڳالهه ٻولهه جو تجزيو]].<ref name="Mey">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</ref> معنويات جي برعڪس، جيڪا ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ روايتي يا "رمزي طور مقرر ٿيل" (ڪوڊيڊ) معنيٰ جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، عمليات اهو جاچي ٿي ته معنيٰ جي منتقلي صرف ڳالهائيندڙ ۽ ٻڌندڙ جي لساني ڄاڻ (جهڙوڪ گرامر، لغت وغيره) تي ئي دارومدار نٿي رکي، پر اظهار جي سياق ۽ سباق،<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) {{!}} Linguistic Society of America |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |website=www.linguisticsociety.org}}</ref> ڳالهائيندڙن بابت اڳواٽ موجود ڄاڻ، ڳالهائيندڙ جي ارادي بابت ڪيل اندازن، ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي سماجي ۽ ابلاغي عنصرن تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaozhong |first=Liu |title=What is pragmatics? |url=http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2009}}</ref> === صوتيات ۽ صوتياتي نظام === {{Main|صوتيات|صوتياتي نظام}} '''صوتيات''' (فونيٽڪس) ۽ '''صوتياتي نظام''' (فونولاجي) لسانيات جون اهي شاخون آهن، جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي آوازن (يا اشاري ٻولين ۾ انهن جي هم منصب صوتياتي خصوصيتن) جي اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل آهن. '''صوتيات''' بنيادي طور آوازن جي طبعياتي ۽ جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ انهن جي [[آرٽيڪوليٽري صوتيات|ادائگي يا اچار]] (آرٽيڪيوليشن)، صوتي لهرن جون خاصيتون (اڪائسٽڪس)، آوازن جي پيداوار، ۽ انهن جي ادراڪ يا ٻڌڻ (پرسيپشن). ٻئي طرف، '''[[صوتياتي نظام]]''' (فونولاجي) ٻوليءَ جي آوازن جي تجريدي (ايبسٽريڪٽ) لساني تنظيم، درجابندي ۽ ڪردار جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. هيءَ شاخ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز موجود آهن، اهي آواز لفظن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان ڪهڙي نموني گڏجي سگهن ٿا، ۽ ڇو ڪجهه صوتياتي خاصيتون ڪنهن لفظ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ معنيٰ ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |last=Szczegielniak |first=Adam |title=Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> === لساني نوعيات === {{Main|لساني نوعيات}} '''لساني نوعيات''' (لنگئسٽڪ ٽائپولاجي) يا '''ٻولين جي نوعياتي درجابندي''' (لينگئيج ٽائپولاجي) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ٻولين جو سندن بناوتي (اسٽرڪچرل) خاصيتن جي بنياد تي اڀياس، درجابندي ۽ ڀيٽ ڪري ٿي. هن شعبي جو بنيادي مقصد دنيا جي ٻولين ۾ موجود بناوتي تنوع (اسٽرڪچرل ڊائورسٽي) ۽ انهن جي گڏيل يا آفاقي خاصيتن جي وضاحت ۽ تشريح ڪرڻ آهي. لساني نوعيات جون ڪيترين ئي ذيلي شاخون آهن، جن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن، پر اهي رڳو انهن تائين محدود نه آهن: * '''صوتياتي نوعيات''' (فونولاجيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي صوتياتي خاصيتن ۽ آوازن جي نظام جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نحوي نوعيات''' (سنٽيڪٽڪ ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا لفظن جي ترتيب، جملي جي بناوت ۽ نحوي صورتن جو تقابلي مطالعو ڪري ٿي. * '''لغوي نوعيات''' (ليڪسيڪل ٽائپولاجي)، جيڪا ٻولين جي لفظي ذخيري ۽ لغوي خصوصيتن جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي. * '''نظرياتي نوعيات'''، جنهن جو مقصد ٻولين ۾ موجود آفاقي رجحانن ۽ انهن جي سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ آهي. == بناوٽون == لساني بناوٽون معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ (پيئرنگس) تي مشتمل هونديون آهن. معنيٰ ۽ صورت جي هر مخصوص جوڙجڪ کي [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظريي موجب [[نشاني (سيميا)|لساني نشاني]] (''لنگئسٽڪ سائن'') چيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، "ٻلي" جي معنيٰ دنيا جي مختلف ٻولين ۾ مختلف صوتي نمونن (ڳالهايل ٻولين ۾)، هٿن ۽ چهري جي حرڪتن (اشارتي ٻولين ۾)، يا لکيل نشانين (تحريري ٻولين ۾) وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي ويندي آهي. لساني نمونن علمي معلومات جي انجنيئرنگ ([[علمي انجنيئرنگ]]) جي شعبي ۾ به وڏي اهميت حاصل ڪئي آهي، خاص طور تي ان ڪري جو دستياب ڊيٽا جو مقدار تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيو آهي. لساني بناوتن تي ڌيان ڏيندڙ ماهر اها سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ڪهڙن اصولن مطابق ٻولي استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ اهي گهڻا اصول کين شعوري طور معلوم نه هوندا آهن. هر لساني بناوت کي ڪيترن ئي تجزياتي سطحن تي ننڍن جزن ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي شعوري يا غير شعوري قاعدن موجب پاڻ ۾ ملي وڏيون بناوتون ٺاهين ٿا. مثال طور، انگريزي لفظ ٽينٿ ''tenth'' جي بناوت کي ٻن مختلف تجزياتي سطحن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. لفظ جي اندروني بناوت (جنهن کي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي، ''ٽينٿ'' ٻن لساني عنصرن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ عنصر عدد (نمبر) جي معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻيو عنصر ترتيبي (آرڊنلٽي) معنيٰ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. انهن ٻنهي عنصرن جي ميلاپ لاءِ هڪ قاعدو مقرر آهي، جنهن مطابق ترتيبي لاحقو ''-th'' هميشه عدد ''ٽين'' کان پوءِ ايندو آهي. ٻئي طرف، صوتياتي بناوت (جنهن کي [[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]] يا [[فونالاجي]] چيو وڃي ٿو) جي سطح تي تجزيو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ''ٽينٿ'' ۾ موجود /n/ جو آواز، اڪيلي لفظ ''ٽين'' ۾ اچڻ واري /n/ جي آواز کان مختلف انداز سان ادا ڪيو ويندو آهي. انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن مان گهڻا ماڻهو لفظ ''ٽينٿ'' جي اندروني بناوت سان لاڳاپيل قاعدن کان ته شعوري طور واقف هوندا آهن، پر ان جي صوتياتي تبديليءَ بابت قاعدن کان اڪثر اڻواقف هوندا آهن. لساني بناوتن جو مطالعو ڪندڙ ماهر اهڙن ئي قاعدن جي سڃاڻپ ۽ تجزيو ڪندا آهن، جيڪي بيان ڪن ٿا ته مادري ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ عملي طور ٻولي ڪيئن استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{fact|date=February 2026}} === گرامر === {{main|گرامر}} گرامر قاعدن جو اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص ٻوليءَ ۾ اظهار جي ٺهڻ ۽ استعمال کي منظم ڪري ٿو. اهي قاعدا نه رڳو آوازن تي لاڳو ٿين ٿا،<ref>هن مقالي ۾ آوازن بابت سڀئي حوالا اشارتي ٻولين ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هٿن ۽ چهري جي اشارن تي پڻ لاڳو سمجهيا وڃن.</ref> پر معنيٰ تي پڻ اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. گرامر ۾ ڪيترائي جزوي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] (صوتياتي نظام جي تنظيم)، [[صرفيات]] (لفظن جي بناوت ۽ جوڙجڪ)، ۽ [[نحو]] (جملي ۽ فقري جي جوڙجڪ).<ref name="akmajian">{{Cite book |last1=Akmajian, Adrian |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |title=Linguistics |last2=Richard A. Demers |last3=Ann K. Farmer |last4=Robert M. Harnish |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-51370-8 |edition=6th |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240 |archive-date=14 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> جديد [[گرامر#Theoretical frameworks|گرامري نظريا]]، جيڪي گرامر جي اصولن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، انهن ۾ [[بناوتي لسانيات]] (اسٽرڪچرل لنگئسٽڪس)، [[فعالي لسانيات]] (فنڪشنل لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[تخليقي لسانيات]] (جنريٽو لنگئسٽڪس) شامل آهن.<ref>''Syntax: A Generative Introduction'' (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> ٻوليءَ جي گرامري اڀياس سان لاڳاپيل اهم ذيلي شعبا هي آهن: * '''[[صوتيات (لسانيات)|صوتيات]]''' (فونيٽڪس): تقريري آوازن جي پيداوار، ادائگي ۽ ادراڪ جي جسماني خاصيتن جو مطالعو، جنهن ۾ انهن جون صوتياتي (اڪائوسٽڪس) ۽ ادائيگيءَ واريون (آرٽيڪيوليٽري) خاصيتون شامل آهن. * '''[[فونالاجي]]''': آوازن جو ذهني ۽ تجريدي نظام طور مطالعو، جيڪو اهو واضح ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪهڙا آواز (''فونيمز'') معنيٰ ۾ فرق پيدا ڪن ٿا، اهي پاڻ ۾ ڪيئن ملي لفظ ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ ڪهڙيون صوتياتي خاصيتون لفظ جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ اهم آهن. * '''[[صرفيات]]''' (مارفولاجي): مورفيم (''مارفيمز'') يا لفظن جي اندروني بناوت جو مطالعو، ۽ اهو ته اهي ڪيئن تبديل ٿين ٿا يا نوان لفظ ڪيئن ٺاهين ٿا. * '''[[نحو]]''' (سنٽيڪس): لفظن جي گڏجڻ سان گرامري لحاظ کان درست فقرا ۽ [[جملو (لسانيات)|جملا]] ٺهڻ جي اصولن جو مطالعو. * '''[[معنيات]]''' (سمينٽڪس): لفظي ۽ گرامري معنيٰ جي مختلف پهلوئن جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio">{{Cite book |last1=Chierchia, Gennaro |title=Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics |last2=Sally McConnell-Ginet |publisher=MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-53164-1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> * '''[[عملي معنيات]]''' (پريگميٽڪس): اظهارن جي رابطي واري عمل ۾ استعمال، ۽ معنيٰ جي منتقليءَ ۾ صورتحال، سماجي پسمنظر ۽ غير لساني ڄاڻ جي ڪردار جو مطالعو.<ref name="Meaning and Grammar: An Introductio" /> * '''[[گفتاري تجزيو]]''' (ڊسڪورس اينالائسس): ڳالهيل، لکيل يا اشارتي متنن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال جو تجزيو. * '''[[اسلوبيات]]''' (اسٽائلٽڪس): لساني عنصرن، جهڙوڪ بيان بازي (رھيٽورڪ)، لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، لهجي (اسٽريس) ۽ اسلوب جي مطالعي ذريعي متن يا گفتگو کي ان جي سماجي ۽ ادبي پسمنظر ۾ سمجهڻ. * '''[[سيميا]]''' (سيميوٽڪس): نشانين، نشانين جي عمل (سيميوسس)، اشاري، نمائندگي، مشابهت، تمثيل، استعارو، علامت، دلالت ۽ ابلاغ جي مطالعي وارو علم. === گفتگو === گفتگو (''ڊسڪورس'') سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي ( بينھم، 1995)، ۽ هڪ گهڻ-سطحي تصور آهي. سماجي عمل جي حيثيت سان گفتگو لکيل ۽ ڳالهايل متنن ذريعي مختلف نظرين کي پاڻ ۾ سموئي ٿي. [[گفتاري تجزيو]] اهڙن نظرين جو جائزو وٺي سگهي ٿو يا انهن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو. گفتگو نه رڳو صنف (جينر) تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا مخصوص سماجي ۽ ابلاغي حالتن مطابق چونڊي ويندي آهي، پر ننڍي سطح تي ٻوليءَ کي متن (ڳالهايل يا لکيل) جي صورت ۾ پڻ ترتيب ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ صوتياتي (فونولاجيڪل) ۽ لفظي-گرامري (ليڪسيڪو-گريميٽيڪل) پهلو شامل آهن. گرامر ۽ گفتگو هڪ ئي نظام جا لاڳاپيل حصا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ariel |first=Mira |year=2009 |title=Discourse, grammar, discourse |journal=Discourse Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5–36 |doi=10.1177/1461445608098496 |jstor=24049745 }}</ref> جڏهن ڪنهن خاص مقصد لاءِ مخصوص انداز ۾ گفتگو استعمال ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته اها ٻوليءَ جو هڪ قسم بڻجي وڃي ٿي، جنهن کي [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽر]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). ''Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register'', Continuum International Publishing Group, p.&nbsp;6. {{ISBN|1-85567-272-3}}</ref> ڪنهن مخصوص علمي يا پيشاور شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهن جي مهارت سبب ٻوليءَ ۾ نوان لفظ به شامل ٿيندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت رجسٽر ۽ گفتگو پاڻ ۾ رڳو خاص اصطلاحن ذريعي نه، پر ڪيترين حالتن ۾ مخصوص اسلوبي خصوصيتن ذريعي پڻ هڪ ٻئي کان ممتاز ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، طبي شعبي سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو پنهنجي رابطن ۾ اهڙا طبي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي صرف طب سان واسطو رکن ٿا. اهڙي قسم جي ٻوليءَ کي عام طور "طبي گفتگو" سڏيو ويندو آهي، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ٻين شعبن جون به پنهنجون مخصوص گفتگوي روايتون هونديون آهن. === لفظيات === لفظيات (''ليڪسيڪن'') لفظن ۽ اصطلاحن جو اهو ذخيرو آهي، جيڪو ڳالهائيندڙ جي ذهن ۾ محفوظ هوندو آهي. لفظياتي ذخيري ۾ مڪمل لفظن سان گڏ [[مقيد مورفيم]] (بائونڊ مارفيمز) پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي لفظ جا اهڙا جزا آهن، جيڪي پاڻ الڳ لفظ طور استعمال نٿا ٿي سگهن، جهڙوڪ [[واڌارا]] (affixes). ڪن لساني تجزين ۾ [[مرڪب لفظ]]، محاوراتي اظهار جا ڪي قسم، ۽ ٻيون گڏيل لفظي ترڪيبون پڻ لفظياتي ذخيري جو حصو سمجهيون وينديون آهن. لغتون ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظياتي ذخيري کي الف بائي ترتيب سان مرتب ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش هونديون آهن، پر عام طور تي انهن ۾ مقيد مورفيم شامل نه ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[لغت نويسي]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي)، جيڪا معنيات (سمينٽڪس) سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، اهڙو علم آهي جيڪو لفظن کي لغت يا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا جي صورت ۾ ترتيب ڏئي ٿو. ٻوليءَ ۾ نون لفظن جي تخليق يا شامل ٿيڻ کي [[نئون لفظ ٺاهڻ]] (''نيولاگزيشن'') يا ''ڪوائننگ'' چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |url=http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2 |pages=2ff |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> جڏهن ته اهڙن نون لفظن کي [[نئون لفظ]] (''نيولاگئزم'') سڏيو ويندو آهي. عام خيال اهو آهي ته ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جي لساني صلاحيت سندس ذهن ۾ محفوظ لفظن جي تعداد تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر ڪيترن ئي لسانيات جي ماهرن موجب اهو تصور درست ناهي. سندن خيال ۾ ٻولي استعمال ڪرڻ جي حقيقي صلاحيت بنيادي طور گرامر جي دائري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، ۽ اها [[لساني قابليت]] (لنگئسٽڪ ڪامپيٽنس) سان وابسته آهي، نه ته صرف لفظن جي تعداد سان. نظرياتي طور تي، تمام محدود لفظياتي ذخيرو به لامحدود تعداد ۾ جملا ٺاهڻ جي صلاحيت رکي سگهي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، [[لفظن جو ذخيرو]] (ووڪبيولري) متن جي سمجهه کي ماپڻ لاءِ اهم معيار سمجهيو ويندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو اتفاق موجود آهي ته انگريزيءَ ۾ ڪنهن لکيل متن کي صحيح نموني سمجهڻ لاءِ پڙهندڙ کي متن ۾ موجود لڳ ڀڳ 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي ڄاڻ هجڻ ضروري آهي، يعني هو متن جي تقريباً 98 سيڪڙو لفظن جي معنيٰ ڄاڻي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Norbert |last2=Cobb |first2=Tom |last3=Horst |first3=Marlise |last4=Schmitt |first4=Diane |title=How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007) |journal=Language Teaching |date=April 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1017/S0261444815000075 }}</ref> انهيءَ ڪري، گهربل لفظي ذخيري جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ڪهڙي قسم جا متن يا ڳالهيون سمجهڻيون آهن. هڪ عام اندازي موجب، روزمره جي مختلف قسمن جي ڳالهين کي سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 6٬000 کان 7٬000 لفظي خاندان ضروري آهن، جڏهن ته مختلف قسمن جي لکيل متنن کي آسانيءَ سان پڙهڻ ۽ سمجهڻ لاءِ لڳ ڀڳ 8٬000 کان 9٬000 لفظي خاندانن جي ڄاڻ گهربل هوندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nation |first=Paul |date=2006 |title=How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? |journal=Canadian Modern Language Review |volume=63 |pages=59–82 |doi=10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59 }}</ref> === اسلوبيات === [[اسلوبيات]] (''اسٽائلسٽڪس'') ۾ مختلف گفتگوي برادرين، ادبي صنفن، ۽ اشاعتي يا بياني اندازن جي تناظر ۾ لکيل، اشارتي يا ڳالهايل متنن جو مطالعو پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ عوامي ذرائع ابلاغ (ماس ميڊيا) ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولي به شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. ''Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> هن شعبي ۾ متنن جو انهن جي لساني ۽ اسلوبي خصوصيتن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ تشريح ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ مخصوص [[لهجو|لهجن]] ۽ [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪي مختلف گفتگوي برادرين طرفان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. اسلوبي خصوصيتن ۾ [[بيان بازي]] (Rhetoric)،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards, I. A. |title=The Philosophy of Rhetoric |publisher=Oxford University Press (New York) |year=1965}}</ref> لفظن جي چونڊ (ڊڪشن)، زور يا اسٽريس، طنز (سٽائر)، [[طعنو]] (آئرني)، مڪالما (ڊائلاگ)، ۽ صوتياتي تبديليءَ (فونيٽڪ ويريئيشن) جون ٻيون صورتون شامل آهن. اسلوبي تجزئي ۾ ادبي شاهڪارن، عوامي ادب (پاپولر فڪشن)، خبرن، اشتهارن، ۽ عوامي ثقافت (پاپولر ڪلچر) ۾ رابطي جي ٻين صورتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ شامل هوندو آهي. عام طور تي اسلوب کي رابطي جي اهڙي تبديلي سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ڳالهائيندڙن ۽ مختلف سماجن جي لحاظ کان بدلجندي رهندي آهي. مختصر طور، اسلوبيات متن جي تشريح جو علم آهي. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، مثال طور، [[جيڪ دريدا]] (Jacques Derrida) تقرير ۽ تحرير جي وچ ۾ فرق کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪيو، ۽ اهو دليل پيش ڪيو ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پنهنجي حيثيت ۾ هڪ آزاد لساني وسيلي طور ڪيو وڃي.<ref>Derrida, Jacques (1967). ''[[Writing and Difference]]'' and ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.</ref> انهيءَ تناظر ۾ [[قديم رسم الخطيات]] (پالائيوگرافي) اهڙو علم آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ لکيل رسم الخط، نشانين ۽ علامتن جي ارتقا جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.<ref>Chapter 1, section 1.1 in {{Cite book |last=Antonsen, Elmer H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRF == طريقهٔ ڪار == جديد لسانيات بنيادي طور تي [[وضاحتي لسانيات]] (ڊيسڪرپٽو لنگئسٽڪس) تي ٻڌل آهي.<ref name="Martinet">{{Cite book |last=Martinet |first=André |author-link=André Martinet |title=Elements of General Linguistics |publisher=Faber |year=1960 |series=Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. |location=London |page=15 |translator-last=Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert}}</ref> لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جي خاصيتن کي بغير ڪنهن ذاتي قدرشناسيءَ جي بيان ۽ وضاحت ڪن ٿا؛ يعني اهي اهو فيصلو نٿا ڪن ته ڪو خاص لساني عنصر يا استعمال "سٺو" آهي يا "خراب". اهو طريقو ٻين سائنسن جيان آهي؛ مثال طور، هڪ [[حيوانيات]] جو ماهر (زولاجسٽ) جانورن جي دنيا جو مطالعو ڪندي اهو نٿو چوي ته هڪ نسل ٻي نسل کان "بهتر" يا "بدتر" آهي. ٻئي طرف، [[لساني تجويزيت]] (لنگئسٽڪ پرسڪرپشن) جو مقصد ڪجهه مخصوص لساني صورتن يا استعمالن کي ٻين تي ترجيح ڏيڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ اڪثر ڪنهن خاص لهجي يا "[[اڪرو ليڪٽ]]" (acrolect) کي معياري حيثيت ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. ان جو مقصد هڪ [[معياري ٻولي]] قائم ڪرڻ به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪا وسيع جاگرافيائي علائقن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي. بهرحال، اهو پڻ ممڪن آهي ته هڪ ٻولي يا لهجي جا ڳالهائيندڙ ٻين ٻولين يا لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن تي پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن (ڏسو: [[لساني سامراج]]). تجويزيت (پرسڪرپٽوئزم) جي انتهائي صورت [[سينسرشپ]] ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿي، جتي ڪجهه لفظن يا نحوي بناوتن کي سماج لاءِ نقصانڪار سمجهي ختم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ([[ٻولي جي تعليم]]) ۾ تجويزيت مناسب نموني استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن [[انگريزي ٻوليءَ جي تدريس]] (ELT) دوران، جتي ٻي ٻولي سکڻ وارن کي بنيادي گرامري قاعدا ۽ لفظي ذخيرو سيکارڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، ته جيئن هو [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] جي عمل ۾ ڪامياب ٿي سگهن.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} === ذريعا === اڪثر جديد لسانيات جا ماهر اهو فرض ڪن ٿا ته [[ڳالهايل ٻولي]] ۽ [[اشارتي ٻولي]] جا انگ اکر [[لکيل ٻولي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا. ان جا ڪيترائي سبب آهن: * ڳالهائڻ انساني سماجن جي تقريباً سڀني ثقافتن ۾ موجود آهي، جڏهن ته تاريخ ۾ ڪيترائي اهڙا سماج ۽ لساني برادريون رهيون آهن، جن وٽ لکڻ جو نظام موجود نه هو. * ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ ۾ اهڙيون خاصيتون ملن ٿيون، جيڪي هميشه لکڻ ۾ محفوظ ناهن ٿينديون، جهڙوڪ [[فونالاجي]] جا قاعدا، [[آوازن جي تبديلي]]، ۽ [[تقريري غلطيون]]. * سڀئي قدرتي رسم الخط ڪنهن نه ڪنهن ڳالهايل يا اشارتي ٻوليءَ جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ تصويري رسم الخط، جهڙوڪ [[ڊونگبا رسم الخط]] (Dongba writing)، به [[ناڪسي ٻولي]] (Naxi language) جي هڪجهڙن اچارن (ھوموفونز) کي ساڳئي تصويري نشانيءَ سان ظاهر ڪن ٿا، ۽ جڏهن هڪ ئي رسم الخط ٻن ٻولين لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو ته ان ۾ پڻ ڳالهائيندڙ ٻوليءَ موجب تبديليون اينديون آهن. * انسانن ۾ ڳالهائڻ جي صلاحيت لکڻ جي ايجاد کان گهڻو اڳ وجود ۾ آئي. * ماڻهو لکڻ سکڻ کان اڳ ۽ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ڳالهائڻ ۽ ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ کي سمجهڻ سکندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، لسانيات جا ماهر ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته لکيل ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو پڻ اهم ۽ فائديمند آهي. خاص طور تي [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] ۽ [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] ۾ لکيل متنن تي ٻڌل تحقيق وڏي مقدار ۾ لساني ڊيٽا جي تجزيي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون هوندي آهي. ڳالهايل ٻوليءَ جا وڏا ڪارپس تيار ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي ۽ اهي آسانيءَ سان دستياب به ناهن هوندا؛ تنهن ڪري انهن کي اڪثر [[لساني نقل نويسي]] ذريعي لکيل صورت ۾ آندو ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، لسانيات جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ٿيندڙ رابطن جي مختلف صورتن ۾ موجود متنن کي پڻ لساني تحقيق لاءِ اهم ذريعو سمجهندا آهن. رسم الخط جي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ مطالعو، جنهن کي [[گرافيميات]] چيو وڃي ٿو، به لسانيات جي هڪ شاخ آهي. === تجزيو === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[تاريخي يا ڊائڪرونڪ لسانيات]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو مرڪز تاريخي تبديليون هونديون هيون. اهي مختلف لساني خاصيتن جو پاڻ ۾ مقابلو ڪري اهو سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا هئا ته ٻولي وقت سان گڏ ڪيئن تبديل ٿي آهي. پر ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي نظرين جي اثر هيٺ لسانيات ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ڌيان [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿيو. هن طريقي ۾ ٻولين يا انهن جي مختلف صورتن جو ساڳئي وقت واري مرحلي ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ۽ تجزيو ڪيو ويندو آهي. لساني تجزيي جي هڪ ٻي سطح تي [[سنتگمي تجزيو]] ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو جملن ۾ لفظن جي ترتيب ۽ انهن جي باهمي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ حرفِ تعريف ''دي'' کان پوءِ اسم (نائون) ايندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي لفظن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سنتگمي تعلق موجود هوندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[پيراڊائمي تجزيو]] متن ۾ موجود تصورن يا پيراڊائمن جي بنياد تي ڪيو ويندو آهي. هن طريقي ۾ ساڳئي قسم يا ساڳئي درجي جا لفظ هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن ته متن جي بنيادي مفهوم ۾ ڪا خاص تبديلي نه ايندي آهي. == تاريخ == {{main|لسانيات جي تاريخ}} ٻوليءَ جي منظم وضاحت جون سڀ کان اوائليون سرگرميون عام طور ڇهين صدي ق.م. جي هندستاني وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] (Pāṇini) ڏانهن منسوب ڪيون وڃن ٿيون،<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Rens Bod]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908 |volume=2 |page=263 |chapter=Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt}}</ref> جنهن پنهنجي ڪتاب {{IAST|[[اَشٽاڌيايي]]}} ۾ [[سنسڪرت]] ٻوليءَ جي هڪ باضابطه [[رسمي گرامر]] تيار ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 |url=http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=panini.phil.hhu.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S.C. Vasu (Tr.) |url=http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |title=The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.) |publisher=Vedic Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-208-0409-8 |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد [[تخليقي گرامر]] جا ڪيترائي اصول اڄ به پاڻنيءَ جي پيش ڪيل بنيادي نظرين تي ٻڌل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Gerald |last2=Kiparski |first2=Paul |title=On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |journal=Proceedings of COLING 2012 |pages=943–950 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> === اصطلاحي تاريخ (نامنڪليچر) === ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ ''[[لسانياتِ قديمه]]'' (فلولاجي) جو اصطلاح، جنهن جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1716ع ۾ ملي ٿو،<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology">{{OEtymD|philology|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> عام طور ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو ان وقت گهڻو ڪري تاريخي نوعيت جو هوندو هو.<ref name="Nichols 65-1">{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Stephen G. |title=Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture |journal=Speculum |date=1990 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/2864468 |jstor=2864468 }}</ref><ref name="Understanding">{{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=A.M.S. |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44665-5 |pages=9, 19}}</ref> پر [[فرڊيننڊ ڊي سوسيور]] جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات]] جي اهميت تي زور ڏيڻ کان پوءِ لسانيات جو رخ تبديل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Understanding" /> ان کان پوءِ ''فلولاجي'' جو اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري "ٻوليءَ جي گرامر، تاريخ ۽ ادبي روايت جي مطالعي" لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، خاص طور تي آمريڪا ۾،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morpurgo Davies |first=A. |title=Nineteenth-Century Linguistics |date=1998 |series=History of Linguistics |volume=4}}</ref> جتي ''فلولاجي'' کي ڪڏهن به "ٻوليءَ جي سائنس" جي معنيٰ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نه ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Etymonline Definition of Philology" /> ''لنگئسٽ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) جو اصطلاح "ٻوليءَ جي شاگرد" جي معنيٰ ۾ 1641ع کان استعمال ۾ اچي ويو هو،<ref name="etymonline linguist" /> جڏهن ته ''لنگئسٽڪس'' (لسانيات) جو پهريون معلوم استعمال 1847ع ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="etymonline linguist">{{OEtymD|linguist|accessdate=5 March 2018}}</ref> اڄ انگريزيءَ ۾ ٻوليءَ جي سائنسي مطالعي لاءِ ''Linguistics'' سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahhoseiny |first=Hajar |year=2013 |title=Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom |url=https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2023 |publisher=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409042258/https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Linguistics? |url=https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |access-date=December 10, 2023 |website=Birmingham City University |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210135842/https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics |url-status=live }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ''لنگئسٽڪ سائنس'' پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لسانيات هڪ [[بين الشعبائي]] علم آهي، جيڪو قدرتي سائنسن، سماجي سائنسن، [[رسمي سائنسن]] ۽ انسانيات جي اوزارن ۽ طريقن کي گڏ ڪري استعمال ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Spolsky |first1=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13 |title=The Handbook of Educational Linguistics |last2=Hult |first2=Francis M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berns |first=Margie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics |date=20 March 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-096503-1 |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Science of Linguistics |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=17 April 2018 |website=Linguistic Society of America}}</ref><ref>Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. ''Essays on Linguistic Realism'' (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</ref> ڪيترائي لسانيات جا ماهر، جهڙوڪ [[ڊيوڊ ڪرسٽل]]، لسانيات کي بنيادي طور هڪ سائنسي علم قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Linguistics |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-013531-2}}</ref> ''لنگئسٽڪ'' (لسانيات جو ماهر) ان شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو ڪري، لسانيات ۾ تحقيق ڪري، يا لسانيات جي طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي مخصوص ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو ڪري.<ref name="American Heritage 2000">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Linguist |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7 |isbn=978-0-395-82517-4}}</ref> === ابتدائي وياڪرڻ دان === ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي باضابطه مطالعو ڇهين صدي ق.م. ۾ هندستان جي وياڪرڻ دان [[پاڻني]] ڪيو، جنهن سنسڪرت جي [[صرفيات]] (مارفولاجي) بابت 3,959 قاعدا ترتيب ڏنا. پاڻني سنسڪرت جي آوازن کي باقاعدي نموني صامتن (ڪانسوننٽس) ۽ مصوتن (واولز) ۾ ورهايو، ۽ لفظن کي اسم، فعل وغيره جي قسمن ۾ تقسيم ڪيو، جيڪو پنهنجي نوعيت جو سڀ کان پهريون معلوم لساني درجابندي وارو ڪم هو. وچ اوڀر ۾ فارسي عالم [[سيبويه]] (Sibawayh) 760ع ڌاري پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''الكتاب في النحو'' ({{lang|ar|الكتاب في النحو}}) ۾ عربي ٻوليءَ جي انتهائي تفصيلي وضاحت پيش ڪئي. هو پهريون معلوم عالم هو، جنهن [[فونيات]] (Phonetics) ۽ [[فونيم]] (Phoneme) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق بيان ڪيو. اولهه ۾ ٻولين جي مطالعي ۾ دلچسپي اوڀر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه دير سان پيدا ٿي،<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=307}}.</ref> ۽ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي وياڪرڻ دانن نه ته هندستاني عالمن جا طريقا اختيار ڪيا ۽ نه ئي ساڳين نتيجن تي پهتا. اولهه ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ابتدائي مطالعو گهڻو ڪري فلسفي جو حصو هو، نه ڪي لساني وضاحت جو. معنيٰ (سيميٽڪس) بابت ابتدائي نظرين جو ذڪر [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي مشهور مڪالمي ''[[ڪريٽلس (گفتگو)|ڪريٽلس]]'' ۾ ڪيو، جتي هن دليل ڏنو ته لفظ دائمي تصورن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي خيالن جي دنيا ۾ موجود آهن. اهو ئي پهريون معلوم متن آهي، جنهن ۾ ''اٽيمولاجي'' (اشتقاق) جو لفظ ڪنهن لفظ جي تاريخ ۽ معنيٰ جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو. 280 ق.م. ڌاري [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي جانشينن مان هڪ [[اسڪندريه]] ۾ [[ميوزيم]] قائم ڪيو، جتي علمائن جي هڪ جماعت قديم يوناني متنن جو مطالعو ڪندي هئي ۽ غير يوناني ماڻهن کي يوناني ٻولي سيکاريندي هئي. هي اهو پهريون ادارو هو، جنهن گرامر جو اصطلاح موجوده معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جڏهن ته افلاطون ان کان اڳ ''téchnē grammatikḗ'' ({{script|Greek|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}) کي "لکڻ جي فن" جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو هو. اهو ئي عنوان بعد ۾ [[ڊيونيشيس ٿريڪس]] (Dionysius Thrax) جي مشهور ڪتاب جو پڻ بڻيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seuren, Pieter A. M. |title=Western linguistics: An historical introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20891-4 |pages=2–24}}</ref> [[وچئين دور]] ۾ ٻوليءَ جو مطالعو گهڻو ڪري لسانياتِ قديمه (Philology) جو حصو رهيو، جنهن ۾ قديم ٻولين ۽ متنن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويندو هو. هن دور ۾ [[راجر ايسڪم]]، [[وولفگانگ راٽڪي]] ۽ [[جان ايموس ڪومينس]] جهڙن عالمن اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=308}}.</ref> === تقابلي لسانياتِ قديمه === ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ [[وليم جونز]] پاران [[تقابلي طريقو]] استعمال ڪرڻ سان [[تقابلي لسانيات]] جو بنياد پيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=310}}.</ref> ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ جي خيال موجب دنيا جي پهرين وڏي سائنسي لسانياتي تصنيف [[جيڪب گريم]] جي ''ڊوئچي گراماٽڪ'' (جرمن گرامر) هئي.<ref name="Bloomfield 1914 311">{{harvnb|Bloomfield|1983|p=311}}.</ref> ان کان پوءِ يورپ جي ٻين لساني خاندانن بابت به اهڙا تقابلي مطالعو لکيا ويا. [[ولهم فان همبولٽ]] ٻوليءَ جي مطالعي کي صرف [[هند-يورپي ٻولين]] تائين محدود نه رکيو، پر ان کي سڀني انساني ٻولين تائين وسيع ڪيو. بلومفيلڊ سندس باري ۾ لکي ٿو: {{blockquote|هن مطالعي کي پروشيا جي عالم ۽ سياستدان ولهم فان همبولٽ (1767–1835ع) بنيادي شڪل ڏني، خاص طور سندس ڪتاب ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts'' ("انساني ٻولين جي بناوت جي تنوع ۽ انساني ذهني ترقيءَ تي ان جي اثر") جي پهرين جلد ذريعي، جيڪو جاوا جي ادبي ٻولي ڪاوي بابت لکيو ويو هو.}} === ويهين صديءَ جون ترقيون === ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ لسانيات جو مرڪز تاريخي ۽ تقابلي مطالعي مان هم وقتي تجزيي ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو. [[ليونارڊ بلومفيلڊ]]، [[لوئس يلمسليف]] ۽ [[زيلگ هيرس]] لساني بناوت جي نظريي کي وڌيڪ ترقي ڏني، جڏهن ته هيرس [[گفتاري تجزيي]] جا طريقا پڻ تيار ڪيا. [[پراگ لسانياتي حلقو]] ۽ [[آندري مارٽينيه]] فعالي لسانيت کي ترقي ڏني. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آواز رڪارڊ ڪرڻ واري ٽيڪنالاجي عام ٿيڻ سان مختلف لهجن جون رڪارڊنگون تيار ڪري محفوظ ڪيون ويون، ۽ [[آڊيو-لساني طريقو]] پرڏيهي ٻولين جي سکيا لاءِ هڪ نئون ٽيڪنالاجي تي ٻڌل حل بڻيو. ساڳئي ڏهاڪي ۾ [[لساني قسم بندي]] جي ذريعي [[ٻولين جي آفاقيت]] بابت تقابلي تحقيق ۾ پڻ نئين دلچسپي پيدا ٿي. ويهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين [[ٻوليءَ جي ٽيڪنالاجي]] ۽ ڊجيٽل [[ڪارپس لسانيات]] جي ترقيءَ سبب لسانيات ڪيترن ئي نون ذيلي شعبن ۾ ورهائجي وئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=Kim Ebensgaard |date=December 19, 2014 |title=Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics |journal=MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research |volume=30 |issue=57 |doi=10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McEnery |first=Tony |year=2019 |title=Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=39 |pages=74–92 |doi=10.1017/S0267190519000096 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunston |first1=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |chapter=Corpus Linguistics |date=2006 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}</ref> == تحقيقي شعبا == === سماجي لسانيات === {{main|سماجي لسانيات}} '''سماجي لسانيات''' (سوشيولنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا اڀياس ڪري ٿي ته ٻولي سماجي عنصرن جي اثر هيٺ ڪيئن شڪل اختيار ڪري ٿي. هي ذيلي شعبي بنيادي طور لسانيات جي [[هم وقتي لسانيات|هم وقتي]] نقطهٔ نظر تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، ۽ اهو ڏسي ٿو ته ڪنهن خاص وقت تي هڪ ٻولي يا ٻولين جو مجموعو ڪهڙي نموني تبديلي، تنوع ۽ مختلف قسمن جو اظهار ڪري ٿو. ٻوليءَ جي تبديلي ۽ ان جي مختلف صورتن، جهڙوڪ [[لهجو|لهجن]]، [[رجسٽر (لسانيات)|رجسٽرن]] ۽ [[آئيڊيو ليڪٽ]] (Idiolects)، جو مطالعو اسلوب جي اڀياس ۽ [[گفتاري تجزيو|گفتاري تجزيي]] ذريعي ڪري سگهجي ٿو. سماجي لسانيات جا ماهر ٻوليءَ ۾ اسلوب ۽ گفتاري ٻنهي جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، گڏوگڏ انهن نظرياتي عنصرن جو به جائزو وٺن ٿا، جيڪي ٻولي ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. === ترقياتي لسانيات === {{main|ترقياتي لسانيات}} '''ترقياتي لسانيات''' (ڊولپمينٽل لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا فردن ۾ لساني صلاحيت جي ارتقا ۽ واڌ ويجهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، خاص طور تي [[ٻوليءَ جي حصول]] دوران ننڍپڻ ۾ ٻولي سکڻ جي عمل جو. هن شعبي ۾ اهڙن سوالن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيئن ٻار مختلف ٻوليون ڪيئن حاصل ڪن ٿا، بالغ ماڻهو ٻي ٻولي ڪيئن سکن ٿا، ۽ ٻولي حاصل ڪرڻ جو عمل ڪهڙي نموني پيش اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Charles-James N. |title=Developmental Linguistics |journal=Folia Linguistica |date=1981 |volume=15 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29 }}</ref> === عصبي لسانيات === {{main|عصبي لسانيات}} '''عصبي لسانيات''' (نيورو لنگئسٽڪس) لسانيات جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا انساني دماغ جي انهن بناوتن ۽ نظامن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جيڪي گرامر ۽ رابطي جي بنياد بڻجن ٿا. هن شعبي ۾ مختلف علمي پسمنظر رکندڙ محقق ڪم ڪن ٿا، جيڪي مختلف تجربي وارا طريقا ۽ نظرياتي نقطهٔ نظر استعمال ڪن ٿا. عصبي لسانيات ۾ ٿيندڙ گهڻي تحقيق [[نفسياتي لسانيات]] (سائڪو لنگئسٽڪس) ۽ [[نظرياتي لسانيات]] (ٿيوريٽيڪل لنگئسٽڪس) جي ماڊلن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي، ۽ ان ڳالهه جي جاچ تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي ته دماغ انهن عملن کي ڪيئن سرانجام ڏئي ٿو، جن کي نظرياتي لسانيات ۽ نفسياتي لسانيات ٻوليءَ جي پيداوار ۽ فهم لاءِ ضروري قرار ڏين ٿيون. عصبي لسانيات جا ماهر انهن جسماني طريقن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا، جن جي ذريعي دماغ ٻوليءَ سان لاڳاپيل معلومات تي عمل ڪري ٿو. اهي [[افيزيا جي علم]] (افيزيالاجي)، [[دماغي تصويرڪاري]] (برين اميجنگ)، [[برقي فعليات]] (اليڪٽروفزيولاجي) ۽ ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ جي مدد سان لسانياتي ۽ نفسياتي لسانياتي نظرين جو جائزو وٺن ٿا. دماغ جي انهن بناوتن مان، جيڪي عصبي لسانيات جي عملن ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، [[ننڍو دماغ]] (سيريبلم) نمايان حيثيت رکي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نيورون موجود هوندا آهن ۽ اهو ٻولي پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل اڳڪٿين ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mariën |first1=Peter |last2=Manto |first2=Mario |title=Cerebellum as a Master-Piece for Linguistic Predictability |journal=The Cerebellum |date=April 2018 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1007/s12311-017-0894-1 |pmid=29071518 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === اطلاقي لسانيات === لسانيات جا ماهر بنيادي طور تي مخصوص ٻولين ۽ سمورين ٻولين ۾ موجود مشترڪ خاصيتن ۽ تنوع کي ڳولڻ، بيان ڪرڻ ۽ سمجهڻ سان واسطو رکن ٿا. '''اطلاقي لسانيات''' (اپلائيڊ لنگئسٽڪس) انهن تحقيقاتي نتيجن کي عملي ميدانن ۾ استعمال ڪري ٿي. انهن ۾ [[ٻوليءَ جي تعليم]]، [[لغت نگاري]]، [[ترجمو]]، [[ٻوليءَ جي رٿابندي]]، جنهن ۾ ٻوليءَ جي استعمال بابت سرڪاري پاليسين تي عملدرآمد شامل هوندو آهي، ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] جهڙا شعبا شامل آهن. "اطلاقي لسانيات" جي اصطلاح کي ڪن عالمن مناسب اصطلاح نه پڻ قرار ڏنو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbara Seidlhofer |title=Controversies in Applied Linguistics (pp. 288) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-437444-6}}</ref> انهن جي راءِ موجب اطلاقي لسانيات جا ماهر رڳو موجود لساني علم کي "لاڳو" نٿا ڪن، بلڪه حقيقي دنيا ۾ پيش ايندڙ لساني مسئلن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جا حل تيار ڪرڻ تي ڌيان ڏين ٿا. ان کان علاوه، اهي اڪثر ڪري سماجيات (جهڙوڪ [[گفتاري تجزيو]]) ۽ بشريات (اينٿروپولاجي) سميت ڪيترن ئي ٻين علمن مان به فني ڄاڻ حاصل ڪري استعمال ڪن ٿا. ([[مصنوعي ٻولي]] پڻ اطلاقي لسانيات جي دائري ۾ اچي ٿي.) اڄڪلهه اطلاقي لسانيات جي ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ ڪمپيوٽرن جو وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو. [[گفتار جي ترڪيب]] ۽ [[گفتار جي سڃاڻپ]] فونياتي ۽ فونيمي ڄاڻ کي استعمال ڪندي ڪمپيوٽرن لاءِ [[آوازي رابطا]] مهيا ڪن ٿيون. [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] جون [[مشيني ترجمو]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر جي مدد سان ترجمو]] ۽ [[قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي پروسيسنگ]] واريون اطلاقون اطلاقي لسانيات جا اهڙا شعبا آهن، جيڪي تازن سالن ۾ نمايان اهميت حاصل ڪري چڪا آهن. انهن ترقيَن ڪمپيوٽرن تي نحوي ۽ معنوي نظرين جي ماڊلنگ ذريعي انهن نظرين جي تشڪيل ۽ ارتقا تي پڻ اثر وڌو آهي. '''لساني تجزيو''' اطلاقي لسانيات جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جنهن کي ڪيترائي ملڪ انهن پناهگيرن جي دعوائن جي جاچ لاءِ استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيڪي پنهنجي شهريت ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل دستاويز پيش نٿا ڪري سگهن.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis">{{Cite journal |last=Eades |first=Diana |year=2005 |title=Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases |url=http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Applied Linguistics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–26 |doi=10.1093/applin/ami021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327083553/http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 |access-date=31 January 2009}}</ref> اهو عمل عام طور تي اميگريشن کاتي جي عملي طرفان ورتل انٽرويو تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي. ملڪ جي نظام مطابق، اهو انٽرويو يا ته درخواست ڏيندڙ جي [[مادري ٻولي]] ۾ ترجمان جي وسيلي ورتو ويندو آهي، يا وري انگريزي جهڙي ڪنهن بين الاقوامي ''[[لساني رابطائي ٻولي]]'' ۾.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> مثال طور آسٽريليا پهريون طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته جرمني ٻيو طريقو استعمال ڪري ٿو؛ جڏهن ته نيدرلينڊ ٻنهي طريقن مان مناسب طريقو چونڊي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو استعمال ٿيندڙ ٻولين تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> انٽرويو جون آڊيو رڪارڊنگون بعد ۾ لساني تجزيي لاءِ موڪليون وينديون آهن، جيڪو يا ته نجي ادارا انجام ڏيندا آهن يا وري حڪومت جا لاڳاپيل شعبا. هن تجزيي دوران ماهر درخواست ڏيندڙ جي ٻوليءَ جون خاصيتون، لهجو، لفظن جي چونڊ ۽ ٻيون لساني علامتون جانچي سندس ممڪن قوميت بابت راءِ قائم ڪندا آهن. لساني تجزيي جون هيون رپورٽون پناهگير جي حيثيت بابت حڪومت جي فيصلي ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.<ref name="Linguistic Analysis" /> === ٻوليءَ جي دستاويزڪاري === '''ٻوليءَ جي دستاويزڪاري''' ۾ [[بشرياتي]] تحقيق، جيڪا ٻوليءَ جي تاريخ ۽ ثقافت جو اڀياس ڪري ٿي، ۽ لساني تحقيق کي گڏايو ويندو آهي، ته جيئن ٻولين ۽ انهن جي گرامر جي جامع وضاحت تيار ڪري سگهجي. [[لغت نگاري]] (ليڪسيڪوگرافي) انهن لفظن جي دستاويزڪاري سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪي ڪنهن ٻوليءَ جي لفظي ذخيري کي ٺاهين ٿا. ڪنهن خاص ٻوليءَ جي لفظي ذخيري جي اهڙي دستاويزڪاري عام طور هڪ [[لغت]] جي صورت ۾ مرتب ڪئي ويندي آهي. [[حسابياتي لسانيات]] قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي شمارياتي يا قاعدن تي ٻڌل ڪمپيوٽري ماڊلنگ سان واسطو رکي ٿي. ٻوليءَ بابت مخصوص ڄاڻ ترجمي، [[زباني ترجمي]]، [[ٻوليءَ جي تعليم]] ۽ ٻي يا پرڏيهي ٻولي سيکارڻ دوران پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. پاليسي ساز سرڪاري ادارن سان گڏجي لساني تحقيق جي بنياد تي تعليم ۽ تدريس بابت نيون پاليسيون ۽ منصوبا تيار ڪندا آهن. لسانيات جي شعبي جي شروعات کان وٺي لسانيات جي ماهرن جو هڪ اهم مقصد انهن ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ تجزيو رهيو آهي، جن جي اڳ ۾ ڪا به دستاويزڪاري نه ٿي هئي. ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ [[فرانز بواس]] جي ڪم کان پوءِ، هيءَ آمريڪي لسانيات جو مرڪزي موضوع بڻجي ويو، جيستائين ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[رسمي لسانيات]] وڌيڪ نمايان نه ٿي. ٻولين جي دستاويزڪاري تي اهو زور جزوي طور انهيءَ خدشي سبب به هو ته مقامي قومن جون ڪيتريون ئي ٻوليون تيزيءَ سان [[ٻوليءَ جي زوال]] جو شڪار ٿي رهيون هيون. بواسي (Boasian) طريقي ۾ موجود بشرياتي رخ بعد ۾ [[سماجي لسانيات]]، [[بشرياتي لسانيات]] ۽ [[لساني بشريات]] جهڙن شعبن جي ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو، جيڪي ٻولي، ثقافت ۽ سماج جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪن ٿا. ٻولين جي وضاحت ۽ دستاويزڪاري تي زور اتر آمريڪا کان ٻاهر به وڌيو آهي، ۽ تيزيءَ سان ختم ٿيندڙ مقامي ٻولين جي دستاويزڪاري دنيا جي ڪيترين ئي يونيورسٽين جي لسانيات جي پروگرامن جو اهم حصو بڻجي چڪي آهي. ٻوليءَ جي وضاحت هڪ محنت طلب ۽ وقتائتو عمل آهي، جنهن لاءِ لسانيات جي ماهر کي لاڳاپيل ٻوليءَ جي ماحول ۾ ڪيترائي سال ميداني تحقيق ڪرڻي پوندي آهي، ته جيئن هو ان ٻوليءَ بابت ڪافي درست ۽ جامع حوالاتي گرامر تيار ڪري سگهي. دستاويزڪاري جي عمل ۾ لسانيات جي ماهر کي ان ٻوليءَ جو هڪ وڏو [[ڪارپس]] پڻ گڏ ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ لکيل متن، آڊيو رڪارڊنگون ۽ وڊيو رڪارڊنگون شامل هونديون آهن. اهي سڀئي مواد اهڙي رسائي لائق ۽ کليل ذخيرن ۾ محفوظ ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتان مستقبل جي تحقيق لاءِ به انهن مان فائدو وٺي سگهجي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Himmelmann |first1=Nikolaus P. |title=Essentials of Language Documentation |chapter=Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? |date=2006 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1515/9783110197730.1 |isbn=978-3-11-018864-6 }}</ref> ==پڻ ڏسو== {{portal|لسانيات|ٻولي}} * [[ٻولي]] * [[اردو]] * [[سنڌي ٻولي]] * [[ايٿنولوگ]] * [[بياني لسانيات]] * [[فطري ٻوليءَ جي سڃاڻپ]] * [[لسانيات جو خاڪو]] * [[List of schools of linguistics]] ==خارجي لنڪس== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=linguistics}} * [https://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm |date=10 February 2013 }} by [[SIL International]] (last updated 2004) * [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] – according to the Linguistic Society of America * Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium] * [https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) * {{Cite book |last1=Isac |first1=Daniela |url=https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani |title=I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science |last2=Charles Reiss |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-953420-3 |edition=2nd}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Linguistics| ]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] [[Category:Communication studies]] [[Category:Language]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻولي]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:درسي علم]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ جو علم]] qgi4oicxubpwvg4l6sglkdnz8ul60i7 ڪارل مارڪس 0 18641 394795 366278 2026-07-16T10:38:02Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (commodity fetishism)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] n00xgnv9b0ugubi3p221bv4r5p1gw3e 394798 394795 2026-07-16T10:40:45Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (commodity fetishism)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] eobpz18bjxp8c98cpbovi4n98u1512k 394799 394798 2026-07-16T10:42:44Z Intisar Ali 8681 394799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{مکيه|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''Scorpion and Felix''، هڪ ڊرامو ''Oulanem'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''Archiv des Atheismus'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار {{lang|de|''Rheinische Zeitung''}} (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''Rheinische Zeitung'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (commodity fetishism)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] nujsjw0neaje1j1ui2n6h2rrx7012ui 394800 394799 2026-07-16T10:43:05Z Intisar Ali 8681 394800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''Scorpion and Felix''، هڪ ڊرامو ''Oulanem'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''Archiv des Atheismus'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار {{lang|de|''Rheinische Zeitung''}} (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''Rheinische Zeitung'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (commodity fetishism)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 5gu7nh1ndf9sr89qfk5b24hb561tkm1 394801 394800 2026-07-16T10:45:46Z Intisar Ali 8681 394801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''Scorpion and Felix''، هڪ ڊرامو ''Oulanem'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''Rheinische Zeitung'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (commodity fetishism)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 99bto34ua5ggci0s6s0jefmi8mnh4ed 394802 394801 2026-07-16T10:48:20Z Intisar Ali 8681 394802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (ڪموڊٽي فيٽشئزم)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 7xhg4go1yykxzoktv63idmbfidx1g9w 394803 394802 2026-07-16T10:50:22Z Intisar Ali 8681 394803 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (ڪموڊٽي فيٽشئزم)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] tci03x4fj4573jkmaezog8i4hmiekpm 394804 394803 2026-07-16T10:51:51Z Intisar Ali 8681 394804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} [[فائل:Karal Marx.png|thumb|ڪارل مارڪس]] {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = ڪارل مارڪس | name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> | honorific_suffix = | image = <!-- filename only, no "فائل:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing [[brackets]] --> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name above --> | birth_date = <!-- {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. --> | birth_place = پروشيا، جرمني | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = لنڊن، انگلينڊ، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | residence = جرمني، فرانس، بيلجيئم، يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم | nationality = جرمن (اسٽيٽ ليس) | other_names = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works" --> | style = | home_town = | salary = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | weight = <!-- "X kg", "X lb" or "X st Y lb" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | religion = <!-- Religion should be supported with a citation from a reliable source; do not add a religious denomination here --> | denomination = <!-- Denomination should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} {{مبسس4}} '''ڪارل مارڪس''' (5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارڇ 1883ع) فلاسافر، معشيت دان، سماجياتدان، صحافي ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ هو. هو پروشيا (Prussia) جي وچولي طبقي جي خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو، اڳتي هلي، هن سياسي معاشيات ۽ هيگيلين فلاسافي ۾ تعليم پرائي. وڏو ٿيڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي بي وطن (اسٽيٽ ليس) ٿيڻو پئجي ويو ۽ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جو گهڻو حصو هن [[لنڊن]]، انگلينڊ ۾ گذاريو، جتي جرمن مفڪر، فريڊرڪ انگلز جي ساٿ سان، پنهنجي ڪيل مختلف ڪمن کي ڇپرايو، انهن مان، 1848ع ۾ پڌرو ڪيل ڪميونسٽ پڌرنامي (ڪميونسٽ مينيفيسٽو) تمام گهڻي مشهوي ماڻي. تڏهن کان سندس ڪم، فڪري، اقتصادي ۽ سياسي تاريخ تي وڏا اَثر وڌا آهن. سماج، اقتصاديات، ۽ سياست جي باري ۾ مارڪس جي نظرين کي گڏيل طور مارڪسز سڏيو وڃي ٿو — جنهن مطابق انساني معاشرا اصل ۾ طبقاتي جاکوڙ جي تاريخ آهن: جيڪا حڪمران طبقن (بورجوازي يا سرمائيدار) جيڪو پيداوار جي ذريعن تي ڪنٽرول رکي ٿو &nbsp;۽ پورهيت طبقو (پرولتاريه) جيڪو اُجوري لاءِ پنهنجو پورهيو وڪڻي ٿو جي وچم ٽڪراءُ آهي. ويڳاڻپ جو احساس، قدر، اجنساسِ مترادف (ڪموڊٽي فيٽشئزم)، ۽ قدر زائد (فاضل مُلهه) جي پنهنجي نظرين ذريعي بحث ڪندي مارڪس دليلَ ڏئي ٿو ته سرمائيداري، سماجي لاڳاپن, اَڻ گهڙيل مال کي گهڙي شين ۾ بدلائڻ (ڪموڊيفيڪشن)، اَڻبرابري، ۽ پورهيت طبقي جي استحصال ذريعي مفاد ماڻي ٿي. هڪ اهم نقطه نظر، جيڪو [[تاريخي ماديت]] سڏجي ٿو جي تحت مارڪس، بنياد ۽ ساخت (بيس ۽ سُپر اِسٽرَڪچر) جي اصولن جي بنياد تي نظريو پيش ڪندي روز ڏيندي چيو آهي ته سماج جي ثقافتي ۽ سياسي حالتن سان گڏوگڏ انساني فطرت جا ويچارَ گهڻي حد تائين غير واضح بنيادن تي مقرر ٿي رهيا آهن. هنن پُر اثر اقتصادي جائزن جو نتيجو نيٺ ”سرمائي“ (ڪيپيٽال)، حجم (واليوم) 1 (1867) جي روپ ۾ نڪتو. مارڪس جي مطابق، حڪمران، رياستون حڪمران طبقي جي مفادن ۾ هلائي رهيا آهن پر پوءِ به ان جي نمائيندگي، سڀني جي گڏيل مفادن جي نالي تي ڪري رهيا آهن. هن پيشنگوئيءَ ڪندي چيو ته، اَڳوڻن سماجي اقتصادي نظامن وانگر، سرمائيداري نظام جون اندروني ڇڪتاڻون نيٺ سرمائيداري نظام کي پنهنجي خود تباهي ڏانهن وٺي وينديون ۽ پوءِ اهو هڪ نئين نظام سوشلزم ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندو. مارڪس موجب، سرمائيداريءَ نظام جي سخت طبقاتي ڇڪتاڻ ۽ ان جي ناپائيدار فطري ڀڇڙائي نيٺ پورهيت طبقي جي طبقاتي شعور ۾ واڌارو آڻيندي، جيڪا ان کي سياسي اقتدار حاصل ڪرڻ ڏانهن وٺي ويندي ۽ نيٺ پيداوار ڏيندڙن جي آزاد ايسوسي ايشن جي حڪومت تحت هڪ غير طبقاتي، ڪميونسٽ سماج قائم ٿيندو. مارڪس، ان مقصد کي عمل ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ ڏاڍي جذبي سان وڙهيو ۽ زور ڏئي چيو ته پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي سماجي ۽ اقتصادي آزادي لاءِ، منظم انقلابي ڪاروائي جي ذريعي سرمائيداري نظام جو تختو اُنڌو گهرجي. مارڪس انساني تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اَثر رکندڙ شخصيتن مان هڪ طور ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جي ڪم تي واکاڻ ۽ تنقيد ٻئي ٿيون آهن. معاشيات ۾ سندس ڪم، موجوده پورهيئي جي، سرمائي ۽ اقتصادي لاڳاپن سان تعلق کي سمجهڻ جا بنياد وڌا. سڄي دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي دانشور، ليبر يونينون، فنڪار ۽ سياسي پارٽيون، مارڪس جي خيالن يا ان جهڙن آدرشن ۽ ويچارن کان تاثير ورتي آهي. مارڪس کي عام طور تي جديد سوشيالوجي ۽ سماجي سائنس جو اَبو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] qo9p17kajwzs1ez3grof6reu6vfckkg 394806 394804 2026-07-16T10:52:49Z Intisar Ali 8681 394806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 74kjkyttv4fnhwlnt3rv7bx57mxdtwq 394807 394806 2026-07-16T10:54:45Z Intisar Ali 8681 394807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 9tols1bx01vbjpylzvzkdr02qinsqa3 394808 394807 2026-07-16T10:58:02Z Intisar Ali 8681 394808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' ({{lang-de|Neue Rheinische Zeitung}}؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] sxpwc964or36ywukvlufuxdaera7o99 394810 394808 2026-07-16T11:00:36Z Intisar Ali 8681 394810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] m85c432fk4injb2wu5va9hs7wvmq0gg 394811 394810 2026-07-16T11:02:35Z Intisar Ali 8681 394811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> === ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' ۽ صحافت === لنڊن ۾ شروعاتي عرصي دوران مارڪس پاڻ کي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پنهنجي مطالعي لاءِ وقف ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن سبب سندس ڪٽنب کي سخت غربت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0415215455 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=[[يورپي گريجوئيٽ اسڪول]] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> سندس آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو اينگلز هو، جنهن جي آمدني وري سندس مالدار صنعتڪار والد کان ايندي هئي.{{r|egsbio}} پروشيا ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي اخبار جو ايڊيٽر ۽ ساڳئي فڪر وارين ٻين اخبارن جو ليکڪ هو، جنهن ذريعي هو سڌو سنئون پورهيت طبقي تائين پهچي سگهندو هو. پر لنڊن ۾، جتي پنهنجي اخبار هلائڻ لاءِ مالي وسيلا موجود نه هئا، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز بين الاقوامي صحافت ڏانهن رخ ڪيو. هڪ مرحلي تي سندن مضمون انگلينڊ، آمريڪا، [[پروشيا]]، آسٽريا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڇهن مختلف اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندا هئا.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> مارڪس جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو 1852ع کان 1862ع تائين ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' لاءِ يورپي نامي نگار طور ڪم ڪرڻ مان حاصل ٿيندو هو،<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394508771}}</ref>{{rp|17}} جڏهن ته هو ٻين نسبتاً "بورجوا" اخبارن لاءِ پڻ مضمون لکندو هو. مارڪس جا جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل مضمون [[ولهيلم پيپر]] ترجمو ڪندو هو، جيستائين مارڪس جي انگريزيءَ تي ايتري دسترس نه ٿي وئي جو هو پاڻ سڌو سنئون انگريزيءَ ۾ لکڻ لڳو.<ref name="Dispatches"/> ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[هوريس گريلي]] قائم ڪئي هئي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل بورڊ ۾ ترقي پسند بورجوا صحافي ۽ پبلشر شامل هئا، جن ۾ [[جارج رپلي]] ۽ ايڊيٽر [[چارلس اينڊرسن ڊينا]] نمايان هئا. ڊينا، جيڪو [[فوريئريت]] ۽ [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ]] جو حامي هو، مارڪس سان رابطي جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس لاءِ بحرِ اوقيانوس جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تائين پنهنجي خيالن جي پهچائڻ جو ذريعو ثابت ٿي، خاص طور [[هينري چارلس ڪيري]] خلاف سندس "لڪل فڪري جدوجهد" ۾.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |year=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> هيءَ اخبار شروعات کان ئي پورهيت طبقي ۾ مقبول هئي. ان جي قيمت رڳو ٻه سينٽ هئي،<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> ۽ هر اشاعت جا لڳ ڀڳ 50,000 نسخا ڇپجڻ سبب اها آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ پڙهندڙن واري اخبار بڻجي وئي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل پاليسي ترقي پسند هئي ۽ غلاميءَ جي مخالفت ان جي باني گريلي جي فڪر جي عڪاسي ڪندي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} مارڪس جو پهريون مضمون، جيڪو برطانيا جي پارلياماني چونڊن بابت هو، 21 آگسٽ 1852ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–332.</ref> 21 مارچ 1857ع تي ڊينا مارڪس کي اطلاع ڏنو ته معاشي بحران سبب هاڻي هر هفتي صرف هڪ مضمون جي ادائيگي ڪئي ويندي، پوءِ ڀلي اهو ڇپجي يا نه؛ جڏهن ته وڌيڪ مضمونن جي ادائيگي صرف انهن جي اشاعت جي صورت ۾ ٿيندي. مارڪس هر اڱاري ۽ جمعي تي پنهنجا مضمون موڪليندو هو، پر ساڳئي سال آڪٽوبر ۾ ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس ۽ [[بي. ٽيلر]] کان سواءِ يورپ ۾ موجود پنهنجا سڀ نامي نگار برطرف ڪري ڇڏيا ۽ مارڪس جا مضمون به هفتي ۾ رڳو هڪ تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيا. سيپٽمبر کان نومبر 1860ع جي وچ ۾ سندس فقط پنج مضمون ڇپيا. ڇهن مهينن جي وقفي کان پوءِ هن سيپٽمبر 1861ع کان مارچ 1862ع تائين ٻيهر لکڻ شروع ڪيو، پر پوءِ ڊينا کيس لکي اطلاع ڏنو ته آمريڪا جي اندروني معاملن سبب لنڊن مان ايندڙ خبرن لاءِ ''ٽربيون'' ۾ هاڻي جاءِ نه رهي هئي.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> 1868ع ۾ ڊينا هڪ مقابلي واري اخبار ''نيويارڪ سن'' قائم ڪئي، جنهن جو هو پاڻ ايڊيٽر اعليٰ بڻيو.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> اپريل 1857ع ۾ هن مارڪس کي دعوت ڏني ته هو ''[[نيو آمريڪن سائڪلوپيڊيا]]'' لاءِ، خاص طور فوجي تاريخ بابت، مضمون لکي. اهو منصوبو جارج رپلي، جيڪو ''ٽربيون'' جو ادبي ايڊيٽر ۽ ڊينا جو دوست هو، پيش ڪيو هو. مجموعي طور مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا 67 مضمون شايع ٿيا، جن مان 51 اينگلز لکيا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن لاءِ گهڻي تحقيق مارڪس [[برٽش ميوزيم]] ۾ ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}.</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين آمريڪي عوام جي يورپي معاملن ۾ دلچسپي گهٽجڻ لڳي، تنهنڪري مارڪس جا مضمون "غلاميءَ جي بحران" ۽ 1861ع ۾ شروع ٿيل [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> ڊسمبر 1851ع کان مارچ 1852ع تائين مارڪس [[1848ع جو فرانسيسي انقلاب|1848ع جي فرانسيسي انقلاب]] بابت پنهنجي نظرياتي تصنيف ''[[لوئي نيپولين جي ارڙهين برومئير]]'' تي ڪم ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ هن [[تاريخي ماديت]]، [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]]، [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت]] ۽ بورجوا رياست تي پرولتاريه جي فتح جهڙن تصورن کي واضح ڪيو.<ref name="Marx2008"/> 1850ع ۽ 1860ع جا ڏهاڪا عام طور هڪ اهڙي فڪري حد سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، جيڪا [[نوجوان مارڪس]] جي هيگلي [[مثاليت]] کي [[بالغ مارڪس]] جي<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> [[جوڙجڪياتي مارڪسزم]] سان لاڳاپيل سائنسي نظريي کان الڳ ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Johnston2000"/> بهرحال، سڀئي عالم هن ورهاست کي قبول نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> مارڪس ۽ اينگلز لاءِ 1848ع ۽ 1849ع جي انقلابن جو تجربو سندن معاشي نظرين ۽ تاريخي ارتقا بابت سوچ جي تشڪيل ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ هو. 1848ع جي ناڪامين کان پوءِ کين محسوس ٿيو ته انقلابي جوش ختم ٿي چڪو آهي ۽ نئين معاشي بحران کان سواءِ وري پيدا نه ٿيندو. ان دوران مارڪس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي وچ ۾ اختلاف به پيدا ٿيا؛ مارڪس انهن کي "مهم جوئي ڪندڙ" قرار ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال هو ته صرف مضبوط ارادي سان انقلاب آڻي سگهجي ٿو. مارڪس جي نظر ۾ اهڙي سوچ غير حقيقي هئي، ڇو ته انقلابي حالتون پيدا ٿيڻ لاءِ معاشي عنصر بنيادي شرط هو. 1852ع ۾ آمريڪا جي معاشي بحران مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي اميد ڏني ته شايد انقلابي سرگرميون ٻيهر زور وٺنديون، پر جلد ئي سندن خيال ٿيو ته آمريڪي معيشت اڃا سرمائيداراڻي انقلاب لاءِ ڪافي پختي نه هئي. آمريڪا جي اولهه طرف موجود کليل علائقن سماجي بيچينيءَ جي قوتن کي منتشر ڪري ڇڏيو هو. وڌيڪ اهو ته آمريڪا ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪو به معاشي بحران يورپ جي پراڻين قومي معيشتن ۾، جيڪي پنهنجي قومي سرحدن اندر بند نظام هيون، انقلابي لهر پيدا نه ڪندو. جڏهن 1857ع جو مشهور [[1857ع جو مالي بحران]] آمريڪا مان شروع ٿي عالمي سطح تائين پکڙيو، تڏهن ان معاشيات جي اڳوڻن نظرين کي ٽوڙي ڇڏيو ۽ اهو جديد تاريخ جو پهريون حقيقي عالمي معاشي بحران ثابت ٿيو.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] p0fhdmnhvxjpqb61voaw4x24rvrscqn 394813 394811 2026-07-16T11:10:52Z Intisar Ali 8681 394813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> === ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' ۽ صحافت === لنڊن ۾ شروعاتي عرصي دوران مارڪس پاڻ کي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پنهنجي مطالعي لاءِ وقف ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن سبب سندس ڪٽنب کي سخت غربت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0415215455 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=[[يورپي گريجوئيٽ اسڪول]] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> سندس آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو اينگلز هو، جنهن جي آمدني وري سندس مالدار صنعتڪار والد کان ايندي هئي.{{r|egsbio}} پروشيا ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي اخبار جو ايڊيٽر ۽ ساڳئي فڪر وارين ٻين اخبارن جو ليکڪ هو، جنهن ذريعي هو سڌو سنئون پورهيت طبقي تائين پهچي سگهندو هو. پر لنڊن ۾، جتي پنهنجي اخبار هلائڻ لاءِ مالي وسيلا موجود نه هئا، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز بين الاقوامي صحافت ڏانهن رخ ڪيو. هڪ مرحلي تي سندن مضمون انگلينڊ، آمريڪا، [[پروشيا]]، آسٽريا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڇهن مختلف اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندا هئا.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> مارڪس جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو 1852ع کان 1862ع تائين ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' لاءِ يورپي نامي نگار طور ڪم ڪرڻ مان حاصل ٿيندو هو،<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394508771}}</ref>{{rp|17}} جڏهن ته هو ٻين نسبتاً "بورجوا" اخبارن لاءِ پڻ مضمون لکندو هو. مارڪس جا جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل مضمون [[ولهيلم پيپر]] ترجمو ڪندو هو، جيستائين مارڪس جي انگريزيءَ تي ايتري دسترس نه ٿي وئي جو هو پاڻ سڌو سنئون انگريزيءَ ۾ لکڻ لڳو.<ref name="Dispatches"/> ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[هوريس گريلي]] قائم ڪئي هئي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل بورڊ ۾ ترقي پسند بورجوا صحافي ۽ پبلشر شامل هئا، جن ۾ [[جارج رپلي]] ۽ ايڊيٽر [[چارلس اينڊرسن ڊينا]] نمايان هئا. ڊينا، جيڪو [[فوريئريت]] ۽ [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ]] جو حامي هو، مارڪس سان رابطي جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس لاءِ بحرِ اوقيانوس جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تائين پنهنجي خيالن جي پهچائڻ جو ذريعو ثابت ٿي، خاص طور [[هينري چارلس ڪيري]] خلاف سندس "لڪل فڪري جدوجهد" ۾.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |year=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> هيءَ اخبار شروعات کان ئي پورهيت طبقي ۾ مقبول هئي. ان جي قيمت رڳو ٻه سينٽ هئي،<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> ۽ هر اشاعت جا لڳ ڀڳ 50,000 نسخا ڇپجڻ سبب اها آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ پڙهندڙن واري اخبار بڻجي وئي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل پاليسي ترقي پسند هئي ۽ غلاميءَ جي مخالفت ان جي باني گريلي جي فڪر جي عڪاسي ڪندي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} مارڪس جو پهريون مضمون، جيڪو برطانيا جي پارلياماني چونڊن بابت هو، 21 آگسٽ 1852ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–332.</ref> 21 مارچ 1857ع تي ڊينا مارڪس کي اطلاع ڏنو ته معاشي بحران سبب هاڻي هر هفتي صرف هڪ مضمون جي ادائيگي ڪئي ويندي، پوءِ ڀلي اهو ڇپجي يا نه؛ جڏهن ته وڌيڪ مضمونن جي ادائيگي صرف انهن جي اشاعت جي صورت ۾ ٿيندي. مارڪس هر اڱاري ۽ جمعي تي پنهنجا مضمون موڪليندو هو، پر ساڳئي سال آڪٽوبر ۾ ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس ۽ [[بي. ٽيلر]] کان سواءِ يورپ ۾ موجود پنهنجا سڀ نامي نگار برطرف ڪري ڇڏيا ۽ مارڪس جا مضمون به هفتي ۾ رڳو هڪ تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيا. سيپٽمبر کان نومبر 1860ع جي وچ ۾ سندس فقط پنج مضمون ڇپيا. ڇهن مهينن جي وقفي کان پوءِ هن سيپٽمبر 1861ع کان مارچ 1862ع تائين ٻيهر لکڻ شروع ڪيو، پر پوءِ ڊينا کيس لکي اطلاع ڏنو ته آمريڪا جي اندروني معاملن سبب لنڊن مان ايندڙ خبرن لاءِ ''ٽربيون'' ۾ هاڻي جاءِ نه رهي هئي.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> 1868ع ۾ ڊينا هڪ مقابلي واري اخبار ''نيويارڪ سن'' قائم ڪئي، جنهن جو هو پاڻ ايڊيٽر اعليٰ بڻيو.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> اپريل 1857ع ۾ هن مارڪس کي دعوت ڏني ته هو ''[[نيو آمريڪن سائڪلوپيڊيا]]'' لاءِ، خاص طور فوجي تاريخ بابت، مضمون لکي. اهو منصوبو جارج رپلي، جيڪو ''ٽربيون'' جو ادبي ايڊيٽر ۽ ڊينا جو دوست هو، پيش ڪيو هو. مجموعي طور مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا 67 مضمون شايع ٿيا، جن مان 51 اينگلز لکيا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن لاءِ گهڻي تحقيق مارڪس [[برٽش ميوزيم]] ۾ ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}.</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين آمريڪي عوام جي يورپي معاملن ۾ دلچسپي گهٽجڻ لڳي، تنهنڪري مارڪس جا مضمون "غلاميءَ جي بحران" ۽ 1861ع ۾ شروع ٿيل [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> ڊسمبر 1851ع کان مارچ 1852ع تائين مارڪس [[1848ع جو فرانسيسي انقلاب|1848ع جي فرانسيسي انقلاب]] بابت پنهنجي نظرياتي تصنيف ''[[لوئي نيپولين جي ارڙهين برومئير]]'' تي ڪم ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ هن [[تاريخي ماديت]]، [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]]، [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت]] ۽ بورجوا رياست تي پرولتاريه جي فتح جهڙن تصورن کي واضح ڪيو.<ref name="Marx2008"/> 1850ع ۽ 1860ع جا ڏهاڪا عام طور هڪ اهڙي فڪري حد سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، جيڪا [[نوجوان مارڪس]] جي هيگلي [[مثاليت]] کي [[بالغ مارڪس]] جي<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> [[جوڙجڪياتي مارڪسزم]] سان لاڳاپيل سائنسي نظريي کان الڳ ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Johnston2000"/> بهرحال، سڀئي عالم هن ورهاست کي قبول نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> مارڪس ۽ اينگلز لاءِ 1848ع ۽ 1849ع جي انقلابن جو تجربو سندن معاشي نظرين ۽ تاريخي ارتقا بابت سوچ جي تشڪيل ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ هو. 1848ع جي ناڪامين کان پوءِ کين محسوس ٿيو ته انقلابي جوش ختم ٿي چڪو آهي ۽ نئين معاشي بحران کان سواءِ وري پيدا نه ٿيندو. ان دوران مارڪس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي وچ ۾ اختلاف به پيدا ٿيا؛ مارڪس انهن کي "مهم جوئي ڪندڙ" قرار ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال هو ته صرف مضبوط ارادي سان انقلاب آڻي سگهجي ٿو. مارڪس جي نظر ۾ اهڙي سوچ غير حقيقي هئي، ڇو ته انقلابي حالتون پيدا ٿيڻ لاءِ معاشي عنصر بنيادي شرط هو. 1852ع ۾ آمريڪا جي معاشي بحران مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي اميد ڏني ته شايد انقلابي سرگرميون ٻيهر زور وٺنديون، پر جلد ئي سندن خيال ٿيو ته آمريڪي معيشت اڃا سرمائيداراڻي انقلاب لاءِ ڪافي پختي نه هئي. آمريڪا جي اولهه طرف موجود کليل علائقن سماجي بيچينيءَ جي قوتن کي منتشر ڪري ڇڏيو هو. وڌيڪ اهو ته آمريڪا ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪو به معاشي بحران يورپ جي پراڻين قومي معيشتن ۾، جيڪي پنهنجي قومي سرحدن اندر بند نظام هيون، انقلابي لهر پيدا نه ڪندو. جڏهن 1857ع جو مشهور [[1857ع جو مالي بحران]] آمريڪا مان شروع ٿي عالمي سطح تائين پکڙيو، تڏهن ان معاشيات جي اڳوڻن نظرين کي ٽوڙي ڇڏيو ۽ اهو جديد تاريخ جو پهريون حقيقي عالمي معاشي بحران ثابت ٿيو.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> هي حصو مڪمل وڪي ڪوڊ ۾، بنا اختصار جي: === پهرين انٽرنيشنل ۽ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' === [[File:Karl Marx, May 1861.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|لنڊن ۾ 1861ع دوران ورتل مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://marx200.org/en/fotografien/index.html |title=All Images of Marx Are Good |website=Marx 200 |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref>]] مارڪس ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' لاءِ تيستائين مضمون لکندو رهيو، جيستائين کيس پڪ هئي ته ''ٽربيون'' جي ادارتي پاليسي اڃا ترقي پسند هئي. بهرحال، 1861ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ [[چارلس ڊينا]] جي اخبار ڇڏڻ ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ادارتي بورڊ ۾ تبديلي اچڻ سان اخبار نئين ادارتي پاليسي اختيار ڪئي.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> ''ٽربيون'' هاڻي غلاميءَ جي مڪمل خاتمي ۽ [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين|يونين]] جي مڪمل فتح لاءِ آواز اٿاريندڙ مضبوط [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ|غلامي مخالف]] اخبار نه رهي. نئين ادارتي بورڊ آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين ۽ [[آمريڪا جون وفاقي رياستون|ڪنفيڊريسي]] جي وچ ۾ فوري صلح جي حمايت ڪئي، جيتوڻيڪ ان سان ڪنفيڊريسيءَ ۾ غلامي برقرار رهي ها. مارڪس هن نئين سياسي موقف سان سخت اختلاف ڪيو ۽ 1863ع ۾ ''ٽربيون'' جي ليکڪ جي حيثيت تان دستبردار ٿيڻ تي مجبور ٿيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=345}} 1864ع ۾ مارڪس [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]]، جيڪا پهرين انٽرنيشنل جي نالي سان مشهور هئي، سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}} 1864ع ۾ تنظيم قائم ٿيڻ وقت کيس ان جي جنرل ڪائونسل جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130616235612/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269 267]}} هن تنظيم اندر مارڪس [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي چوڌاري منظم ٿيل انارڪسٽ ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد ۾ شامل رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} جيتوڻيڪ ان تڪرار ۾ مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو، پر 1872ع ۾ جنرل ڪائونسل جو مرڪز لنڊن مان نيويارڪ منتقل ڪرڻ، جنهن جي مارڪس پڻ حمايت ڪئي، انٽرنيشنل جي زوال جو سبب بڻيو.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> انٽرنيشنل جي وجود دوران سڀ کان اهم سياسي واقعو 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] هو، جڏهن پيرس جي شهرين پنهنجي حڪومت خلاف بغاوت ڪري ٻه مهينا شهر تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکيو. ان بغاوت کي رت سان چيڀاٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور پمفليٽن مان هڪ، ''[[فرانس ۾ گهرو ويڙهه]]''، لکيو، جنهن ۾ هن ڪميون جو دفاع ڪيو.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–359.</ref> پورهيت انقلابن ۽ تحريڪن جي بار بار ناڪامين ۽ مايوسين سبب مارڪس [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] کي سمجهڻ ۽ ان جي مناسب تنقيد تيار ڪرڻ جي به ڪوشش ڪئي. ان مقصد لاءِ هن [[برٽش ميوزيم]] جي مطالعي واري ڪمري ۾ گهڻو وقت تحقيق ڪندي گذاريو.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=20}} 1857ع تائين مارڪس سرمائي، [[زميني ملڪيت]]، اجرتي محنت، رياست، پرڏيهي واپار ۽ عالمي منڊيءَ بابت 800 کان وڌيڪ صفحن تي ٻڌل نوٽ ۽ مختصر مضمون گڏ ڪري چڪو هو. هي مواد 1939ع تائين شايع نه ٿيو، جڏهن اهو ''[[گرونڊرِسِه|گرونڊرِسِه ڊير ڪريٽڪ ڊير پوليٽشن اوڪونومي]]'' (سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد جا خاڪا) جي عنوان هيٺ شايع ٿيو.<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref> 1859ع ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي تصنيف ''[[سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو]]'' شايع ڪئي،<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> جيڪا سياسي معيشت بابت سندس پهرين سنجيده تنقيدي تصنيف هئي. هي ڪتاب سندس ٽن جلدن واري ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (معنيٰ: ''سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد'') جو رڳو ابتدائي خاڪو هو، جنهن کي هو پوءِ شايع ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکندو هو. ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' ۾ مارڪس معاشي سوچ جي بنيادي مفروضن ۽ درجابندين جو تنقيدي جائزو وٺڻ شروع ڪيو.{{sfn|Postone|1993|pp=54–55, 173, 192}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marx |title=Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |quote=[...] اڪيلو ۽ سماج کان الڳ شڪاري يا مهاڻو، جنهن کي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو پنهنجي بحث جي شروعاتي نقطي طور پيش ڪن ٿا، ارڙهين صديءَ جي رابنسن ڪروسو جهڙن رومانوي قصن جي بي تخيل خيالي تخليقن مان هڪ آهي. سماجي تاريخدانن جي دعوائن جي ابتڙ، اهي ڪردار رڳو حد کان وڌيل تهذيب خلاف ردعمل يا ڪنهن غلط سمجهيل فطري زندگيءَ ڏانهن واپسيءَ جي نمائندگي نٿا ڪن. [...] هي هڪ وهم آهي، ۽ ننڍين توڙي وڏين رابنسوني ڪهاڻين جو رڳو جمالياتي وهم. حقيقت ۾، اهو اهڙي ”بورجوا سماج“ جي اڳڪٿي آهي، جيڪو سورهين صديءَ ۾ اڀرڻ لڳو ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ پختگيءَ ڏانهن تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. آزاد مقابلي تي ٻڌل هن سماج ۾ فرد ظاهري طور انهن فطري لاڳاپن کان آزاد نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪي گذريل تاريخي دورن ۾ کيس انسانن جي ڪنهن مخصوص ۽ محدود جماعت جو جزو بڻائيندا هئا. ارڙهين صديءَ جا مفڪر، جن جي فڪر تي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو اڃا مڪمل طور بيٺل هئا، هن ارڙهين صديءَ واري فرد کي—جيڪو هڪ پاسي جاگيردار سماج جي ٽٽڻ ۽ ٻئي پاسي سورهين صديءَ کان ترقي ڪندڙ نين پيداواري قوتن جو نتيجو هو—اهڙي مثالي انسان طور پيش ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو وجود ڄڻ ماضيءَ سان تعلق رکندو هو. هنن فرد کي تاريخي عمل جي نتيجي طور نه، پر تاريخ جي شروعاتي نقطي طور ڏٺو.<br /> [...]<br /> ”محنت“ ظاهري طور هڪ تمام سادي درجي بندي لڳي ٿي. محنت جو تصور هن عام ۽ آفاقي صورت ۾، يعني عام محنت طور، به نهايت پراڻو آهي. تنهن هوندي به معاشي لحاظ کان ”محنت“ پنهنجي هن سادي صورت ۾ اوترو ئي جديد درجو آهي، جيترا اهي سماجي لاڳاپا جديد آهن، جيڪي هن سادي تجريد کي جنم ڏين ٿا.|archive-date=8 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2012|p=138|ps=: "Marx used social criticism as his standard form of social analysis. Marx defined criticism as the 'radical negation of social reality.{{'"}}}}</ref> هن تصنيف کي وڏي جوش سان قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جو ڇاپو جلد وڪامي ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=318}} [[File:Zentralbibliothek Zürich Das Kapital Marx 1867.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد|داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جو پهريون جلد]] ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' جي ڪامياب وڪري مارڪس کي 1860ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي سڀ کان وڏي ڪم جا ٽي جلد مڪمل ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو. انهن ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' ۽ ''[[فاضل قدر جا نظريا]]'' شامل هئا. پوئين تصنيف ۾ هن سياسي معيشت جي نظريه دانن، خاص طور [[ايڊم سمٿ]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]]، جي نظرين تي بحث ۽ تنقيد ڪئي.{{r|egsbio}} ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' کي اڪثر ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو چوٿون جلد چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهو [[معاشي فڪر جي تاريخ]] بابت پهرين جامع تصنيفن مان هڪ آهي.<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> 1867ع ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو پهريون جلد شايع ٿيو، جنهن ۾ سرمائي جو تنقيدي تجزيو پيش ڪيو ويو.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/><ref name=":0" /> ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' سرمائيداراڻي [[پيداواري طرز]] جي ابتدا کان ان جي امڪاني مستقبل تائين ان جي "حرڪت جي قانونن" جي وضاحت پيش ڪري ٿو. ڪتاب ۾ سرمائي جي گڏجڻ جي حرڪتن، [[اجرتي محنت]] جي واڌ، ڪم جي جڳهه جي تبديلي، [[سرمائي جي گڏجاڻي]]، مقابلي، [[بئنڪنگ]] نظام، [[نفعي جي شرح گهٽجڻ جو لاڙو]]، زميني محصول ۽ ان ڳالهه تي بحث ڪيو ويو آهي ته اجرتي محنت ڪيئن مسلسل سرمائي جي حڪمراني کي ٻيهر پيدا ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–375}}{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}} مارڪس موجب سرمائي جي محرڪ قوت [[محنت جو استحصال|محنت جي استحصال]] ۾ آهي، ۽ پورهيتن جي بي اجرت محنت [[فاضل قدر]] جو آخري ذريعو آهي. ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي روسي ترجمي جي وڌندڙ گهرج سبب ان جا روسي ٻوليءَ ۾ 3,000 نسخا ڇپيا، جيڪي 27 مارچ 1872ع تي شايع ٿيا. 1871ع جي سرءُ تائين جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ پهرين ڇاپي جا سڀ نسخا وڪامي چڪا هئا، جنهن کان پوءِ ٻيو ڇاپو شايع ڪيو ويو. [[File:Karl-Marx (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|مارڪس جي 1875ع واري تصوير]] ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جا ٻيا ۽ ٽيان جلد مارڪس جي حياتيءَ ۾ مسودن جي صورت ۾ رهيا، جن تي هو پنهنجي باقي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جي وفات کان پوءِ ٻئي جلد اينگلز شايع ڪيا.{{r|egsbio}} ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو جلد اينگلز تيار ڪري 1885ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٻيو: سرمائي جي گردش جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> ٽيون جلد نَوَ سال پوءِ، آڪٽوبر 1894ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٽيون: مجموعي طور سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' وسيع ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' مان ورتل هو، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو مسودو هئا. اهي مسودا ''مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي جلدن 30 کان 34 تائين پکڙيل آهن. خاص طور ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جلد 30 جي پوئين حصي کان شروع ٿي جلد 32 جي پڄاڻيءَ تائين هلن ٿا؛<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> جڏهن ته مڪمل ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جلد 30 جي شروعات کان جلد 34 جي پهرين اڌ تائين پکڙيل آهن. جلد 34 جي پوئين اڌ ۾ ''1863ع–1864ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جا بچيل ٽڪرا شامل آهن، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٽيون مسودو هئا. انهن جو وڏو حصو پينگوئن جي ''داس ڪاپيٽال''، جلد پهرئين، جي ضميمي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=[[مارڪسسٽ انٽرنيٽ آرڪائيو]] |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716154952/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جو مختصر جرمن ڇاپو 1905ع ۽ 1910ع ۾ شايع ٿيو. ان مختصر ڇاپي جو انگريزي ترجمو 1951ع ۾ لنڊن مان شايع ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته مڪمل ۽ غير مختصر ڇاپو 1963ع ۽ 1971ع ۾ ماسڪو مان ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي "چوٿين جلد" طور شايع ٿيو.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref> {{ڏسو پڻ|پوئين دور جو مارڪس}} [[File:Marx8.jpg|thumb|upright|1882ع ۾ مارڪس]] پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي آخري ڏهاڪي دوران مارڪس جي صحت مسلسل خراب ٿيندي وئي ۽ هو اڳين دور وانگر ڊگهي عرصي تائين محنت ڪرڻ جي قابل نه رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} تنهن هوندي به هن همعصر سياست، خاص طور جرمني ۽ روس جي معاملن، تي اهم تبصرا ڪيا. سندس ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' ۾ هن پنهنجن پوئلڳن [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ [[آگسٽ بيبل]] جي ان رجحان جي مخالفت ڪئي، جنهن تحت هو متحد سوشلسٽ جماعت ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[فرڊيننڊ لاسال]] جي [[رياستي سوشلزم]] وارن خيالن سان ٺاهه ڪرڻ چاهيندا هئا.{{r|egsbio}} هيءَ تصنيف مارڪس جي مشهور قول، "[[هر ڪنهن کان سندس صلاحيت مطابق، هر ڪنهن کي سندس ضرورت مطابق]]"، سبب پڻ مشهور آهي.<ref name="CGP P1"/> 8 مارچ 1881ع تي [[ويرا زاسوليچ]] ڏانهن لکيل خط ۾ مارڪس ان امڪان تي غور ڪيو ته روس سرمائيداراڻي ترقيءَ واري مرحلي کي ٽپي، ڳوٺاڻي ''[[مير (سماج)|مير]]'' ۾ موجود گڏيل زميني ملڪيت جي بنياد تي ڪميونزم قائم ڪري سگهي ٿو.{{r|egsbio}}<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> روس جي ڳوٺاڻي "ڪميون" کي "روس جي سماجي نئين سر جوڙجڪ جو مرڪزي سهارو" قرار ڏيندي مارڪس خبردار ڪيو ته جيڪڏهن مير کي سرمائيداراڻي مرحلي کان سواءِ سڌو سوشلسٽ مرحلي ڏانهن منتقليءَ جو ذريعو بڻائڻو آهي، ته "سڀ کان پهرين انهن نقصانڪار اثرن کي ختم ڪرڻ ضروري هوندو، جيڪي ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون تي هر طرف کان حملو ڪري رهيا آهن".<ref name="k72"/> انهن نقصانڪار اثرن جي خاتمي کان پوءِ مارڪس موجب ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون جي "پاڻمرادو ترقيءَ جون عام حالتون" موجود ٿي سگهن ٿيون.<ref name=k72/> بهرحال، ساڳئي خط ۾ مارڪس نشاندهي ڪئي ته "سرمائيداراڻي نظام جي بنياد ۾... پيدا ڪندڙ کي پيداوار جي وسيلن کان مڪمل طور جدا ڪرڻ شامل آهي".<ref name=k72/> هن خط جي هڪ مسودي ۾ مارڪس جي [[بشريات]] ڏانهن وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا سندس ان يقين مان پيدا ٿي ته مستقبل جو ڪميونزم اسان جي قبل از تاريخي ماضيءَ جي اشتراڪيت ڏانهن هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ سطح تي واپسي هوندو. هن لکيو: <blockquote> اسان جي دور جو تاريخي لاڙو اهو اڻٽر بحران آهي، جنهن مان يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جي انهن ملڪن ۾ سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار گذري رهي آهي، جتي اها پنهنجي بلند ترين سطح تي پهچي چڪي آهي. هي بحران ان جي تباهيءَ ۽ جديد سماج جي سڀ کان قديم صورت، يعني گڏيل پيداوار ۽ گڏيل ملڪيت، جي هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ شڪل ڏانهن واپسيءَ تي ختم ٿيندو. </blockquote> هن وڌيڪ لکيو ته "ابتدائي برادرين جي حياتياتي قوت سامي، يوناني، رومي وغيره سماجن کان بي انداز وڌيڪ هئي، ۽ جديد سرمائيداراڻي سماجن کان ته اڃا به وڌيڪ".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels ''Collected Works'', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> پنهنجي وفات کان اڳ مارڪس اينگلز کي اهي خيال مرتب ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو. اهي 1884ع ۾ ''[[خاندان، نجي ملڪيت ۽ رياست جو بڻ بنياد]]'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيا، جيڪو جزوي طور مارڪس پاران [[ليوس ايڇ. مورگن]] جي ڪتاب ''[[قديم سماج]]'' بابت لکيل نوٽن تي ٻڌل هو. == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] nxg86lim8s1je9sx3sfim843um88cw0 394814 394813 2026-07-16T11:14:20Z Intisar Ali 8681 394814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> === ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' ۽ صحافت === لنڊن ۾ شروعاتي عرصي دوران مارڪس پاڻ کي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پنهنجي مطالعي لاءِ وقف ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن سبب سندس ڪٽنب کي سخت غربت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0415215455 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=[[يورپي گريجوئيٽ اسڪول]] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> سندس آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو اينگلز هو، جنهن جي آمدني وري سندس مالدار صنعتڪار والد کان ايندي هئي.{{r|egsbio}} پروشيا ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي اخبار جو ايڊيٽر ۽ ساڳئي فڪر وارين ٻين اخبارن جو ليکڪ هو، جنهن ذريعي هو سڌو سنئون پورهيت طبقي تائين پهچي سگهندو هو. پر لنڊن ۾، جتي پنهنجي اخبار هلائڻ لاءِ مالي وسيلا موجود نه هئا، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز بين الاقوامي صحافت ڏانهن رخ ڪيو. هڪ مرحلي تي سندن مضمون انگلينڊ، آمريڪا، [[پروشيا]]، آسٽريا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڇهن مختلف اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندا هئا.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> مارڪس جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو 1852ع کان 1862ع تائين ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' لاءِ يورپي نامي نگار طور ڪم ڪرڻ مان حاصل ٿيندو هو،<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394508771}}</ref>{{rp|17}} جڏهن ته هو ٻين نسبتاً "بورجوا" اخبارن لاءِ پڻ مضمون لکندو هو. مارڪس جا جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل مضمون [[ولهيلم پيپر]] ترجمو ڪندو هو، جيستائين مارڪس جي انگريزيءَ تي ايتري دسترس نه ٿي وئي جو هو پاڻ سڌو سنئون انگريزيءَ ۾ لکڻ لڳو.<ref name="Dispatches"/> ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[هوريس گريلي]] قائم ڪئي هئي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل بورڊ ۾ ترقي پسند بورجوا صحافي ۽ پبلشر شامل هئا، جن ۾ [[جارج رپلي]] ۽ ايڊيٽر [[چارلس اينڊرسن ڊينا]] نمايان هئا. ڊينا، جيڪو [[فوريئريت]] ۽ [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ]] جو حامي هو، مارڪس سان رابطي جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس لاءِ بحرِ اوقيانوس جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تائين پنهنجي خيالن جي پهچائڻ جو ذريعو ثابت ٿي، خاص طور [[هينري چارلس ڪيري]] خلاف سندس "لڪل فڪري جدوجهد" ۾.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |year=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> هيءَ اخبار شروعات کان ئي پورهيت طبقي ۾ مقبول هئي. ان جي قيمت رڳو ٻه سينٽ هئي،<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> ۽ هر اشاعت جا لڳ ڀڳ 50,000 نسخا ڇپجڻ سبب اها آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ پڙهندڙن واري اخبار بڻجي وئي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل پاليسي ترقي پسند هئي ۽ غلاميءَ جي مخالفت ان جي باني گريلي جي فڪر جي عڪاسي ڪندي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} مارڪس جو پهريون مضمون، جيڪو برطانيا جي پارلياماني چونڊن بابت هو، 21 آگسٽ 1852ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–332.</ref> 21 مارچ 1857ع تي ڊينا مارڪس کي اطلاع ڏنو ته معاشي بحران سبب هاڻي هر هفتي صرف هڪ مضمون جي ادائيگي ڪئي ويندي، پوءِ ڀلي اهو ڇپجي يا نه؛ جڏهن ته وڌيڪ مضمونن جي ادائيگي صرف انهن جي اشاعت جي صورت ۾ ٿيندي. مارڪس هر اڱاري ۽ جمعي تي پنهنجا مضمون موڪليندو هو، پر ساڳئي سال آڪٽوبر ۾ ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس ۽ [[بي. ٽيلر]] کان سواءِ يورپ ۾ موجود پنهنجا سڀ نامي نگار برطرف ڪري ڇڏيا ۽ مارڪس جا مضمون به هفتي ۾ رڳو هڪ تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيا. سيپٽمبر کان نومبر 1860ع جي وچ ۾ سندس فقط پنج مضمون ڇپيا. ڇهن مهينن جي وقفي کان پوءِ هن سيپٽمبر 1861ع کان مارچ 1862ع تائين ٻيهر لکڻ شروع ڪيو، پر پوءِ ڊينا کيس لکي اطلاع ڏنو ته آمريڪا جي اندروني معاملن سبب لنڊن مان ايندڙ خبرن لاءِ ''ٽربيون'' ۾ هاڻي جاءِ نه رهي هئي.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> 1868ع ۾ ڊينا هڪ مقابلي واري اخبار ''نيويارڪ سن'' قائم ڪئي، جنهن جو هو پاڻ ايڊيٽر اعليٰ بڻيو.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> اپريل 1857ع ۾ هن مارڪس کي دعوت ڏني ته هو ''[[نيو آمريڪن سائڪلوپيڊيا]]'' لاءِ، خاص طور فوجي تاريخ بابت، مضمون لکي. اهو منصوبو جارج رپلي، جيڪو ''ٽربيون'' جو ادبي ايڊيٽر ۽ ڊينا جو دوست هو، پيش ڪيو هو. مجموعي طور مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا 67 مضمون شايع ٿيا، جن مان 51 اينگلز لکيا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن لاءِ گهڻي تحقيق مارڪس [[برٽش ميوزيم]] ۾ ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}.</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين آمريڪي عوام جي يورپي معاملن ۾ دلچسپي گهٽجڻ لڳي، تنهنڪري مارڪس جا مضمون "غلاميءَ جي بحران" ۽ 1861ع ۾ شروع ٿيل [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> ڊسمبر 1851ع کان مارچ 1852ع تائين مارڪس [[1848ع جو فرانسيسي انقلاب|1848ع جي فرانسيسي انقلاب]] بابت پنهنجي نظرياتي تصنيف ''[[لوئي نيپولين جي ارڙهين برومئير]]'' تي ڪم ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ هن [[تاريخي ماديت]]، [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]]، [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت]] ۽ بورجوا رياست تي پرولتاريه جي فتح جهڙن تصورن کي واضح ڪيو.<ref name="Marx2008"/> 1850ع ۽ 1860ع جا ڏهاڪا عام طور هڪ اهڙي فڪري حد سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، جيڪا [[نوجوان مارڪس]] جي هيگلي [[مثاليت]] کي [[بالغ مارڪس]] جي<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> [[جوڙجڪياتي مارڪسزم]] سان لاڳاپيل سائنسي نظريي کان الڳ ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Johnston2000"/> بهرحال، سڀئي عالم هن ورهاست کي قبول نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> مارڪس ۽ اينگلز لاءِ 1848ع ۽ 1849ع جي انقلابن جو تجربو سندن معاشي نظرين ۽ تاريخي ارتقا بابت سوچ جي تشڪيل ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ هو. 1848ع جي ناڪامين کان پوءِ کين محسوس ٿيو ته انقلابي جوش ختم ٿي چڪو آهي ۽ نئين معاشي بحران کان سواءِ وري پيدا نه ٿيندو. ان دوران مارڪس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي وچ ۾ اختلاف به پيدا ٿيا؛ مارڪس انهن کي "مهم جوئي ڪندڙ" قرار ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال هو ته صرف مضبوط ارادي سان انقلاب آڻي سگهجي ٿو. مارڪس جي نظر ۾ اهڙي سوچ غير حقيقي هئي، ڇو ته انقلابي حالتون پيدا ٿيڻ لاءِ معاشي عنصر بنيادي شرط هو. 1852ع ۾ آمريڪا جي معاشي بحران مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي اميد ڏني ته شايد انقلابي سرگرميون ٻيهر زور وٺنديون، پر جلد ئي سندن خيال ٿيو ته آمريڪي معيشت اڃا سرمائيداراڻي انقلاب لاءِ ڪافي پختي نه هئي. آمريڪا جي اولهه طرف موجود کليل علائقن سماجي بيچينيءَ جي قوتن کي منتشر ڪري ڇڏيو هو. وڌيڪ اهو ته آمريڪا ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪو به معاشي بحران يورپ جي پراڻين قومي معيشتن ۾، جيڪي پنهنجي قومي سرحدن اندر بند نظام هيون، انقلابي لهر پيدا نه ڪندو. جڏهن 1857ع جو مشهور [[1857ع جو مالي بحران]] آمريڪا مان شروع ٿي عالمي سطح تائين پکڙيو، تڏهن ان معاشيات جي اڳوڻن نظرين کي ٽوڙي ڇڏيو ۽ اهو جديد تاريخ جو پهريون حقيقي عالمي معاشي بحران ثابت ٿيو.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> هي حصو مڪمل وڪي ڪوڊ ۾، بنا اختصار جي: === پهرين انٽرنيشنل ۽ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' === [[File:Karl Marx, May 1861.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|لنڊن ۾ 1861ع دوران ورتل مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://marx200.org/en/fotografien/index.html |title=All Images of Marx Are Good |website=Marx 200 |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref>]] مارڪس ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' لاءِ تيستائين مضمون لکندو رهيو، جيستائين کيس پڪ هئي ته ''ٽربيون'' جي ادارتي پاليسي اڃا ترقي پسند هئي. بهرحال، 1861ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ [[چارلس ڊينا]] جي اخبار ڇڏڻ ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ادارتي بورڊ ۾ تبديلي اچڻ سان اخبار نئين ادارتي پاليسي اختيار ڪئي.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> ''ٽربيون'' هاڻي غلاميءَ جي مڪمل خاتمي ۽ [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين|يونين]] جي مڪمل فتح لاءِ آواز اٿاريندڙ مضبوط [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ|غلامي مخالف]] اخبار نه رهي. نئين ادارتي بورڊ آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين ۽ [[آمريڪا جون وفاقي رياستون|ڪنفيڊريسي]] جي وچ ۾ فوري صلح جي حمايت ڪئي، جيتوڻيڪ ان سان ڪنفيڊريسيءَ ۾ غلامي برقرار رهي ها. مارڪس هن نئين سياسي موقف سان سخت اختلاف ڪيو ۽ 1863ع ۾ ''ٽربيون'' جي ليکڪ جي حيثيت تان دستبردار ٿيڻ تي مجبور ٿيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=345}} 1864ع ۾ مارڪس [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]]، جيڪا پهرين انٽرنيشنل جي نالي سان مشهور هئي، سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}} 1864ع ۾ تنظيم قائم ٿيڻ وقت کيس ان جي جنرل ڪائونسل جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130616235612/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269 267]}} هن تنظيم اندر مارڪس [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي چوڌاري منظم ٿيل انارڪسٽ ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد ۾ شامل رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} جيتوڻيڪ ان تڪرار ۾ مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو، پر 1872ع ۾ جنرل ڪائونسل جو مرڪز لنڊن مان نيويارڪ منتقل ڪرڻ، جنهن جي مارڪس پڻ حمايت ڪئي، انٽرنيشنل جي زوال جو سبب بڻيو.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> انٽرنيشنل جي وجود دوران سڀ کان اهم سياسي واقعو 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] هو، جڏهن پيرس جي شهرين پنهنجي حڪومت خلاف بغاوت ڪري ٻه مهينا شهر تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکيو. ان بغاوت کي رت سان چيڀاٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور پمفليٽن مان هڪ، ''[[فرانس ۾ گهرو ويڙهه]]''، لکيو، جنهن ۾ هن ڪميون جو دفاع ڪيو.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–359.</ref> پورهيت انقلابن ۽ تحريڪن جي بار بار ناڪامين ۽ مايوسين سبب مارڪس [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] کي سمجهڻ ۽ ان جي مناسب تنقيد تيار ڪرڻ جي به ڪوشش ڪئي. ان مقصد لاءِ هن [[برٽش ميوزيم]] جي مطالعي واري ڪمري ۾ گهڻو وقت تحقيق ڪندي گذاريو.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=20}} 1857ع تائين مارڪس سرمائي، [[زميني ملڪيت]]، اجرتي محنت، رياست، پرڏيهي واپار ۽ عالمي منڊيءَ بابت 800 کان وڌيڪ صفحن تي ٻڌل نوٽ ۽ مختصر مضمون گڏ ڪري چڪو هو. هي مواد 1939ع تائين شايع نه ٿيو، جڏهن اهو ''[[گرونڊرِسِه|گرونڊرِسِه ڊير ڪريٽڪ ڊير پوليٽشن اوڪونومي]]'' (سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد جا خاڪا) جي عنوان هيٺ شايع ٿيو.<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref> 1859ع ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي تصنيف ''[[سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو]]'' شايع ڪئي،<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> جيڪا سياسي معيشت بابت سندس پهرين سنجيده تنقيدي تصنيف هئي. هي ڪتاب سندس ٽن جلدن واري ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (معنيٰ: ''سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد'') جو رڳو ابتدائي خاڪو هو، جنهن کي هو پوءِ شايع ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکندو هو. ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' ۾ مارڪس معاشي سوچ جي بنيادي مفروضن ۽ درجابندين جو تنقيدي جائزو وٺڻ شروع ڪيو.{{sfn|Postone|1993|pp=54–55, 173, 192}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marx |title=Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |quote=[...] اڪيلو ۽ سماج کان الڳ شڪاري يا مهاڻو، جنهن کي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو پنهنجي بحث جي شروعاتي نقطي طور پيش ڪن ٿا، ارڙهين صديءَ جي رابنسن ڪروسو جهڙن رومانوي قصن جي بي تخيل خيالي تخليقن مان هڪ آهي. سماجي تاريخدانن جي دعوائن جي ابتڙ، اهي ڪردار رڳو حد کان وڌيل تهذيب خلاف ردعمل يا ڪنهن غلط سمجهيل فطري زندگيءَ ڏانهن واپسيءَ جي نمائندگي نٿا ڪن. [...] هي هڪ وهم آهي، ۽ ننڍين توڙي وڏين رابنسوني ڪهاڻين جو رڳو جمالياتي وهم. حقيقت ۾، اهو اهڙي ”بورجوا سماج“ جي اڳڪٿي آهي، جيڪو سورهين صديءَ ۾ اڀرڻ لڳو ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ پختگيءَ ڏانهن تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. آزاد مقابلي تي ٻڌل هن سماج ۾ فرد ظاهري طور انهن فطري لاڳاپن کان آزاد نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪي گذريل تاريخي دورن ۾ کيس انسانن جي ڪنهن مخصوص ۽ محدود جماعت جو جزو بڻائيندا هئا. ارڙهين صديءَ جا مفڪر، جن جي فڪر تي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو اڃا مڪمل طور بيٺل هئا، هن ارڙهين صديءَ واري فرد کي—جيڪو هڪ پاسي جاگيردار سماج جي ٽٽڻ ۽ ٻئي پاسي سورهين صديءَ کان ترقي ڪندڙ نين پيداواري قوتن جو نتيجو هو—اهڙي مثالي انسان طور پيش ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو وجود ڄڻ ماضيءَ سان تعلق رکندو هو. هنن فرد کي تاريخي عمل جي نتيجي طور نه، پر تاريخ جي شروعاتي نقطي طور ڏٺو.<br /> [...]<br /> ”محنت“ ظاهري طور هڪ تمام سادي درجي بندي لڳي ٿي. محنت جو تصور هن عام ۽ آفاقي صورت ۾، يعني عام محنت طور، به نهايت پراڻو آهي. تنهن هوندي به معاشي لحاظ کان ”محنت“ پنهنجي هن سادي صورت ۾ اوترو ئي جديد درجو آهي، جيترا اهي سماجي لاڳاپا جديد آهن، جيڪي هن سادي تجريد کي جنم ڏين ٿا.|archive-date=8 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2012|p=138|ps=: "Marx used social criticism as his standard form of social analysis. Marx defined criticism as the 'radical negation of social reality.{{'"}}}}</ref> هن تصنيف کي وڏي جوش سان قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جو ڇاپو جلد وڪامي ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=318}} [[File:Zentralbibliothek Zürich Das Kapital Marx 1867.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد|داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جو پهريون جلد]] ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' جي ڪامياب وڪري مارڪس کي 1860ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي سڀ کان وڏي ڪم جا ٽي جلد مڪمل ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو. انهن ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' ۽ ''[[فاضل قدر جا نظريا]]'' شامل هئا. پوئين تصنيف ۾ هن سياسي معيشت جي نظريه دانن، خاص طور [[ايڊم سمٿ]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]]، جي نظرين تي بحث ۽ تنقيد ڪئي.{{r|egsbio}} ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' کي اڪثر ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو چوٿون جلد چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهو [[معاشي فڪر جي تاريخ]] بابت پهرين جامع تصنيفن مان هڪ آهي.<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> 1867ع ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو پهريون جلد شايع ٿيو، جنهن ۾ سرمائي جو تنقيدي تجزيو پيش ڪيو ويو.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/><ref name=":0" /> ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' سرمائيداراڻي [[پيداواري طرز]] جي ابتدا کان ان جي امڪاني مستقبل تائين ان جي "حرڪت جي قانونن" جي وضاحت پيش ڪري ٿو. ڪتاب ۾ سرمائي جي گڏجڻ جي حرڪتن، [[اجرتي محنت]] جي واڌ، ڪم جي جڳهه جي تبديلي، [[سرمائي جي گڏجاڻي]]، مقابلي، [[بئنڪنگ]] نظام، [[نفعي جي شرح گهٽجڻ جو لاڙو]]، زميني محصول ۽ ان ڳالهه تي بحث ڪيو ويو آهي ته اجرتي محنت ڪيئن مسلسل سرمائي جي حڪمراني کي ٻيهر پيدا ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–375}}{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}} مارڪس موجب سرمائي جي محرڪ قوت [[محنت جو استحصال|محنت جي استحصال]] ۾ آهي، ۽ پورهيتن جي بي اجرت محنت [[فاضل قدر]] جو آخري ذريعو آهي. ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي روسي ترجمي جي وڌندڙ گهرج سبب ان جا روسي ٻوليءَ ۾ 3,000 نسخا ڇپيا، جيڪي 27 مارچ 1872ع تي شايع ٿيا. 1871ع جي سرءُ تائين جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ پهرين ڇاپي جا سڀ نسخا وڪامي چڪا هئا، جنهن کان پوءِ ٻيو ڇاپو شايع ڪيو ويو. [[File:Karl-Marx (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|مارڪس جي 1875ع واري تصوير]] ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جا ٻيا ۽ ٽيان جلد مارڪس جي حياتيءَ ۾ مسودن جي صورت ۾ رهيا، جن تي هو پنهنجي باقي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جي وفات کان پوءِ ٻئي جلد اينگلز شايع ڪيا.{{r|egsbio}} ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو جلد اينگلز تيار ڪري 1885ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٻيو: سرمائي جي گردش جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> ٽيون جلد نَوَ سال پوءِ، آڪٽوبر 1894ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٽيون: مجموعي طور سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' وسيع ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' مان ورتل هو، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو مسودو هئا. اهي مسودا ''مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي جلدن 30 کان 34 تائين پکڙيل آهن. خاص طور ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جلد 30 جي پوئين حصي کان شروع ٿي جلد 32 جي پڄاڻيءَ تائين هلن ٿا؛<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> جڏهن ته مڪمل ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جلد 30 جي شروعات کان جلد 34 جي پهرين اڌ تائين پکڙيل آهن. جلد 34 جي پوئين اڌ ۾ ''1863ع–1864ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جا بچيل ٽڪرا شامل آهن، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٽيون مسودو هئا. انهن جو وڏو حصو پينگوئن جي ''داس ڪاپيٽال''، جلد پهرئين، جي ضميمي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=[[مارڪسسٽ انٽرنيٽ آرڪائيو]] |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716154952/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جو مختصر جرمن ڇاپو 1905ع ۽ 1910ع ۾ شايع ٿيو. ان مختصر ڇاپي جو انگريزي ترجمو 1951ع ۾ لنڊن مان شايع ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته مڪمل ۽ غير مختصر ڇاپو 1963ع ۽ 1971ع ۾ ماسڪو مان ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي "چوٿين جلد" طور شايع ٿيو.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref> {{پڻ ڏسو |پوئين دور جو مارڪس}} [[File:Marx8.jpg|thumb|upright|1882ع ۾ مارڪس]] پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي آخري ڏهاڪي دوران مارڪس جي صحت مسلسل خراب ٿيندي وئي ۽ هو اڳين دور وانگر ڊگهي عرصي تائين محنت ڪرڻ جي قابل نه رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} تنهن هوندي به هن همعصر سياست، خاص طور جرمني ۽ روس جي معاملن، تي اهم تبصرا ڪيا. سندس ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' ۾ هن پنهنجن پوئلڳن [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ [[آگسٽ بيبل]] جي ان رجحان جي مخالفت ڪئي، جنهن تحت هو متحد سوشلسٽ جماعت ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[فرڊيننڊ لاسال]] جي [[رياستي سوشلزم]] وارن خيالن سان ٺاهه ڪرڻ چاهيندا هئا.{{r|egsbio}} هيءَ تصنيف مارڪس جي مشهور قول، "[[هر ڪنهن کان سندس صلاحيت مطابق، هر ڪنهن کي سندس ضرورت مطابق]]"، سبب پڻ مشهور آهي.<ref name="CGP P1"/> 8 مارچ 1881ع تي [[ويرا زاسوليچ]] ڏانهن لکيل خط ۾ مارڪس ان امڪان تي غور ڪيو ته روس سرمائيداراڻي ترقيءَ واري مرحلي کي ٽپي، ڳوٺاڻي ''[[مير (سماج)|مير]]'' ۾ موجود گڏيل زميني ملڪيت جي بنياد تي ڪميونزم قائم ڪري سگهي ٿو.{{r|egsbio}}<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> روس جي ڳوٺاڻي "ڪميون" کي "روس جي سماجي نئين سر جوڙجڪ جو مرڪزي سهارو" قرار ڏيندي مارڪس خبردار ڪيو ته جيڪڏهن مير کي سرمائيداراڻي مرحلي کان سواءِ سڌو سوشلسٽ مرحلي ڏانهن منتقليءَ جو ذريعو بڻائڻو آهي، ته "سڀ کان پهرين انهن نقصانڪار اثرن کي ختم ڪرڻ ضروري هوندو، جيڪي ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون تي هر طرف کان حملو ڪري رهيا آهن".<ref name="k72"/> انهن نقصانڪار اثرن جي خاتمي کان پوءِ مارڪس موجب ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون جي "پاڻمرادو ترقيءَ جون عام حالتون" موجود ٿي سگهن ٿيون.<ref name=k72/> بهرحال، ساڳئي خط ۾ مارڪس نشاندهي ڪئي ته "سرمائيداراڻي نظام جي بنياد ۾... پيدا ڪندڙ کي پيداوار جي وسيلن کان مڪمل طور جدا ڪرڻ شامل آهي".<ref name=k72/> هن خط جي هڪ مسودي ۾ مارڪس جي [[بشريات]] ڏانهن وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا سندس ان يقين مان پيدا ٿي ته مستقبل جو ڪميونزم اسان جي قبل از تاريخي ماضيءَ جي اشتراڪيت ڏانهن هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ سطح تي واپسي هوندو. هن لکيو: <blockquote> اسان جي دور جو تاريخي لاڙو اهو اڻٽر بحران آهي، جنهن مان يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جي انهن ملڪن ۾ سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار گذري رهي آهي، جتي اها پنهنجي بلند ترين سطح تي پهچي چڪي آهي. هي بحران ان جي تباهيءَ ۽ جديد سماج جي سڀ کان قديم صورت، يعني گڏيل پيداوار ۽ گڏيل ملڪيت، جي هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ شڪل ڏانهن واپسيءَ تي ختم ٿيندو. </blockquote> هن وڌيڪ لکيو ته "ابتدائي برادرين جي حياتياتي قوت سامي، يوناني، رومي وغيره سماجن کان بي انداز وڌيڪ هئي، ۽ جديد سرمائيداراڻي سماجن کان ته اڃا به وڌيڪ".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels ''Collected Works'', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> پنهنجي وفات کان اڳ مارڪس اينگلز کي اهي خيال مرتب ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو. اهي 1884ع ۾ ''[[خاندان، نجي ملڪيت ۽ رياست جو بڻ بنياد]]'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيا، جيڪو جزوي طور مارڪس پاران [[ليوس ايڇ. مورگن]] جي ڪتاب ''[[قديم سماج]]'' بابت لکيل نوٽن تي ٻڌل هو. == ذاتي زندگي == === خاندان === [[File:Jenny laura marx.jpg|thumb|upright|جيني ڪيرولائنا ۽ جيني لورا مارڪس (1869ع): مارڪس جي سڀني ڌيئرن جو نالو سندن ماءُ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] جي عزت ۾ جيني رکيو ويو هو.]] مارڪس ۽ فون ويسٽفالين کي ست ٻار ٿيا، پر لنڊن ۾ رهائش دوران سندن ڏکين معاشي ۽ رهائشي حالتن سبب رڳو ٽي ٻار بالغ عمر تائين زنده رهيا.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Singer |author-link=Peter Singer |year=2000 |title=Marx: A very short introduction |page=5 |isbn=0192854054 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford}}</ref> سندن ٻار هي هئا: [[جيني لونگي|جيني ڪيرولائنا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لونگي؛ 1844ع–1883ع)، [[لورا مارڪس|جيني لورا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لافارگ؛ 1845ع–1911ع)، ايڊگر (1847ع–1855ع)، هينري ايڊورڊ گائي ("گيدو"؛ 1849ع–1850ع)، جيني ايويلين فرانسس ("فرانزسڪا"؛ 1851ع–1852ع)، [[ايلينور مارڪس|جيني جوليا ايلينور]] (1855ع–1898ع)، ۽ هڪ ٻيو ٻار، جيڪو نالو رکڻ کان اڳ ئي جولاءِ 1857ع ۾ فوت ٿي ويو. سندس ناٺي [[پال لافارگ]] موجب مارڪس هڪ پيار ڪندڙ پيءُ هو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Lafargue |author-link=Paul Lafargue |editor=[[مارڪس–اينگلز–لينن ادارو]] |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1972 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |title=''Reminiscences of Marx'' (September 1890) |quote=هو هڪ پيار ڪندڙ، نرم دل ۽ درگذر ڪندڙ پيءُ هو. [...] پنهنجي ڌيئرن سان سندس لاڳاپن ۾ حڪم هلائيندڙ پيءُ واري روش جو ذري برابر به نشان نه هو، جڏهن ته سندس ڌيئرن جو ساڻس پيار غيرمعمولي هو. هو کين ڪڏهن به حڪم نه ڏيندو هو، پر جيڪو ڪم ڪرائڻ چاهيندو هو، تنهن لاءِ کين مهربانيءَ طور درخواست ڪندو هو، يا اهڙي نموني احساس ڏياريندو هو ته جنهن ڳالهه کان هو کين روڪڻ چاهي ٿو، اها کين نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. تنهن هوندي به شايد ئي ڪنهن پيءُ جا ٻار هن جي ٻارن جيترا فرمانبردار رهيا هجن.|access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816133812/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> 1962ع ۾ اهو الزام سامهون آيو ته مارڪس کي پنهنجي گهر جي ملازمہ [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]] مان شاديءَ کان ٻاهر فريڊي نالي هڪ پٽ ٿيو هو،<ref name=Montefiore>{{cite news|last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=The Means of Reproduction |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926042626/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=173}} پر دستاويزي ثبوتن جي کوٽ سبب هن دعويٰ تي اختلاف ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Carver, 1991">{{cite book |quote=this [claim] is not well founded on the documentary materials available |last=Carver |first=Terrell |title=The Cambridge Companion to Marx |year=1991 |publisher=[[ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521366946 |page=11 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |editor-last=Carver |editor-first=Terrell |chapter=Reading Marx: Life and Works |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608131100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |url-status=live }}</ref> هيلين ڊيمٿ مارڪس جي ڀروسي جوڳي ساٿي پڻ هئي. [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] پاران لکيل سندس تعزيتي نوٽ ۾ هن جي ڪردار بابت ڄاڻايو ويو آهي ته: "مارڪس هيلينا ڊيمٿ کان نه رڳو پارٽيءَ جي ڏکين ۽ پيچيده معاملن ۾، پر پنهنجي معاشي لکڻين بابت به صلاح وٺندو هو."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Helene Demuth Obituary |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/family/demuth/obitry.htm |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> مارڪس اڪثر فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو، خاص طور گهر يا فليٽ مسواڙ تي وٺڻ وقت، شايد ان لاءِ ته سرڪاري اختيارين لاءِ سندس پتو لڳائڻ ڏکيو ٿئي. پيرس ۾ هو "موسيو رامبوز" جو نالو استعمال ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته لنڊن ۾ پنهنجن خطن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ "اي. وليمز" لکي صحيح ڪندو هو. سندس دوست سندس سانوري رنگ ۽ ڪارن گهنڊيدار وارن سبب کيس "مور" سڏيندا هئا، جڏهن ته هن پنهنجن ٻارن کي پاڻ کي "اولڊ نِڪ" ۽ "چارلي" سڏڻ جي همٿ ڏني.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} هو پنهنجن دوستن ۽ گهرڀاتين لاءِ پڻ لقب ۽ فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو؛ فريڊرش اينگلز کي "جنرل"، گهر جي ملازمہ هيلين کي "لينچن" يا "نِم"، ڌيءَ جينيچن کي "ڪُئي ڪُئي، [[چين جو شهنشاهه]]"، ۽ لورا کي "[[ڪاڪاٽو|ڪاڪادو]]" يا "[[خوئي خوئي|هوٽنٽوٽ]]" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} === صحت === مارڪس 1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب نالي شراب نوشي واري تنظيم ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ گهڻي شراب نوشي ڪرڻ لڳو ۽ اهو سلسلو سندس وفات تائين جاري رهيو.<ref name="drinking1"/> مارڪس گهڻي عرصي تائين خراب صحت جو شڪار رهيو، جنهن کي هو پاڻ "وجود جي بدحالي" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}} مختلف ليکڪن سندس بيمارين جي نوعيت ۽ سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. سندس سوانح نگار ورنر بلومينبرگ موجب انهن جو سبب جگر ۽ پتيءَ جون بيماريون هيون، جيڪي مارڪس کي 1849ع ۾ ٿيون ۽ پوءِ هو انهن مان مڪمل طور صحتياب نه ٿي سگهيو. نامناسب طرزِ زندگيءَ انهن بيمارين کي وڌيڪ شديد بڻايو. بيماريءَ جا دورا اڪثر مٿي جي سور، اکين جي سوزش، مٿي ۾ [[تنتي سور]] ۽ سنڌن جي سور سان گڏ ٿيندا هئا. 1877ع ۾ کيس تنتي نظام جي هڪ سنگين بيماري ٿي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ڊگهي عرصي تائين [[بي خوابي]] رهيس، جنهن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ هو نشي آور دوائون استعمال ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} رات جو حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ ۽ نامناسب خوراڪ سبب سندس بيماري وڌيڪ بگڙندي رهي. مارڪس تيز مصالحن واري کاڌي، دونهي ۾ سڪايل مڇي، ڪئويار ۽ اچاريل ڪڪڙين جو شوقين هو، جيتوڻيڪ اهي سڀ شيون جگر جي بيمارن لاءِ نقصانڪار هيون. کيس شراب ۽ ليڪور به پسند هئا ۽ هو تمام گهڻا سگار پيئندو هو؛ مالي تنگيءَ سبب اهي اڪثر گهٽ معيار جا هوندا هئا. 1863ع کان مارڪس ڦٽن ۽ ڦرڙين جي گهڻي شڪايت ڪرڻ لڳو. بلومينبرگ موجب "اهي جگر جي مريضن ۾ گهڻو ٿيندا آهن ۽ ممڪن آهي ته انهن جا سبب به ساڳيا هجن."{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} اهي ڦرڙا ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو مارڪس نه صحيح نموني ويهي سگهندو هو ۽ نه سڌو بيهي ڪم ڪري سگهندو هو. بلومينبرگ موجب مارڪس ۾ چڙچڙاپڻ جگر جي بيمارن ۾ عام طور ڏسجندڙ ڪيفيت هئي: <blockquote> بيماريءَ سندس شخصيت جي ڪجهه خاصيتن کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪري ڇڏيو. هو بحث ۾ تمام تيز هوندو هو، سندس چڀندڙ طنز توهين کان به نه ڪيٻائيندو هو ۽ سندس اظهار ڪڏهن ڪڏهن بي ادبي ۽ سختيءَ تي ٻڌل هوندو هو. جيتوڻيڪ مجموعي طور مارڪس پنهنجن ويجهن دوستن تي انڌو اعتماد رکندو هو، پر پاڻ به شڪايت ڪندو هو ته ڪڏهن ڪڏهن هو انهن سان به حد کان وڌيڪ شڪي ۽ ناانصاف ٿي ويندو هو. دشمنن ته ڇا، دوستن بابت به سندس فيصلا ڪڏهن ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو گهٽ حساس ماڻهو به ناراض ٿي پوندا هئا... شايد تمام ٿورا ماڻهو اهڙا هئا، جن تي هن اهڙي تنقيد نه ڪئي هجي... اينگلز به ان کان بچيل نه هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|pp=99–100}} </blockquote> پرنسٽن يونيورسٽي جي تاريخدان [[جيرالڊ سيگل]] موجب، نوجوانيءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ مارڪس کي نمونيا يا پلوريسي ٿي سگهي ٿي، جنهن جي اثرن سبب کيس پروشيائي فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. پوئين زندگيءَ ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' تي ڪم ڪندي، جنهن کي هو مڪمل نه ڪري سگهيو،{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=494}} مارڪس ٽن اهم بيمارين جو شڪار رهيو. جگر جي بيماري، جيڪا شايد موروثي هئي، حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم، خراب خوراڪ ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ سبب وڌيڪ بگڙي وئي. رات جو گهڻو ڪم ڪرڻ سبب سندس اکين ۾ سوزش ٿيندي هئي. ٽئين بيماري طور کيس ڪاربنڪل يا ڦرڙا ٿيندا هئا، جيڪي "شايد جسماني ڪمزوريءَ جو نتيجو هئا؛ مارڪس جي طرزِ زندگيءَ جون مختلف خاصيتون، جهڙوڪ شراب، تمباڪو، خراب غذا ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ، انهن سڀني ان ۾ حصو ورتو." اينگلز اڪثر مارڪس کي پنهنجي خطرناڪ طرزِ زندگي بدلائڻ جي صلاح ڏيندو هو. سيگل موجب مارڪس پاران پنهنجي صحت کي اهڙي سخت نموني نقصان پهچائڻ جي پويان ذاتي مفادن ۽ خودپسنديءَ بابت ڏوهه جو احساس ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو اصل ۾ سندس والد مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ پيدا ڪيو هو.{{sfn|Seigel|1978|pp=495–496}} 2007ع ۾ [[نيوڪاسل يونيورسٽي]] جي چمڙيءَ جي ماهر سام شسٽر مارڪس جي چمڙيءَ جي بيماريءَ جي [[پوئين دور جي تشخيص]] ڪئي. شسٽر موجب وڌيڪ ممڪن وضاحت اها هئي ته مارڪس جگر جي بيماريءَ بدران [[هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا]] جو شڪار هو، جيڪا وار جي ڦوٽن ۾ کلندڙ [[اپوڪرائن]] نالين جي بند ٿيڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ ورجائيندڙ وچڙندڙ بيماري آهي.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|pp=1–2}} شسٽر بيماريءَ جي امڪاني [[نفسياتي ۽ سماجي]] اثرن تي پڻ غور ڪيو. هن نشاندهي ڪئي ته چمڙي رابطي جو هڪ اهم عضوو آهي، ۽ هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا شديد نفسياتي تڪليف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن ۾ نفرت، بيزاري، ذاتي تصور، مزاج ۽ خوشحاليءَ ۾ گهٽتائي شامل آهن. شسٽر موجب مارڪس جي خطن ۾ اهڙن احساسن جا "گهڻا ثبوت" موجود آهن. هن اهو سوال به اٿاريو ته ڇا بيماريءَ جي ذهني اثرن مارڪس جي لکڻين تي اثر وڌو ۽ شايد سندس [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگيءَ واري نظريي]] جي تشڪيل ۾ پڻ ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|p=3}} === وفات === [[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|[[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]]، لنڊن]] ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ سندس زال جيني جي وفات کان پوءِ مارڪس کي [[نزلو]] ٿيو، جنهن سندس زندگيءَ جي آخري پندرهن مهينن دوران سندس صحت خراب رکي. آخرڪار ان بيماريءَ مان [[ساھ جي نلين جي سوزش]] ۽ [[ڦڦڙن جي پردي جي سوزش]] پيدا ٿي، جن سبب هو 14 مارچ 1883ع تي لنڊن ۾ 64 ورهين جي عمر ۾ [[بي وطن]] شخص جي حيثيت ۾ فوت ٿي ويو.<ref name="stateless"/> سندس گهرڀاتين ۽ دوستن 17 مارچ 1883ع تي کيس لنڊن جي اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾، لاادري ۽ ملحد ماڻهن لاءِ مخصوص حصي ۾ دفن ڪيو. [[فرانسس وين]] موجب سندس جنازي ۾ نَوَ کان يارهن ماڻهو شامل هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA382 382]}}<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> همعصر ذريعن جي تحقيق موجب جنازي ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تيرهن سڃاتل ماڻهو موجود هئا: [[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، [[ايلينور مارڪس]]، [[ايڊورڊ ايولنگ]]، [[پال لافارگ]]، [[شارل لونگي]]، [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]]، [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]]، گوٽليب ليمڪي، [[فريڊرڪ ليسنر]]، جي. لوخنر، سر [[ري لينڪيسٽر]]، [[ڪارل شورليمر]] ۽ [[ارنسٽ ريڊفورڊ]].<ref>John Shepperd, 'Who was really at Marx's funeral?', in "Friends of Highgate Cemetery Newsletter ", April (2018), pp. 10–11. https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204074940/https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf |date=4 February 2020 }}</ref> هڪ همعصر اخبار موجب جنازي ۾ پنجويهن کان ٽيهه مٽن مائٽن ۽ دوستن شرڪت ڪئي.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx', in ''[[دي سنڊي پيپل|دي پيپل]]'', 25 March 1883, p. 3.</ref> ''[[دي گرافڪ]]'' جي هڪ ليکڪ لکيو: <blockquote> هڪ عجيب غلطيءَ سبب... سندس وفات جو اعلان ٻن ڏينهن تائين نه ڪيو ويو، ۽ پوءِ به اهو چيو ويو ته سندس وفات پيرس ۾ ٿي آهي. ٻئي ڏينهن پيرس مان تصحيح آئي؛ ۽ جڏهن سندس دوست ۽ پوئلڳ دفن جي وقت ۽ هنڌ بابت ڄاڻڻ لاءِ [[هيورسٽاڪ هل]] ۾ سندس گهر پهتا، تڏهن کين معلوم ٿيو ته هو اڳ ئي ٿڌي زمين ۾ دفن ٿي چڪو هو. جيڪڏهن اها رازداري ۽ تڪڙ نه ڪئي وڃي ها ته سندس قبر تي يقيناً هڪ وڏو عوامي مظاهرو ٿئي ها.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx' in ''The Graphic'', 31 March 1883, pp. 319, 322.</ref> </blockquote> سندس ڪيترن ويجهن دوستن جنازي ۾ تقريرون ڪيون، جن ۾ [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز شامل هئا. اينگلز جي تقرير ۾ هي لفظ شامل هئا: {{blockquote| 14 مارچ تي منجهند جو پوڻين ٽين وڳي، زنده انسانن مان سڀ کان وڏو مفڪر سوچڻ ڇڏي ويو. کيس رڳو ٻن منٽن لاءِ اڪيلو ڇڏيو ويو هو، ۽ جڏهن اسين واپس آياسين ته کيس پنهنجي ڪرسيءَ تي سڪون سان سمهيل ڏٺوسين—پر هميشه لاءِ.<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx"/> }} مارڪس جون زنده بچيل ڌيئرون [[ايلينور مارڪس|ايلينور]] ۽ [[لورا مارڪس|لورا]]، ۽ سندس ٻه فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ ناٺي [[شارل لونگي]] ۽ [[پال لافارگ]] پڻ جنازي ۾ موجود هئا.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> سندس زال ۽ وڏي ڌيءَ اڳ ئي فوت ٿي چڪيون هيون؛ وڏي ڌيءَ جنوري 1883ع ۾، مارڪس کان ڪجهه مهينا اڳ، وفات ڪئي هئي. جرمن سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ جي باني ۽ اڳواڻ ليبڪنيخت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ تقرير ڪئي، جڏهن ته فرانسيسي پورهيت تحريڪ جي اهم اڳواڻ لونگي فرانسيسيءَ ۾ مختصر خطاب ڪيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> فرانس ۽ اسپين جي پورهيت جماعتن پاران موڪليل ٻه [[تار]] پڻ پڙهيا ويا؛<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> هڪ ميڊرڊ واري شاخ طرفان [[هوسي ميسا اي ليومپارٽ]] موڪليو هو، ۽ ٻيو فرانسيسي مزدورن جي پارٽيءَ جي پيرس شاخ طرفان سيڪريٽري ليپين موڪليو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1883: The death of Karl Marx |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> اينگلز جي تقرير سميت اهو ئي جنازي جو مڪمل پروگرام هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ شامل غير مائٽن ۾ مارڪس جا ٽي ڪميونسٽ ساٿي پڻ هئا: فريڊرڪ ليسنر، جنهن کي 1852ع جي [[ڪولون ڪميونسٽ مقدمو]] کان پوءِ ٽي سال قيد ڪيو ويو هو؛ جي. لوخنر، جنهن کي اينگلز "ڪميونسٽ ليگ جو پراڻو ميمبر" قرار ڏنو؛ ۽ [[ڪارل شورليمر]]، جيڪو مانچسٽر ۾ ڪيميا جو پروفيسر، [[رائل سوسائٽي]] جو ميمبر ۽ 1848ع جي [[باڊن انقلاب]] ۾ شامل ڪميونسٽ ڪارڪن هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ [[ري لينڪيسٽر]] نالي برطانوي حيوانيات دان پڻ شامل هو، جيڪو پوءِ هڪ اهم عالم بڻيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> وصيت جي عدالتي تصديق وقت مارڪس جي ذاتي ملڪيت جي قيمت 250 پائونڊ مقرر ڪئي وئي،<ref name="probate">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk |title=Marx, Karl |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1883 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807135123/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> جيڪا 2024ع جي حساب سان لڳ ڀڳ 38,095 پائونڊ جي برابر هئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=£250 in 1883 → 2024 {{!}} UK Inflation Calculator |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=www.in2013dollars.com |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128173620/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |url-status=live }}</ref> 1895ع ۾ پنهنجي وفات وقت اينگلز پنهنجي وڏي ملڪيت جو "نمايان حصو" مارڪس جي ٻن زنده بچيل ڌيئرن لاءِ ڇڏيو، جنهن جي قيمت 2024ع جي حساب سان 68 لک آمريڪي ڊالر هئي.<ref name="Montefiore"/> نومبر 1954ع ۾ مارڪس ۽ سندس خاندان جي باقيات کي ويجهو ئي هڪ نئين هنڌ ٻيهر دفن ڪيو ويو. نئين هنڌ تي قائم [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو|مقبرين]] جو افتتاح 14 مارچ 1956ع تي ٿيو.<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|title=Marx monument unveiled in Highgate cemetery – archive, 15 March 1956|date=15 March 2016|access-date=7 January 2018|work=The Guardian|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227094820/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|url-status=live}}</ref> ان تي ''ڪميونسٽ منشور'' جي آخري سٽ، "[[دنيا جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!|سڀني ملڪن جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!]]"، ۽ اينگلز پاران ترتيب ڏنل يارهين "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز|فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" مان هي قول اُڪريل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي—پر اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name="wh1" /> [[برطانيا جي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي]] اهو يادگار تعمير ڪرايو، جنهن تي [[لارنس بريڊشا]] جو ٺاهيل مارڪس جو نيم مجسمو لڳايو ويو؛ جڏهن ته مارڪس جي اصل قبر تي رڳو سادي سينگار هئي.<ref name="wh1"/> مارڪسي تاريخدان [[ايرڪ هابسبام]] لکيو ته: "اهو نٿو چئي سگهجي ته مارڪس ناڪام شخص طور فوت ٿيو." جيتوڻيڪ برطانيا ۾ سندس پوئلڳن جو تعداد وڏو نه هو، پر سندس لکڻيون جرمني ۽ روس جي کاٻي ڌر جي تحريڪن تي اثر وجهڻ شروع ڪري چڪيون هيون. سندس وفات کان پنجويهن سالن اندر براعظمي يورپ جون اهي سوشلسٽ جماعتون، جيڪي پنهنجي سياست تي مارڪس جي اثر کي تسليم ڪنديون هيون، [[نمائنده جمهوريت|نمائنده جمهوري]] چونڊن ۾ نمايان ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪري چڪيون هيون.<ref>[[#Hob11|Hobsbawm 2011]]. pp. 3–4.</ref> == شروعاتي زندگي == [[فائل:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|ٽرائير (Trier) جي Brückenstraße 10 ۾ واقع گھر جنھن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پيدا ٿيو.ھن جي خاندان کي ان عمارت جي زميني منزل تي ٻہ ڪمرا ۽ پھرين منزل تي ٽي ڪمرا ھيا.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref>.اھو گھر 1928 ۾ جرمنيجي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ خريد ڪري ڪارل مارڪس جي نالي سان ھڪ عجائب گھر قائم ڪيو <ref>[[#Whe00|Wheen 2001]]. pp. 12–13.</ref>]] ڪارل مارڪس، 5 مئي 1818ع ۾ اولهه <span data-target="جرمني" data-text="جرمني" data-wikitext-offset="7390" data-score="0.8763239979743958">جرمني</span> جي شهر ٽرائر ۾ پيدا ٿيو، ڪارل مارڪس جو خاندان آڳاٽي زماني کان يهودي هو پر ان جي پيءُ ڪارل مارڪس جي پيدا ٿيڻ کان اڳ عيساعيت قبولي، تنهن ڪري ڪارل مارڪس کي يهودي چوڻ بلڪل غلط آهي. ڪارل مارڪس جا ٽي ڀاءَ هئا ۽ پنج ڀيڻون هيون، جنهن مان ڀاءَ ته سڀئي جواني ۾ ئي گذاري ويا پر ٽي ڀيڻون ڪارل مارڪس جي گذاري وڃڻ کانپوءِ به حيات رهيون، ڪارل مارڪس جو پي هڪ وڪيل هو، ٽرائر شهر ندي جي ڪپ تي واقع آهي، اها جڳهه فرانس جي تمام ويجهو آهي، تنهن ڪري ات جي ماڻهن ۾ فرانس جي انقلابي نظريئي جو تمام گهڻو اثر هو. ارڙهين صدي جي آخر ۾ جڏهن نپولين هن علائقي کي پنهنجي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو، تڏهن هتي به فرانس جا سڪا هلڻ لڳا، هائرن مارڪس نپولين جو سخت مخالف هو، ان جي ڪتاب گهر ۾ واليٽير، روسو، لاڪ، لائب نيز، سنگ ۽ ٻين روشن خيال دانشورن هن جي آزاد خيالي جي ڪري پوليس جي خاص نظر هئي، پر هي علائقو نپولين جي 1815ع ۾ شڪست کانپوءِ جرمني کي واپس ملي ويو. ڪارل مارڪس جو ننڍپڻ انهي ماحول ۾ گذريو، جڏهن ميٽرنگ (جيڪو يورپ جي هڪ طاقت هو) برسن چاف سميت ٻين شاگردن جي تحريڪ جي خبر پئي ته هن هڪ ڪانفرنس گهرائي، ڇا ڪاڻ ته ميٽرنگ جمهوريت ۽ آئين جي نالي سان سخت نفرت ڪندو هو. ڪانفرنس ۾ هنن ڳالهين تي روشني وڌي وئي: 1. جرمن رياستون ڪنهن به قسم جو ڪوبه آئين نه جوڙينديون. 2. يونيورسٽين جي استادن ۽ شاگردن تي سخت نظر ۾ رکي ويندي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ اسان جو نمائندو وهندو، جيڪو هر سر گرمي تي نظر رکندو. 3. جمهوري خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽي کان الڳ ڪيو وڃي، يعني ڪڍيو وڃي. انهن ڪجهه اهم فيصلن کانپوءِ جرمني جي دانشورن ڪالم نگارن ۽ شاگردن ۾ وٺ پڪڙ شروع ٿي وئي، روشن خيال استادن کي يونيورسٽين مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ شاگردن جون تنظيمون ۽ تحريڪون سڀ ٽوڙيون ويون، ڪارل مارڪس جي ماءَ ته ٻارن جي جي برورش ۾ مصروف سنڌي هئي، پر ڪارل مارڪس جو پي ڪارل مارڪس سان تمام گهڻو پيار ڪندو هو ۽ ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته ڪارل مارڪس پڙهي لکي هڪ وڏو ماڻهو ٿئي، تنهن ڪري هو ڪارل مارڪس جي تعليم ۽ تربيت تي خاص توجه ڏيندو هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس به پنهنجي پي سان تمام پيار ڪندو هو، تنهن ڪري وڏو ٿي اڪثر پنهنجي پي جو ذڪر ڪندو هو، جلاوطني ۾ به پنهنجي پي جي تعمير هميشه ميز تي رکندو هو، ڪارل مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ فريڊرڪ اينگلز ڪارل مارڪس جي پي جي اها تصوير مارڪس جي تابوت ۾ رکي. ڪارل مارڪس کي مضمون لکڻ ۽ يوناني ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب سان دلچسپي ننڍپڻ کان ئي هئي ۽ يونيورسٽي ۾ استاد به اتفاق سان روشن خيال ئي مليا ۽ قابل استادن شاگردن جي پوري حوصلا افزائي ڪئي. 1833ع جي ڏينهن ۾ حڪومت جي عام پاليسي جي خلاف شاگردن ۾ بيچيني وڌي رهي هئي، مارڪس جو اسڪول به ان سان متاثر ٿيڻ کان سواءِ ڪونه رهي سگهيو، جڏهن پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو، تڏهن اتان منع ٿيل لٽريچر هٿ آيو ۽ انهيءَ سلسلي ۾ هڪ شاگرد جي گرفتاري به پيش آئي. ڪارل مارڪس 1835ع ۾ اسڪول کان رخست ٿيندي وقت ”پيشي جو انتخاب“ تي هڪ مضمون لکيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي خبر هئي ته شاگرد جي لاءِ پيشي جو اختيار ڪرڻ سولي ڳالهه ناهي هوندي، ڪارل مارڪس مضمون ۾ لکيو ته: پيشي جي اختيار ڪرڻ کان پهرين اسان کي بني نو انسان جي ڀلائي جو خاص خيال رکڻ گهرجي، اگر ڪوئي اهڙو پيشو اختيار ڪجي، جنهن سان انسان ذات جي وڌ کان وڌ خدمت ٿي ته اسان جي چيلهه وڌ کان وڌ وزن کڻڻ سان به نه جهڪندي. ٽرائر ۾ 1835ع ۾ تعليم مڪمل ڪرڻ کانپوءِ ڪارل مارڪس جي بون يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ٿي، ان جا خاص مضمون قانون ۽ فلسفو هئا پر هو يوناني ۽ رومي تاريخ ۾ وڌي چڙهي حصو وٺندو هو ۽ هومز، آرٽ ۽ شاعري جي ڪلاس ۾ باقاعدگيءَ سان حصو وٺندو هو، مارڪس شاعري به ڪندو هو ۽ يونيورسٽي جي شاعر شاگردن جي حلقي جو فرد به هو. انهيءَ دوران سندس مڱڻي وڏي ڀيڻ سوفيا جي دوست جيني جان ويسٽ فالين سان ٿي. ڪارل مارڪس ۽ جيني ننڍپڻ کان ئي هڪ ٻي کان تمام گهڻو چاهيندا هئا ۽ جڏهن وڏو ٿي انهن جاءُ پي کي شادي جي درخواست ڪئي ته اهي رابطي ٿي ويا. جيني شهر جي حسين ترين ۾ شمار ٿيندي هئي ۽ ان جو خاندان امير گهراڻن ۾ ٿيندو هو، جيني چاهي ها ته ڪنهن نوابزادي سان به شادي ڪري سگهي پئي پر هو حسين سيرت جي مالڪ هئي ۽ ڪارل مارڪس سان محبت ڪندي هئي. [[فائل:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|کاٻو|[[Jenny von Westphalen]] in the 1830s]] ان پنهنجي محبت جي خاطر سڄي دنيا جي عيش ۽ آرام کي ٽڪرائي ڪري هڪ عظيم انقلابي سان سڄي عمر سڃ ۾ گذاري، هن جلاوطنيون سهيون، بک رهي، قرضدارن جو ڳالهيون ٻڌيون، ڪڏهن گهر جا سامان وڪيا ته ڪڏهن ڏاج ۾ مليل ٿانو گروي رکيا پر ڪڏهن به پنهنجي عظيم مڙس سان تنگ ٿي شڪايت نه ڪئي ۽ نه ئي ان جي انقلابي مصروفيتون ۾ يا لکڻ پڙهڻ جي ڪمن ۾ ڪا رڪاوٽ وڌي.ٻار تڙپي تڙپي لاڏاڻو ڪري ويا پر محبت ۾ فرق نه آيو. [[فائل:Karl and jenny marx 1866.jpg|thumb|150px|1864 ۾ نڪتل ڪارل مارڪس ۽ سندس زال جيني جي تصوير]] جيني جو ڀاءُ وزير داخلا هو، هن جيني کي خط ۾ لکيو ته ”توهان وطن واپس اچي وڃو آءُ توهان جي سار لهندس “ پر غيرتمند ڀيڻ وراڻيو ته ”آءُ مارڪس ۽ ان جي انقلابي جذبي سان شادي ڪئي آهي، جي جرمني ۾ ڪارل ماڪس ۽ سندس انقلابي جذبي لاءِ جڳهه ناهي ته مون کي اهڙو جرمني نه گهرجي.“ ڪارل مارڪس تقريبن هڪ سال بون يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ گذاريو پر پوءِ پي ءُ جي حڪم تي برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخلا ورتائين، جڏهن ته هن کي برلن سخت ناپسند هو. تعليم کان جيڪو وقت بچندو هو ان وقت ۾ هو نظم لکندو هو، انهيءَ سال جي اندر نظم جا ٽي ڪتاب ”پنهنجي پياري جيني“ جي نالي ڪيائين. انهن مان ڪجهه نظم 1838ع ۾ هڪ مقامي رسالي ۾ به ڇپيون، مارڪس جي سڀ کان پهرين لکڻي ئي نظم هيون پر ڪجهه وقت گذرڻ کانپوءِ مارڪس کي اهو اندازو ٿيو ته هو شاعري جي ميدان جو مرد نه آهي، تنهن ڪري هو پنهنجو گهڻو وقت فلسفي ۽ قانوني جي مطالعي ۾ گذارڻ لڳو، مارڪس جيڪو ڪجهه پڙهندو هو، اهو خطن جي ذريعي پنهنجي پي کي ٻڌائيندو هو ۽ ان جو پي ان کي پنهنجي مشوري سان آگاهه ڪندو هو ۽ ان خطن ۾ (جيڪي هاڻ <span data-target="انگريزي ٻولي" data-text="انگريزي" data-wikitext-offset="12368" data-score="0.8205611109733582">انگريزي</span> ۾ ڇپجي چڪا آهن) اها گذارش ڪيل هوندي هئي ته تون پنهنجي پسند جا مضمون پڙهجانءِ ۽ پاڻ کي منهنجي مشورن جو غلام هرگز نه بنائجانءِ، انهن خطن ۾ عالمي بحث پڻ ٿيل هوندو هو، انهن خطن مان هڪ خط ۾ لکيل هو: ”آءٌ تصور جي دنيا کان اڳتي اچي چڪو آهيان، تصور مان مراد منهنجو ڪانٽ ۽ فخيتي سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته آءُ تصور پرستي جو جذبو انهن مان حاصل ڪيو پر هاڻ حقيقت جي لاءِ جستجو ڪري رهيو آهيان“ ڪارل مارڪس شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ هيگل کي تمام گهڻو پڙهندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هيگل تمام وڏو ذهن رکندو هو، شايد ئي ڪوئي اهڙو علمي يا سماجي مسئلو هوندو، جنهن جي باري ۾ هيگل پنهنجي فلسفي ۾ بحث نه ڪئي هئي، [[فائل:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس، اينگلز ۽ مارڪس جون ڌيئرون]] لاجڪ، تاريخ، مذهب، انقلاب، سياست، سائنس ۽ جماليات سڀني تي هيگل جون لکڻيون موجود آهن، جنهن زماني ۾ ڪارل مارڪس برلن يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ٿيو تڏهن هيگل جي شهرت عروج تي هئي، سڄي شهر ۾ هيگل ڪلب قائم هئا، ڪيترائي استاد، ڪالم نگار ايتري قدر جو سرڪاري آفيسر به پنهنجو پاڻ کي هيگل جا پوئلڳ چوندا هئا ۽ فخر محسوس ڪندا هئا. مارڪس 1841ع ۾ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مارچ ۾ مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اپريل ۾ ان کي ڊگري ملي وئي، ڪجهه عرصو گذرڻ کانپوءِ جڏهن مارڪس پاڻ فلسفي جو ماهر ٿيو، تڏهن هو ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته هيگل جو فلسفو هڪ عظيم خواب آهي، جنهن ۾ انسانذات خود خدا بنجي وڃي ٿي پر هيگل انسان کي فقط خيالي سير ڪرائي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پنهنجي لکڻين ۾ هڪ ڪائنات وجود ۾ آندي آهي، پر حقيقت ان خيالي دنيا کان بلڪل مختلف آهي، اها فلسفي جي دنيا نه آهي، انسان پنهنجي ذهن ۾ ڪائنات ته بلڪل ٺاهي آهي پر ضرورت ان ڳالهه جي آهي ته ان کي حقيقت جي شڪل ڪيئن ڏجي، ان جدوجهد ۾ ڪنڊن جي وڻ آهي ۽ ان ۾ نيم دلي يا سمجهوتن سان ڪم ڪونه هلندو. مارڪسزم ۾ مارڪس جو اهو پهريون جرت وارو ڪم هو، ان مان صاف ظاهر آهي ته مارڪس زندگيءَ جي بيزار ڪندڙ حقيقتن کان بيزار آهي ۽ انهن کي تبديل ڪرڻ چاهي ٿو ته انسان آزادي ۽ خودمختياري ۾ ترقي ڪري سگهي، مارڪس جي زندگي جي عملي شروعات اخبار نويسي سان ٿي، جڏهن ته ان جي دلي خواهش هئي ته هو بون يونيورسٽي ۾ فلسفو پڙهائي. برونوبائر اتي پهرين کان موجود هو ۽ ڪارل مارڪس کي عرض ڪندو هو ته تون جلد پنهنجون موجوده لکڻيون بند ڪري هتي اچ ته جيئن پاڻ ٻئي ملي ڪري هڪ فلسفي جو پرچو ڪڍون. مارڪس جو خواب مٽي ۾ ملي ويو ۽ هو ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري کڻي ٻه مهينا ٽرائر ۾ گذاري واپس بون پهچي ويو. بون ۾ پهچڻ وقت ئي مارڪس پهرين سياسي مضمون ”سينسرشپ جي تازي ترين هدايت“ تي لکيو، ان ۾ ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته :”عوامي تنقيد سچي سينسرشپ آهي، عوامي تنقيد اها عدالت آهي، جيڪا آزاد پريس سان وجود ۾ اچي ٿي“ ان کان اڳيان ڪارل مارڪس لکيو آهي ته ”آءُ سچائي جي ملڪيت آهيان، سچائي منهنجي ملڪيت ناهي، منهنجي ملڪيت نه فقط اهو انداز بيان آهي، جيڪو منهنجي روحاني انفراديت آهي، بي شڪ قانون مون کي لکڻ جي اجازت ته ڏي ٿو پر اهڙي طريقي سان نه جهڙي طريقي سان آءُ چاهيان ٿو، آءُ پنهنجو روحاني چهرو خوشي سان ڏيکاريان پر پهريان ان کي سرڪاري سانچي ۾ وجهان، ڪير اهڙو هوندو، جيڪو ان تي شرم محسوس نه ڪري، سچائي منزل به آهي ۽ منزل تي پهچڻ جو رستو به، سچائي جي تلاش به سچي هجڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ ته سچي تلاش خود ترقي يافته سچائي آهي“ مارڪس جا مضمون جرمي جي فيوڊل حڪومت تي ٻن منهن واري تلوار جيان ثابت ٿيا، اهڙي طرح جمهوريت پسند حصن ۾ ”رهائشن زائي تون“ (اها اخبار جنهن ۾ مارڪس لکندو هو) جي مقبوليت وڌندي پئي وئي، اهڙي طرح ٻين اخبارن کي به حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو، حڪومتي سينسرشپ جون پابنديون اڃا وڌيڪ وڌيون پر مارڪس جو قلم تڏهن به نه رڪيو ۽ آخر ڪار 1843ع ۾ بادشاهه جي صدارت ۾ ٿيل ڪابينه ۾ اهو فيصلو ڪيو ويو ته اگر اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو مالڪ ڪارل مارڪس کي اخبار کان الڳ نٿو ڪري ته اخبار بند ڪئي وڃي ۽ جڏهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه جي خبر پئي ته هن 17 مارچ 1843 ۾ اخبار ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ کان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جي ايڊيٽري جي دوران مارڪس کي سينسرشپ جو وڏو تجربو ٿيو ۽ مارڪس هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته جرمني ۾ رهي ڪري نه ته لکڻ جو ڪم ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه سياسي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وٺي سهگجي ٿو، انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس جي مالي حالت تمام خراب هئي، 1843 ع ۾ 19 جون تي مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، فرست جي ڇهه مهينن جو مارڪس، برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اٽلي، فرانس ۽ خاص طور انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، انهي سان گڏو گڏ ٻين سياسي نظرين، ميڪيا ويلي، مانڻسڪيو، روسو ۽ ٻين سياسي نظرين کي به غور سان پڙهيو. جنهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس اقتصاديت، ڪميونزم ۽ انقلاب فرانس جي تاريخ جو مطالعو ڪري رهيو هو، تڏهن هڪ جرمني جو ڊگهي قد جو نوجوان مانچسٽر مان پيرس آيو ۽ ڏهه ڏينهن تائين مارڪس جو مهمان ٿي رهيو، ان نوجوان جو نالو فريڊرڪ اينگلز هو، اينگلس هڪ ڀيرو اڳ به مارڪس سان مليو هو، جڏهن مارڪس ”رهائشن زائي تونگ“ جو ايڊيٽر هو. انهيءَ دوران اينگلس جيڪي ڪالم لکيا هئا، اهي مارڪس جي نظرن مان گذريا هئا ۽ مارڪس انهن کي پسند به ڪيو هو. دراصل اهي مضمون ئي سندن وچ ۾ دوستي جو سبب بڻيا. مارڪس پهريون ڀيرو هڪ اهڙي شخص سان مليو هو، جنهن جا نظريات سو سيڪڙو مارڪس سان ملندا هئا ۽ اهڙي طرح اها دوستي وجود ۾ آئي، جيڪا مرندي دم تائين زنده رهي. مارڪس کي جنوري 1845ع ۾ فرانس کان نڪرڻو پيو، جنهن جي وجه هئي ته جرمن هڪ سياسي رسالو ”ووروارٽس“ ڇاپيندا هئا، مارڪس به ان ۾ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن لکندو هو، پروشيا جي حڪومت فرانسي حڪومت کي رسالي بند ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ۽ ان سان وابستا سڀني جرمنن کي ملڪ بدري جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافي ليکڪن معافي وٺي پنهنجي جان بچائي پر ڪارل مارڪس جي غيرت ان کي هي ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس برسلسز (بيلجيم) اچي ويو، جڏهن ته اتي ان جو ڪوبه معاشي ذريعو نه هو ۽ تڏهن ڪارل مارڪس جي بکي رهڻ جا ڏينهن شروع ٿيا، جيڪي ڪڏهن ختم نه ٿيا. مارڪس جي روحاني تعليم انقلاب فرانس جي درسگاهه ۾ ٿي هئي، ڪميون جي شڪست کانپوءِ مزدور تمام ڏکيائون ۽ ظلمن جو منهن ڏٺو، مارڪس انهن جي شدت محسوس ڪئي ۽ تمام گهڻي ڀڄ ڊڪ ڪرڻي پئي، جنهن جو مارڪس جي صحت تي تمام گهڻو اثر پيو، نتيجو اهو نڪتو ته پراڻو جگر جو سور وري موٽي آيس ۽ سور ۽ دورا پوڻ لڳس، ڊاڪٽر چار ڪلاڪ کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني، پر مارڪس ڊاڪٽرن جي ڪڏهن نه ٻڌندو هو پر اينگلس جي چوڻ تي هو چيڪو سلواڪيا جي صحت گاهه ”ڪالس باد“ وڃڻ لاءِ راضي ٿيو، ڪالس باد جي هڪ مهيني ۾ ٽريٽمينٽ سان مارڪس کي ڪافي فائدو ٿيو ۽ پوءِ هو مسلسل ٽي سال اتي ويندو رهيو، ان سفر ۾ مارڪس جي ڌي ”اي ليز“ جيڪا سڀني کان ننڍي هئي، ساڻس گڏ هوندي هئي، انهي سفر دوران مارڪس پنهنجي مٽ مائٽ ۽ دوستن سان به ملاقات ڪندو هو، جيڪي هيمبرگ ۽ دريسٽن ۾ رهندا هئا. آخري سفر ۾ مارڪس اي ليز کي اهي جايون به ڏيکاريون، جتي مارڪس اي ليز جي ماءُ جيني سان شادي جا شروعاتي ڏينهن گذاريا هئا. حالتن مارڪس کي وقت کان اڳ پوڙهو ڪري ڇڏيو، پر ان جي سياسي سرگرمي ۾ ڪابه ڪمي پيشي ڪانه آئي ۽ نه ئي لکڻ پڙهڻ جي عادت ۾ ڪا ڪمي آيس. مارڪس برطانيا، آمريڪا، جرمني، اسپين، اٽلي، روس، فرانس ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي ملڪن جي تحريڪن سان رابطي ۾ رهندو هو ۽ خطن ۽ مضمونن جي ذريعي انهن کي مشورا ڏيندو هو. هاڻي مارڪس جي حيثيت پنهنجن ۽ پراون ٻنهي جي نظر ۾ بين القوامي ڪميونسٽ تحريڪ جي قائد جي هئي ۽ هو پنهنجو اهو فرض بهترين نموني ادا ڪندو هو، انهيءَ دوران ۾ مارڪس نئين نئين ڪتابن جو خاڪو به تيار ڪري ڇڏيو هو، جنهن مان اهو ظاهر ٿو ٿئي ته هو هڪ جمع تاريخ جو ارادو رکي پيو. مارڪس کي برصغير جي مسئلن ۾ وڏي دلچسپي هئي ۽ انهي جي تاريخ لکي رهيو هو، بلڪه مسلمانن جي فاتحن کان 1857ع تائين جي حالتن تي هڪ نوٽ تيار ڪري چڪو هو پر موت اجازت نه ڏني. انهيءَ دوران ۾ ان جي زال جيني بيمار ٿي وئي، ڊاڪٽرن پهرين ته جگر جي خرابي ٻڌائي پر پوءِ خبر پئي ته جيني کي ڪينسر آهي، جيني جي بيماري جو مارڪس تي ايترو اثر ٿيو هو جو مارڪس پنهنجي بيماري وساري ڏينهن رات جيني جو خيال رکڻ لڳو پر جيني کي نه بچڻو هو نه بچي ۽ 2 ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ ان جو موت ٿيو. پنجيتاليهه سالن جي محبت جو اهڙو سلو مارڪس کي پنهنجي سوڳ ۾ وڪوڙي ويو، جنهن جو مارڪس تي صدمو ويهجي ويو، مارڪس جي ڌيئرن ۽ دوستن مارڪس جي دل بهلائڻ جي تمام گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي، مارڪس ڪجهه ڏينهن پنهنجي وڏي ڌي سان رهيو ۽ ان جي ٻارن سان کيڏندي پنهنجي دل بهلائيندو رهيو ۽ پوءِ جڏهن ڪجهه صحتياب ٿيو ته فرانس کان واپس لنڊن اچي ويو ۽ پنهنجي ڪمن ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو، پر اڃا مارڪس جو مزاج پوري طرح بحال نه ٿيو ته خبر ملي ته سندن ڌي بيمار آهي، مارڪس اڃا هن وٽ وڃڻ جي تياري ۾ ئي هو ته خبر ملي ته ڌي لاڏاڻو ڪري وئي، جيڪا اڃا صرف 38 سالن جي هئي، ڌي جي لاڏاڻي مارڪس جي رهي سهي قوت به ختم ڪري ڇڏي ۽ هاڻي مارڪس سخت بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ ڦڦڙ به ڪم ڇڏڻ لڳا، ايتري قدر جو کير کان سواءِ ڪابه شي نڙي کان هيٺ نه لهندي هيس. 14 مارچ تي تقريبن اڍائي بجي ڏينهن جو ملازم ڪمري ۾ آئي ته ڏٺائين ته مارڪس نيم بيهوشي جي حالت ۾ ڪرسي تي ويٺل آهي، ملازم هيٺ وڃي اينگلس کي ٻڌايو، اينگلس ڀڄندو آيو ۽ ڏٺائين ته مارڪس ننڊ ۾ پيل آهي پر اهڙي ننڊ جنهن کان ڪوئي ڪڏهن سجاڳ نه ٿي سگهيو آهي. مارڪس جي لاش کي 17 مارچ 1883 ع تي هائي گيٽ جي قبرستان ۾ سندس گهرواري جيني جي پاسي ۾ دفنايو ويو، انهيءَ موقعي تي اينگلس پنهنجي سڀني کان پياري دوست ۽ دنيا جي عظيم انقلابي کي الوداع چوڻ لاءِ هي لفظ ڳالهايا: ”جهڙي طرح ڊارون نيچر جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو، اهڙي طرح مارڪس انسان جي تاريخ جي ارتقا جي قانون کي دريافت ڪيو“ جيئن ته مارڪس سڀ کان پهريون انقلابي هو، پوءِ ڪجهه ٻيو ته هن جي زندگي جو مقصد سرمائيدارانه معاشري ۽ ان کي قائم ڪندڙ رياستي ادارن جون پاڙون ڪڍڻ ۽ موجوده مزدور طبقي جي جدوجهد ۾ شريڪ ٿيڻ هو. مارڪس جي وفات کانپوءِ اينگلس ٻارنهن سال زنده رهيو، اينگلس پنهنجو گهڻو وقت تنظيمي ڪمن ۾ وقف ڪندو هو، مئي 1894ع ۾ اينگلس جو گلو سڄڻ لڳو ۽ ڊاڪٽرن کان اهو معلوم ٿيو ته اينگلز ڪينسر ۾ مبتلا آهي. جولاءِ جي آخري ڏينهن ۾ ان جي طبيعت خراب ٿي وئي ۽ 5 آگسٽ 1895ع ۾ اينگلس به لاڏاڻو ڪري ويو، وصيت مطابق ان جي لاش کي ساڙيو ويو ۽ ان جي رک ايسٽ بورن جي ويجهو سمنڊ ۾ وهائي وئي. مارڪسزم صرف آخري يا ڪامل دين هجڻ جي دعويٰ نٿو ڪري، بلڪه ان زندگي کي سمجهڻ ۽ نئين زندگي جي قوتن کي اڳتي وڌڻ ۾ انسان لاءِ هڪ مشعل آهي، ان ۾ زندگي جي تجربن ۽ ضرورتن جي پيش نظر اضافا ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ٿيندا رهندا آهن. نظريو ڪهڙو به هجي، سوشلزم يا فاشزم اهو عير مشروط اطاعت جي گهر ڪري ٿو. هر نظريئي جو ڪو نه ڪو ناخدا هوندا آهي، جنهن جو ان نظريئي تي عمل ڪرڻ واري کي حڪم مڃڻو پوندو آهي. هر نظريو صحيح راهه ڏيکارڻ دعوا ڪندو آهي ته هن نموني سان ابدي ڇوٽڪارو ماڻي سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري نظريئي ۽ ڌرم ۾ تمام گهٽ ئي فرق آهي. == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 5yngydpsuvgcw5mqhicrxayd7aq6602 394815 394814 2026-07-16T11:15:00Z Intisar Ali 8681 394815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> === ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' ۽ صحافت === لنڊن ۾ شروعاتي عرصي دوران مارڪس پاڻ کي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پنهنجي مطالعي لاءِ وقف ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن سبب سندس ڪٽنب کي سخت غربت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0415215455 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=[[يورپي گريجوئيٽ اسڪول]] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> سندس آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو اينگلز هو، جنهن جي آمدني وري سندس مالدار صنعتڪار والد کان ايندي هئي.{{r|egsbio}} پروشيا ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي اخبار جو ايڊيٽر ۽ ساڳئي فڪر وارين ٻين اخبارن جو ليکڪ هو، جنهن ذريعي هو سڌو سنئون پورهيت طبقي تائين پهچي سگهندو هو. پر لنڊن ۾، جتي پنهنجي اخبار هلائڻ لاءِ مالي وسيلا موجود نه هئا، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز بين الاقوامي صحافت ڏانهن رخ ڪيو. هڪ مرحلي تي سندن مضمون انگلينڊ، آمريڪا، [[پروشيا]]، آسٽريا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڇهن مختلف اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندا هئا.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> مارڪس جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو 1852ع کان 1862ع تائين ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' لاءِ يورپي نامي نگار طور ڪم ڪرڻ مان حاصل ٿيندو هو،<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394508771}}</ref>{{rp|17}} جڏهن ته هو ٻين نسبتاً "بورجوا" اخبارن لاءِ پڻ مضمون لکندو هو. مارڪس جا جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل مضمون [[ولهيلم پيپر]] ترجمو ڪندو هو، جيستائين مارڪس جي انگريزيءَ تي ايتري دسترس نه ٿي وئي جو هو پاڻ سڌو سنئون انگريزيءَ ۾ لکڻ لڳو.<ref name="Dispatches"/> ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[هوريس گريلي]] قائم ڪئي هئي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل بورڊ ۾ ترقي پسند بورجوا صحافي ۽ پبلشر شامل هئا، جن ۾ [[جارج رپلي]] ۽ ايڊيٽر [[چارلس اينڊرسن ڊينا]] نمايان هئا. ڊينا، جيڪو [[فوريئريت]] ۽ [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ]] جو حامي هو، مارڪس سان رابطي جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس لاءِ بحرِ اوقيانوس جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تائين پنهنجي خيالن جي پهچائڻ جو ذريعو ثابت ٿي، خاص طور [[هينري چارلس ڪيري]] خلاف سندس "لڪل فڪري جدوجهد" ۾.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |year=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> هيءَ اخبار شروعات کان ئي پورهيت طبقي ۾ مقبول هئي. ان جي قيمت رڳو ٻه سينٽ هئي،<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> ۽ هر اشاعت جا لڳ ڀڳ 50,000 نسخا ڇپجڻ سبب اها آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ پڙهندڙن واري اخبار بڻجي وئي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل پاليسي ترقي پسند هئي ۽ غلاميءَ جي مخالفت ان جي باني گريلي جي فڪر جي عڪاسي ڪندي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} مارڪس جو پهريون مضمون، جيڪو برطانيا جي پارلياماني چونڊن بابت هو، 21 آگسٽ 1852ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–332.</ref> 21 مارچ 1857ع تي ڊينا مارڪس کي اطلاع ڏنو ته معاشي بحران سبب هاڻي هر هفتي صرف هڪ مضمون جي ادائيگي ڪئي ويندي، پوءِ ڀلي اهو ڇپجي يا نه؛ جڏهن ته وڌيڪ مضمونن جي ادائيگي صرف انهن جي اشاعت جي صورت ۾ ٿيندي. مارڪس هر اڱاري ۽ جمعي تي پنهنجا مضمون موڪليندو هو، پر ساڳئي سال آڪٽوبر ۾ ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس ۽ [[بي. ٽيلر]] کان سواءِ يورپ ۾ موجود پنهنجا سڀ نامي نگار برطرف ڪري ڇڏيا ۽ مارڪس جا مضمون به هفتي ۾ رڳو هڪ تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيا. سيپٽمبر کان نومبر 1860ع جي وچ ۾ سندس فقط پنج مضمون ڇپيا. ڇهن مهينن جي وقفي کان پوءِ هن سيپٽمبر 1861ع کان مارچ 1862ع تائين ٻيهر لکڻ شروع ڪيو، پر پوءِ ڊينا کيس لکي اطلاع ڏنو ته آمريڪا جي اندروني معاملن سبب لنڊن مان ايندڙ خبرن لاءِ ''ٽربيون'' ۾ هاڻي جاءِ نه رهي هئي.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> 1868ع ۾ ڊينا هڪ مقابلي واري اخبار ''نيويارڪ سن'' قائم ڪئي، جنهن جو هو پاڻ ايڊيٽر اعليٰ بڻيو.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> اپريل 1857ع ۾ هن مارڪس کي دعوت ڏني ته هو ''[[نيو آمريڪن سائڪلوپيڊيا]]'' لاءِ، خاص طور فوجي تاريخ بابت، مضمون لکي. اهو منصوبو جارج رپلي، جيڪو ''ٽربيون'' جو ادبي ايڊيٽر ۽ ڊينا جو دوست هو، پيش ڪيو هو. مجموعي طور مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا 67 مضمون شايع ٿيا، جن مان 51 اينگلز لکيا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن لاءِ گهڻي تحقيق مارڪس [[برٽش ميوزيم]] ۾ ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}.</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين آمريڪي عوام جي يورپي معاملن ۾ دلچسپي گهٽجڻ لڳي، تنهنڪري مارڪس جا مضمون "غلاميءَ جي بحران" ۽ 1861ع ۾ شروع ٿيل [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> ڊسمبر 1851ع کان مارچ 1852ع تائين مارڪس [[1848ع جو فرانسيسي انقلاب|1848ع جي فرانسيسي انقلاب]] بابت پنهنجي نظرياتي تصنيف ''[[لوئي نيپولين جي ارڙهين برومئير]]'' تي ڪم ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ هن [[تاريخي ماديت]]، [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]]، [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت]] ۽ بورجوا رياست تي پرولتاريه جي فتح جهڙن تصورن کي واضح ڪيو.<ref name="Marx2008"/> 1850ع ۽ 1860ع جا ڏهاڪا عام طور هڪ اهڙي فڪري حد سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، جيڪا [[نوجوان مارڪس]] جي هيگلي [[مثاليت]] کي [[بالغ مارڪس]] جي<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> [[جوڙجڪياتي مارڪسزم]] سان لاڳاپيل سائنسي نظريي کان الڳ ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Johnston2000"/> بهرحال، سڀئي عالم هن ورهاست کي قبول نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> مارڪس ۽ اينگلز لاءِ 1848ع ۽ 1849ع جي انقلابن جو تجربو سندن معاشي نظرين ۽ تاريخي ارتقا بابت سوچ جي تشڪيل ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ هو. 1848ع جي ناڪامين کان پوءِ کين محسوس ٿيو ته انقلابي جوش ختم ٿي چڪو آهي ۽ نئين معاشي بحران کان سواءِ وري پيدا نه ٿيندو. ان دوران مارڪس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي وچ ۾ اختلاف به پيدا ٿيا؛ مارڪس انهن کي "مهم جوئي ڪندڙ" قرار ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال هو ته صرف مضبوط ارادي سان انقلاب آڻي سگهجي ٿو. مارڪس جي نظر ۾ اهڙي سوچ غير حقيقي هئي، ڇو ته انقلابي حالتون پيدا ٿيڻ لاءِ معاشي عنصر بنيادي شرط هو. 1852ع ۾ آمريڪا جي معاشي بحران مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي اميد ڏني ته شايد انقلابي سرگرميون ٻيهر زور وٺنديون، پر جلد ئي سندن خيال ٿيو ته آمريڪي معيشت اڃا سرمائيداراڻي انقلاب لاءِ ڪافي پختي نه هئي. آمريڪا جي اولهه طرف موجود کليل علائقن سماجي بيچينيءَ جي قوتن کي منتشر ڪري ڇڏيو هو. وڌيڪ اهو ته آمريڪا ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪو به معاشي بحران يورپ جي پراڻين قومي معيشتن ۾، جيڪي پنهنجي قومي سرحدن اندر بند نظام هيون، انقلابي لهر پيدا نه ڪندو. جڏهن 1857ع جو مشهور [[1857ع جو مالي بحران]] آمريڪا مان شروع ٿي عالمي سطح تائين پکڙيو، تڏهن ان معاشيات جي اڳوڻن نظرين کي ٽوڙي ڇڏيو ۽ اهو جديد تاريخ جو پهريون حقيقي عالمي معاشي بحران ثابت ٿيو.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> هي حصو مڪمل وڪي ڪوڊ ۾، بنا اختصار جي: === پهرين انٽرنيشنل ۽ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' === [[File:Karl Marx, May 1861.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|لنڊن ۾ 1861ع دوران ورتل مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://marx200.org/en/fotografien/index.html |title=All Images of Marx Are Good |website=Marx 200 |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref>]] مارڪس ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' لاءِ تيستائين مضمون لکندو رهيو، جيستائين کيس پڪ هئي ته ''ٽربيون'' جي ادارتي پاليسي اڃا ترقي پسند هئي. بهرحال، 1861ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ [[چارلس ڊينا]] جي اخبار ڇڏڻ ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ادارتي بورڊ ۾ تبديلي اچڻ سان اخبار نئين ادارتي پاليسي اختيار ڪئي.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> ''ٽربيون'' هاڻي غلاميءَ جي مڪمل خاتمي ۽ [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين|يونين]] جي مڪمل فتح لاءِ آواز اٿاريندڙ مضبوط [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ|غلامي مخالف]] اخبار نه رهي. نئين ادارتي بورڊ آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين ۽ [[آمريڪا جون وفاقي رياستون|ڪنفيڊريسي]] جي وچ ۾ فوري صلح جي حمايت ڪئي، جيتوڻيڪ ان سان ڪنفيڊريسيءَ ۾ غلامي برقرار رهي ها. مارڪس هن نئين سياسي موقف سان سخت اختلاف ڪيو ۽ 1863ع ۾ ''ٽربيون'' جي ليکڪ جي حيثيت تان دستبردار ٿيڻ تي مجبور ٿيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=345}} 1864ع ۾ مارڪس [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]]، جيڪا پهرين انٽرنيشنل جي نالي سان مشهور هئي، سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}} 1864ع ۾ تنظيم قائم ٿيڻ وقت کيس ان جي جنرل ڪائونسل جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130616235612/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269 267]}} هن تنظيم اندر مارڪس [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي چوڌاري منظم ٿيل انارڪسٽ ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد ۾ شامل رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} جيتوڻيڪ ان تڪرار ۾ مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو، پر 1872ع ۾ جنرل ڪائونسل جو مرڪز لنڊن مان نيويارڪ منتقل ڪرڻ، جنهن جي مارڪس پڻ حمايت ڪئي، انٽرنيشنل جي زوال جو سبب بڻيو.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> انٽرنيشنل جي وجود دوران سڀ کان اهم سياسي واقعو 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] هو، جڏهن پيرس جي شهرين پنهنجي حڪومت خلاف بغاوت ڪري ٻه مهينا شهر تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکيو. ان بغاوت کي رت سان چيڀاٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور پمفليٽن مان هڪ، ''[[فرانس ۾ گهرو ويڙهه]]''، لکيو، جنهن ۾ هن ڪميون جو دفاع ڪيو.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–359.</ref> پورهيت انقلابن ۽ تحريڪن جي بار بار ناڪامين ۽ مايوسين سبب مارڪس [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] کي سمجهڻ ۽ ان جي مناسب تنقيد تيار ڪرڻ جي به ڪوشش ڪئي. ان مقصد لاءِ هن [[برٽش ميوزيم]] جي مطالعي واري ڪمري ۾ گهڻو وقت تحقيق ڪندي گذاريو.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=20}} 1857ع تائين مارڪس سرمائي، [[زميني ملڪيت]]، اجرتي محنت، رياست، پرڏيهي واپار ۽ عالمي منڊيءَ بابت 800 کان وڌيڪ صفحن تي ٻڌل نوٽ ۽ مختصر مضمون گڏ ڪري چڪو هو. هي مواد 1939ع تائين شايع نه ٿيو، جڏهن اهو ''[[گرونڊرِسِه|گرونڊرِسِه ڊير ڪريٽڪ ڊير پوليٽشن اوڪونومي]]'' (سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد جا خاڪا) جي عنوان هيٺ شايع ٿيو.<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref> 1859ع ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي تصنيف ''[[سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو]]'' شايع ڪئي،<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> جيڪا سياسي معيشت بابت سندس پهرين سنجيده تنقيدي تصنيف هئي. هي ڪتاب سندس ٽن جلدن واري ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (معنيٰ: ''سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد'') جو رڳو ابتدائي خاڪو هو، جنهن کي هو پوءِ شايع ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکندو هو. ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' ۾ مارڪس معاشي سوچ جي بنيادي مفروضن ۽ درجابندين جو تنقيدي جائزو وٺڻ شروع ڪيو.{{sfn|Postone|1993|pp=54–55, 173, 192}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marx |title=Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |quote=[...] اڪيلو ۽ سماج کان الڳ شڪاري يا مهاڻو، جنهن کي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو پنهنجي بحث جي شروعاتي نقطي طور پيش ڪن ٿا، ارڙهين صديءَ جي رابنسن ڪروسو جهڙن رومانوي قصن جي بي تخيل خيالي تخليقن مان هڪ آهي. سماجي تاريخدانن جي دعوائن جي ابتڙ، اهي ڪردار رڳو حد کان وڌيل تهذيب خلاف ردعمل يا ڪنهن غلط سمجهيل فطري زندگيءَ ڏانهن واپسيءَ جي نمائندگي نٿا ڪن. [...] هي هڪ وهم آهي، ۽ ننڍين توڙي وڏين رابنسوني ڪهاڻين جو رڳو جمالياتي وهم. حقيقت ۾، اهو اهڙي ”بورجوا سماج“ جي اڳڪٿي آهي، جيڪو سورهين صديءَ ۾ اڀرڻ لڳو ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ پختگيءَ ڏانهن تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. آزاد مقابلي تي ٻڌل هن سماج ۾ فرد ظاهري طور انهن فطري لاڳاپن کان آزاد نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪي گذريل تاريخي دورن ۾ کيس انسانن جي ڪنهن مخصوص ۽ محدود جماعت جو جزو بڻائيندا هئا. ارڙهين صديءَ جا مفڪر، جن جي فڪر تي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو اڃا مڪمل طور بيٺل هئا، هن ارڙهين صديءَ واري فرد کي—جيڪو هڪ پاسي جاگيردار سماج جي ٽٽڻ ۽ ٻئي پاسي سورهين صديءَ کان ترقي ڪندڙ نين پيداواري قوتن جو نتيجو هو—اهڙي مثالي انسان طور پيش ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو وجود ڄڻ ماضيءَ سان تعلق رکندو هو. هنن فرد کي تاريخي عمل جي نتيجي طور نه، پر تاريخ جي شروعاتي نقطي طور ڏٺو.<br /> [...]<br /> ”محنت“ ظاهري طور هڪ تمام سادي درجي بندي لڳي ٿي. محنت جو تصور هن عام ۽ آفاقي صورت ۾، يعني عام محنت طور، به نهايت پراڻو آهي. تنهن هوندي به معاشي لحاظ کان ”محنت“ پنهنجي هن سادي صورت ۾ اوترو ئي جديد درجو آهي، جيترا اهي سماجي لاڳاپا جديد آهن، جيڪي هن سادي تجريد کي جنم ڏين ٿا.|archive-date=8 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2012|p=138|ps=: "Marx used social criticism as his standard form of social analysis. Marx defined criticism as the 'radical negation of social reality.{{'"}}}}</ref> هن تصنيف کي وڏي جوش سان قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جو ڇاپو جلد وڪامي ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=318}} [[File:Zentralbibliothek Zürich Das Kapital Marx 1867.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد|داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جو پهريون جلد]] ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' جي ڪامياب وڪري مارڪس کي 1860ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي سڀ کان وڏي ڪم جا ٽي جلد مڪمل ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو. انهن ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' ۽ ''[[فاضل قدر جا نظريا]]'' شامل هئا. پوئين تصنيف ۾ هن سياسي معيشت جي نظريه دانن، خاص طور [[ايڊم سمٿ]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]]، جي نظرين تي بحث ۽ تنقيد ڪئي.{{r|egsbio}} ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' کي اڪثر ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو چوٿون جلد چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهو [[معاشي فڪر جي تاريخ]] بابت پهرين جامع تصنيفن مان هڪ آهي.<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> 1867ع ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو پهريون جلد شايع ٿيو، جنهن ۾ سرمائي جو تنقيدي تجزيو پيش ڪيو ويو.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/><ref name=":0" /> ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' سرمائيداراڻي [[پيداواري طرز]] جي ابتدا کان ان جي امڪاني مستقبل تائين ان جي "حرڪت جي قانونن" جي وضاحت پيش ڪري ٿو. ڪتاب ۾ سرمائي جي گڏجڻ جي حرڪتن، [[اجرتي محنت]] جي واڌ، ڪم جي جڳهه جي تبديلي، [[سرمائي جي گڏجاڻي]]، مقابلي، [[بئنڪنگ]] نظام، [[نفعي جي شرح گهٽجڻ جو لاڙو]]، زميني محصول ۽ ان ڳالهه تي بحث ڪيو ويو آهي ته اجرتي محنت ڪيئن مسلسل سرمائي جي حڪمراني کي ٻيهر پيدا ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–375}}{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}} مارڪس موجب سرمائي جي محرڪ قوت [[محنت جو استحصال|محنت جي استحصال]] ۾ آهي، ۽ پورهيتن جي بي اجرت محنت [[فاضل قدر]] جو آخري ذريعو آهي. ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي روسي ترجمي جي وڌندڙ گهرج سبب ان جا روسي ٻوليءَ ۾ 3,000 نسخا ڇپيا، جيڪي 27 مارچ 1872ع تي شايع ٿيا. 1871ع جي سرءُ تائين جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ پهرين ڇاپي جا سڀ نسخا وڪامي چڪا هئا، جنهن کان پوءِ ٻيو ڇاپو شايع ڪيو ويو. [[File:Karl-Marx (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|مارڪس جي 1875ع واري تصوير]] ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جا ٻيا ۽ ٽيان جلد مارڪس جي حياتيءَ ۾ مسودن جي صورت ۾ رهيا، جن تي هو پنهنجي باقي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جي وفات کان پوءِ ٻئي جلد اينگلز شايع ڪيا.{{r|egsbio}} ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو جلد اينگلز تيار ڪري 1885ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٻيو: سرمائي جي گردش جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> ٽيون جلد نَوَ سال پوءِ، آڪٽوبر 1894ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٽيون: مجموعي طور سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' وسيع ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' مان ورتل هو، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو مسودو هئا. اهي مسودا ''مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي جلدن 30 کان 34 تائين پکڙيل آهن. خاص طور ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جلد 30 جي پوئين حصي کان شروع ٿي جلد 32 جي پڄاڻيءَ تائين هلن ٿا؛<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> جڏهن ته مڪمل ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جلد 30 جي شروعات کان جلد 34 جي پهرين اڌ تائين پکڙيل آهن. جلد 34 جي پوئين اڌ ۾ ''1863ع–1864ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جا بچيل ٽڪرا شامل آهن، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٽيون مسودو هئا. انهن جو وڏو حصو پينگوئن جي ''داس ڪاپيٽال''، جلد پهرئين، جي ضميمي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=[[مارڪسسٽ انٽرنيٽ آرڪائيو]] |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716154952/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جو مختصر جرمن ڇاپو 1905ع ۽ 1910ع ۾ شايع ٿيو. ان مختصر ڇاپي جو انگريزي ترجمو 1951ع ۾ لنڊن مان شايع ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته مڪمل ۽ غير مختصر ڇاپو 1963ع ۽ 1971ع ۾ ماسڪو مان ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي "چوٿين جلد" طور شايع ٿيو.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref> {{پڻ ڏسو |پوئين دور جو مارڪس}} [[File:Marx8.jpg|thumb|upright|1882ع ۾ مارڪس]] پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي آخري ڏهاڪي دوران مارڪس جي صحت مسلسل خراب ٿيندي وئي ۽ هو اڳين دور وانگر ڊگهي عرصي تائين محنت ڪرڻ جي قابل نه رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} تنهن هوندي به هن همعصر سياست، خاص طور جرمني ۽ روس جي معاملن، تي اهم تبصرا ڪيا. سندس ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' ۾ هن پنهنجن پوئلڳن [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ [[آگسٽ بيبل]] جي ان رجحان جي مخالفت ڪئي، جنهن تحت هو متحد سوشلسٽ جماعت ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[فرڊيننڊ لاسال]] جي [[رياستي سوشلزم]] وارن خيالن سان ٺاهه ڪرڻ چاهيندا هئا.{{r|egsbio}} هيءَ تصنيف مارڪس جي مشهور قول، "[[هر ڪنهن کان سندس صلاحيت مطابق، هر ڪنهن کي سندس ضرورت مطابق]]"، سبب پڻ مشهور آهي.<ref name="CGP P1"/> 8 مارچ 1881ع تي [[ويرا زاسوليچ]] ڏانهن لکيل خط ۾ مارڪس ان امڪان تي غور ڪيو ته روس سرمائيداراڻي ترقيءَ واري مرحلي کي ٽپي، ڳوٺاڻي ''[[مير (سماج)|مير]]'' ۾ موجود گڏيل زميني ملڪيت جي بنياد تي ڪميونزم قائم ڪري سگهي ٿو.{{r|egsbio}}<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> روس جي ڳوٺاڻي "ڪميون" کي "روس جي سماجي نئين سر جوڙجڪ جو مرڪزي سهارو" قرار ڏيندي مارڪس خبردار ڪيو ته جيڪڏهن مير کي سرمائيداراڻي مرحلي کان سواءِ سڌو سوشلسٽ مرحلي ڏانهن منتقليءَ جو ذريعو بڻائڻو آهي، ته "سڀ کان پهرين انهن نقصانڪار اثرن کي ختم ڪرڻ ضروري هوندو، جيڪي ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون تي هر طرف کان حملو ڪري رهيا آهن".<ref name="k72"/> انهن نقصانڪار اثرن جي خاتمي کان پوءِ مارڪس موجب ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون جي "پاڻمرادو ترقيءَ جون عام حالتون" موجود ٿي سگهن ٿيون.<ref name=k72/> بهرحال، ساڳئي خط ۾ مارڪس نشاندهي ڪئي ته "سرمائيداراڻي نظام جي بنياد ۾... پيدا ڪندڙ کي پيداوار جي وسيلن کان مڪمل طور جدا ڪرڻ شامل آهي".<ref name=k72/> هن خط جي هڪ مسودي ۾ مارڪس جي [[بشريات]] ڏانهن وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا سندس ان يقين مان پيدا ٿي ته مستقبل جو ڪميونزم اسان جي قبل از تاريخي ماضيءَ جي اشتراڪيت ڏانهن هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ سطح تي واپسي هوندو. هن لکيو: <blockquote> اسان جي دور جو تاريخي لاڙو اهو اڻٽر بحران آهي، جنهن مان يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جي انهن ملڪن ۾ سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار گذري رهي آهي، جتي اها پنهنجي بلند ترين سطح تي پهچي چڪي آهي. هي بحران ان جي تباهيءَ ۽ جديد سماج جي سڀ کان قديم صورت، يعني گڏيل پيداوار ۽ گڏيل ملڪيت، جي هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ شڪل ڏانهن واپسيءَ تي ختم ٿيندو. </blockquote> هن وڌيڪ لکيو ته "ابتدائي برادرين جي حياتياتي قوت سامي، يوناني، رومي وغيره سماجن کان بي انداز وڌيڪ هئي، ۽ جديد سرمائيداراڻي سماجن کان ته اڃا به وڌيڪ".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels ''Collected Works'', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> پنهنجي وفات کان اڳ مارڪس اينگلز کي اهي خيال مرتب ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو. اهي 1884ع ۾ ''[[خاندان، نجي ملڪيت ۽ رياست جو بڻ بنياد]]'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيا، جيڪو جزوي طور مارڪس پاران [[ليوس ايڇ. مورگن]] جي ڪتاب ''[[قديم سماج]]'' بابت لکيل نوٽن تي ٻڌل هو. == ذاتي زندگي == === خاندان === [[File:Jenny laura marx.jpg|thumb|upright|جيني ڪيرولائنا ۽ جيني لورا مارڪس (1869ع): مارڪس جي سڀني ڌيئرن جو نالو سندن ماءُ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] جي عزت ۾ جيني رکيو ويو هو.]] مارڪس ۽ فون ويسٽفالين کي ست ٻار ٿيا، پر لنڊن ۾ رهائش دوران سندن ڏکين معاشي ۽ رهائشي حالتن سبب رڳو ٽي ٻار بالغ عمر تائين زنده رهيا.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Singer |author-link=Peter Singer |year=2000 |title=Marx: A very short introduction |page=5 |isbn=0192854054 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford}}</ref> سندن ٻار هي هئا: [[جيني لونگي|جيني ڪيرولائنا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لونگي؛ 1844ع–1883ع)، [[لورا مارڪس|جيني لورا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لافارگ؛ 1845ع–1911ع)، ايڊگر (1847ع–1855ع)، هينري ايڊورڊ گائي ("گيدو"؛ 1849ع–1850ع)، جيني ايويلين فرانسس ("فرانزسڪا"؛ 1851ع–1852ع)، [[ايلينور مارڪس|جيني جوليا ايلينور]] (1855ع–1898ع)، ۽ هڪ ٻيو ٻار، جيڪو نالو رکڻ کان اڳ ئي جولاءِ 1857ع ۾ فوت ٿي ويو. سندس ناٺي [[پال لافارگ]] موجب مارڪس هڪ پيار ڪندڙ پيءُ هو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Lafargue |author-link=Paul Lafargue |editor=[[مارڪس–اينگلز–لينن ادارو]] |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1972 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |title=''Reminiscences of Marx'' (September 1890) |quote=هو هڪ پيار ڪندڙ، نرم دل ۽ درگذر ڪندڙ پيءُ هو. [...] پنهنجي ڌيئرن سان سندس لاڳاپن ۾ حڪم هلائيندڙ پيءُ واري روش جو ذري برابر به نشان نه هو، جڏهن ته سندس ڌيئرن جو ساڻس پيار غيرمعمولي هو. هو کين ڪڏهن به حڪم نه ڏيندو هو، پر جيڪو ڪم ڪرائڻ چاهيندو هو، تنهن لاءِ کين مهربانيءَ طور درخواست ڪندو هو، يا اهڙي نموني احساس ڏياريندو هو ته جنهن ڳالهه کان هو کين روڪڻ چاهي ٿو، اها کين نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. تنهن هوندي به شايد ئي ڪنهن پيءُ جا ٻار هن جي ٻارن جيترا فرمانبردار رهيا هجن.|access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816133812/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> 1962ع ۾ اهو الزام سامهون آيو ته مارڪس کي پنهنجي گهر جي ملازمہ [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]] مان شاديءَ کان ٻاهر فريڊي نالي هڪ پٽ ٿيو هو،<ref name=Montefiore>{{cite news|last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=The Means of Reproduction |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926042626/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=173}} پر دستاويزي ثبوتن جي کوٽ سبب هن دعويٰ تي اختلاف ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Carver, 1991">{{cite book |quote=this [claim] is not well founded on the documentary materials available |last=Carver |first=Terrell |title=The Cambridge Companion to Marx |year=1991 |publisher=[[ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521366946 |page=11 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |editor-last=Carver |editor-first=Terrell |chapter=Reading Marx: Life and Works |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608131100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |url-status=live }}</ref> هيلين ڊيمٿ مارڪس جي ڀروسي جوڳي ساٿي پڻ هئي. [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] پاران لکيل سندس تعزيتي نوٽ ۾ هن جي ڪردار بابت ڄاڻايو ويو آهي ته: "مارڪس هيلينا ڊيمٿ کان نه رڳو پارٽيءَ جي ڏکين ۽ پيچيده معاملن ۾، پر پنهنجي معاشي لکڻين بابت به صلاح وٺندو هو."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Helene Demuth Obituary |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/family/demuth/obitry.htm |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> مارڪس اڪثر فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو، خاص طور گهر يا فليٽ مسواڙ تي وٺڻ وقت، شايد ان لاءِ ته سرڪاري اختيارين لاءِ سندس پتو لڳائڻ ڏکيو ٿئي. پيرس ۾ هو "موسيو رامبوز" جو نالو استعمال ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته لنڊن ۾ پنهنجن خطن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ "اي. وليمز" لکي صحيح ڪندو هو. سندس دوست سندس سانوري رنگ ۽ ڪارن گهنڊيدار وارن سبب کيس "مور" سڏيندا هئا، جڏهن ته هن پنهنجن ٻارن کي پاڻ کي "اولڊ نِڪ" ۽ "چارلي" سڏڻ جي همٿ ڏني.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} هو پنهنجن دوستن ۽ گهرڀاتين لاءِ پڻ لقب ۽ فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو؛ فريڊرش اينگلز کي "جنرل"، گهر جي ملازمہ هيلين کي "لينچن" يا "نِم"، ڌيءَ جينيچن کي "ڪُئي ڪُئي، [[چين جو شهنشاهه]]"، ۽ لورا کي "[[ڪاڪاٽو|ڪاڪادو]]" يا "[[خوئي خوئي|هوٽنٽوٽ]]" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} === صحت === مارڪس 1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب نالي شراب نوشي واري تنظيم ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ گهڻي شراب نوشي ڪرڻ لڳو ۽ اهو سلسلو سندس وفات تائين جاري رهيو.<ref name="drinking1"/> مارڪس گهڻي عرصي تائين خراب صحت جو شڪار رهيو، جنهن کي هو پاڻ "وجود جي بدحالي" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}} مختلف ليکڪن سندس بيمارين جي نوعيت ۽ سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. سندس سوانح نگار ورنر بلومينبرگ موجب انهن جو سبب جگر ۽ پتيءَ جون بيماريون هيون، جيڪي مارڪس کي 1849ع ۾ ٿيون ۽ پوءِ هو انهن مان مڪمل طور صحتياب نه ٿي سگهيو. نامناسب طرزِ زندگيءَ انهن بيمارين کي وڌيڪ شديد بڻايو. بيماريءَ جا دورا اڪثر مٿي جي سور، اکين جي سوزش، مٿي ۾ [[تنتي سور]] ۽ سنڌن جي سور سان گڏ ٿيندا هئا. 1877ع ۾ کيس تنتي نظام جي هڪ سنگين بيماري ٿي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ڊگهي عرصي تائين [[بي خوابي]] رهيس، جنهن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ هو نشي آور دوائون استعمال ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} رات جو حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ ۽ نامناسب خوراڪ سبب سندس بيماري وڌيڪ بگڙندي رهي. مارڪس تيز مصالحن واري کاڌي، دونهي ۾ سڪايل مڇي، ڪئويار ۽ اچاريل ڪڪڙين جو شوقين هو، جيتوڻيڪ اهي سڀ شيون جگر جي بيمارن لاءِ نقصانڪار هيون. کيس شراب ۽ ليڪور به پسند هئا ۽ هو تمام گهڻا سگار پيئندو هو؛ مالي تنگيءَ سبب اهي اڪثر گهٽ معيار جا هوندا هئا. 1863ع کان مارڪس ڦٽن ۽ ڦرڙين جي گهڻي شڪايت ڪرڻ لڳو. بلومينبرگ موجب "اهي جگر جي مريضن ۾ گهڻو ٿيندا آهن ۽ ممڪن آهي ته انهن جا سبب به ساڳيا هجن."{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} اهي ڦرڙا ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو مارڪس نه صحيح نموني ويهي سگهندو هو ۽ نه سڌو بيهي ڪم ڪري سگهندو هو. بلومينبرگ موجب مارڪس ۾ چڙچڙاپڻ جگر جي بيمارن ۾ عام طور ڏسجندڙ ڪيفيت هئي: <blockquote> بيماريءَ سندس شخصيت جي ڪجهه خاصيتن کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪري ڇڏيو. هو بحث ۾ تمام تيز هوندو هو، سندس چڀندڙ طنز توهين کان به نه ڪيٻائيندو هو ۽ سندس اظهار ڪڏهن ڪڏهن بي ادبي ۽ سختيءَ تي ٻڌل هوندو هو. جيتوڻيڪ مجموعي طور مارڪس پنهنجن ويجهن دوستن تي انڌو اعتماد رکندو هو، پر پاڻ به شڪايت ڪندو هو ته ڪڏهن ڪڏهن هو انهن سان به حد کان وڌيڪ شڪي ۽ ناانصاف ٿي ويندو هو. دشمنن ته ڇا، دوستن بابت به سندس فيصلا ڪڏهن ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو گهٽ حساس ماڻهو به ناراض ٿي پوندا هئا... شايد تمام ٿورا ماڻهو اهڙا هئا، جن تي هن اهڙي تنقيد نه ڪئي هجي... اينگلز به ان کان بچيل نه هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|pp=99–100}} </blockquote> پرنسٽن يونيورسٽي جي تاريخدان [[جيرالڊ سيگل]] موجب، نوجوانيءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ مارڪس کي نمونيا يا پلوريسي ٿي سگهي ٿي، جنهن جي اثرن سبب کيس پروشيائي فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. پوئين زندگيءَ ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' تي ڪم ڪندي، جنهن کي هو مڪمل نه ڪري سگهيو،{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=494}} مارڪس ٽن اهم بيمارين جو شڪار رهيو. جگر جي بيماري، جيڪا شايد موروثي هئي، حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم، خراب خوراڪ ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ سبب وڌيڪ بگڙي وئي. رات جو گهڻو ڪم ڪرڻ سبب سندس اکين ۾ سوزش ٿيندي هئي. ٽئين بيماري طور کيس ڪاربنڪل يا ڦرڙا ٿيندا هئا، جيڪي "شايد جسماني ڪمزوريءَ جو نتيجو هئا؛ مارڪس جي طرزِ زندگيءَ جون مختلف خاصيتون، جهڙوڪ شراب، تمباڪو، خراب غذا ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ، انهن سڀني ان ۾ حصو ورتو." اينگلز اڪثر مارڪس کي پنهنجي خطرناڪ طرزِ زندگي بدلائڻ جي صلاح ڏيندو هو. سيگل موجب مارڪس پاران پنهنجي صحت کي اهڙي سخت نموني نقصان پهچائڻ جي پويان ذاتي مفادن ۽ خودپسنديءَ بابت ڏوهه جو احساس ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو اصل ۾ سندس والد مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ پيدا ڪيو هو.{{sfn|Seigel|1978|pp=495–496}} 2007ع ۾ [[نيوڪاسل يونيورسٽي]] جي چمڙيءَ جي ماهر سام شسٽر مارڪس جي چمڙيءَ جي بيماريءَ جي [[پوئين دور جي تشخيص]] ڪئي. شسٽر موجب وڌيڪ ممڪن وضاحت اها هئي ته مارڪس جگر جي بيماريءَ بدران [[هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا]] جو شڪار هو، جيڪا وار جي ڦوٽن ۾ کلندڙ [[اپوڪرائن]] نالين جي بند ٿيڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ ورجائيندڙ وچڙندڙ بيماري آهي.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|pp=1–2}} شسٽر بيماريءَ جي امڪاني [[نفسياتي ۽ سماجي]] اثرن تي پڻ غور ڪيو. هن نشاندهي ڪئي ته چمڙي رابطي جو هڪ اهم عضوو آهي، ۽ هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا شديد نفسياتي تڪليف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن ۾ نفرت، بيزاري، ذاتي تصور، مزاج ۽ خوشحاليءَ ۾ گهٽتائي شامل آهن. شسٽر موجب مارڪس جي خطن ۾ اهڙن احساسن جا "گهڻا ثبوت" موجود آهن. هن اهو سوال به اٿاريو ته ڇا بيماريءَ جي ذهني اثرن مارڪس جي لکڻين تي اثر وڌو ۽ شايد سندس [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگيءَ واري نظريي]] جي تشڪيل ۾ پڻ ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|p=3}} === وفات === [[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|[[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]]، لنڊن]] ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ سندس زال جيني جي وفات کان پوءِ مارڪس کي [[نزلو]] ٿيو، جنهن سندس زندگيءَ جي آخري پندرهن مهينن دوران سندس صحت خراب رکي. آخرڪار ان بيماريءَ مان [[ساھ جي نلين جي سوزش]] ۽ [[ڦڦڙن جي پردي جي سوزش]] پيدا ٿي، جن سبب هو 14 مارچ 1883ع تي لنڊن ۾ 64 ورهين جي عمر ۾ [[بي وطن]] شخص جي حيثيت ۾ فوت ٿي ويو.<ref name="stateless"/> سندس گهرڀاتين ۽ دوستن 17 مارچ 1883ع تي کيس لنڊن جي اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾، لاادري ۽ ملحد ماڻهن لاءِ مخصوص حصي ۾ دفن ڪيو. [[فرانسس وين]] موجب سندس جنازي ۾ نَوَ کان يارهن ماڻهو شامل هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA382 382]}}<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> همعصر ذريعن جي تحقيق موجب جنازي ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تيرهن سڃاتل ماڻهو موجود هئا: [[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، [[ايلينور مارڪس]]، [[ايڊورڊ ايولنگ]]، [[پال لافارگ]]، [[شارل لونگي]]، [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]]، [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]]، گوٽليب ليمڪي، [[فريڊرڪ ليسنر]]، جي. لوخنر، سر [[ري لينڪيسٽر]]، [[ڪارل شورليمر]] ۽ [[ارنسٽ ريڊفورڊ]].<ref>John Shepperd, 'Who was really at Marx's funeral?', in "Friends of Highgate Cemetery Newsletter ", April (2018), pp. 10–11. https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204074940/https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf |date=4 February 2020 }}</ref> هڪ همعصر اخبار موجب جنازي ۾ پنجويهن کان ٽيهه مٽن مائٽن ۽ دوستن شرڪت ڪئي.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx', in ''[[دي سنڊي پيپل|دي پيپل]]'', 25 March 1883, p. 3.</ref> ''[[دي گرافڪ]]'' جي هڪ ليکڪ لکيو: <blockquote> هڪ عجيب غلطيءَ سبب... سندس وفات جو اعلان ٻن ڏينهن تائين نه ڪيو ويو، ۽ پوءِ به اهو چيو ويو ته سندس وفات پيرس ۾ ٿي آهي. ٻئي ڏينهن پيرس مان تصحيح آئي؛ ۽ جڏهن سندس دوست ۽ پوئلڳ دفن جي وقت ۽ هنڌ بابت ڄاڻڻ لاءِ [[هيورسٽاڪ هل]] ۾ سندس گهر پهتا، تڏهن کين معلوم ٿيو ته هو اڳ ئي ٿڌي زمين ۾ دفن ٿي چڪو هو. جيڪڏهن اها رازداري ۽ تڪڙ نه ڪئي وڃي ها ته سندس قبر تي يقيناً هڪ وڏو عوامي مظاهرو ٿئي ها.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx' in ''The Graphic'', 31 March 1883, pp. 319, 322.</ref> </blockquote> سندس ڪيترن ويجهن دوستن جنازي ۾ تقريرون ڪيون، جن ۾ [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز شامل هئا. اينگلز جي تقرير ۾ هي لفظ شامل هئا: {{blockquote| 14 مارچ تي منجهند جو پوڻين ٽين وڳي، زنده انسانن مان سڀ کان وڏو مفڪر سوچڻ ڇڏي ويو. کيس رڳو ٻن منٽن لاءِ اڪيلو ڇڏيو ويو هو، ۽ جڏهن اسين واپس آياسين ته کيس پنهنجي ڪرسيءَ تي سڪون سان سمهيل ڏٺوسين—پر هميشه لاءِ.<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx"/> }} مارڪس جون زنده بچيل ڌيئرون [[ايلينور مارڪس|ايلينور]] ۽ [[لورا مارڪس|لورا]]، ۽ سندس ٻه فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ ناٺي [[شارل لونگي]] ۽ [[پال لافارگ]] پڻ جنازي ۾ موجود هئا.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> سندس زال ۽ وڏي ڌيءَ اڳ ئي فوت ٿي چڪيون هيون؛ وڏي ڌيءَ جنوري 1883ع ۾، مارڪس کان ڪجهه مهينا اڳ، وفات ڪئي هئي. جرمن سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ جي باني ۽ اڳواڻ ليبڪنيخت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ تقرير ڪئي، جڏهن ته فرانسيسي پورهيت تحريڪ جي اهم اڳواڻ لونگي فرانسيسيءَ ۾ مختصر خطاب ڪيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> فرانس ۽ اسپين جي پورهيت جماعتن پاران موڪليل ٻه [[تار]] پڻ پڙهيا ويا؛<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> هڪ ميڊرڊ واري شاخ طرفان [[هوسي ميسا اي ليومپارٽ]] موڪليو هو، ۽ ٻيو فرانسيسي مزدورن جي پارٽيءَ جي پيرس شاخ طرفان سيڪريٽري ليپين موڪليو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1883: The death of Karl Marx |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> اينگلز جي تقرير سميت اهو ئي جنازي جو مڪمل پروگرام هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ شامل غير مائٽن ۾ مارڪس جا ٽي ڪميونسٽ ساٿي پڻ هئا: فريڊرڪ ليسنر، جنهن کي 1852ع جي [[ڪولون ڪميونسٽ مقدمو]] کان پوءِ ٽي سال قيد ڪيو ويو هو؛ جي. لوخنر، جنهن کي اينگلز "ڪميونسٽ ليگ جو پراڻو ميمبر" قرار ڏنو؛ ۽ [[ڪارل شورليمر]]، جيڪو مانچسٽر ۾ ڪيميا جو پروفيسر، [[رائل سوسائٽي]] جو ميمبر ۽ 1848ع جي [[باڊن انقلاب]] ۾ شامل ڪميونسٽ ڪارڪن هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ [[ري لينڪيسٽر]] نالي برطانوي حيوانيات دان پڻ شامل هو، جيڪو پوءِ هڪ اهم عالم بڻيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> وصيت جي عدالتي تصديق وقت مارڪس جي ذاتي ملڪيت جي قيمت 250 پائونڊ مقرر ڪئي وئي،<ref name="probate">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk |title=Marx, Karl |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1883 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807135123/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> جيڪا 2024ع جي حساب سان لڳ ڀڳ 38,095 پائونڊ جي برابر هئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=£250 in 1883 → 2024 {{!}} UK Inflation Calculator |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=www.in2013dollars.com |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128173620/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |url-status=live }}</ref> 1895ع ۾ پنهنجي وفات وقت اينگلز پنهنجي وڏي ملڪيت جو "نمايان حصو" مارڪس جي ٻن زنده بچيل ڌيئرن لاءِ ڇڏيو، جنهن جي قيمت 2024ع جي حساب سان 68 لک آمريڪي ڊالر هئي.<ref name="Montefiore"/> نومبر 1954ع ۾ مارڪس ۽ سندس خاندان جي باقيات کي ويجهو ئي هڪ نئين هنڌ ٻيهر دفن ڪيو ويو. نئين هنڌ تي قائم [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو|مقبرين]] جو افتتاح 14 مارچ 1956ع تي ٿيو.<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|title=Marx monument unveiled in Highgate cemetery – archive, 15 March 1956|date=15 March 2016|access-date=7 January 2018|work=The Guardian|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227094820/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|url-status=live}}</ref> ان تي ''ڪميونسٽ منشور'' جي آخري سٽ، "[[دنيا جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!|سڀني ملڪن جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!]]"، ۽ اينگلز پاران ترتيب ڏنل يارهين "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز|فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" مان هي قول اُڪريل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي—پر اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name="wh1" /> [[برطانيا جي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي]] اهو يادگار تعمير ڪرايو، جنهن تي [[لارنس بريڊشا]] جو ٺاهيل مارڪس جو نيم مجسمو لڳايو ويو؛ جڏهن ته مارڪس جي اصل قبر تي رڳو سادي سينگار هئي.<ref name="wh1"/> مارڪسي تاريخدان [[ايرڪ هابسبام]] لکيو ته: "اهو نٿو چئي سگهجي ته مارڪس ناڪام شخص طور فوت ٿيو." جيتوڻيڪ برطانيا ۾ سندس پوئلڳن جو تعداد وڏو نه هو، پر سندس لکڻيون جرمني ۽ روس جي کاٻي ڌر جي تحريڪن تي اثر وجهڻ شروع ڪري چڪيون هيون. سندس وفات کان پنجويهن سالن اندر براعظمي يورپ جون اهي سوشلسٽ جماعتون، جيڪي پنهنجي سياست تي مارڪس جي اثر کي تسليم ڪنديون هيون، [[نمائنده جمهوريت|نمائنده جمهوري]] چونڊن ۾ نمايان ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪري چڪيون هيون.<ref>[[#Hob11|Hobsbawm 2011]]. pp. 3–4.</ref> == مارڪس ۽ فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] 6o4gd9phn4anjc2i9gxw8d90mz68qkf 394816 394815 2026-07-16T11:15:38Z Intisar Ali 8681 394816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|جرمن فلسفي، سماجي مفڪر، سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ انقلابي سوشلسٽ (1818ع–1883ع)}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = ڪارل مارڪس | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=[[Royal Society of Arts]]}}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop |image = Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png |align = center |desired_width = 250 |crop_left_perc = 12.6 |crop_right_perc = 2.4 |crop_top_perc = 12.5 |crop_bottom_perc = 10.8 }} | alt = ويٺل مارڪس جي ڪاري ۽ اڇي تصوير | caption = مارڪس، 1875ع | birth_name = Carl Marx{{efn|name=name|سندس نالو [[ٽرائر]] جي پيدائش واري رجسٽر ۾ ''Carl Marx'' لکيل هو، ۽ 1840ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين هو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سرڪاري دستاويزن ۾ به اها ئي صورت استعمال ڪندو هو. سندس مڪمل نالو ڪڏهن ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، پر سرڪاري طور سندس ڪو وچون نالو نه هو. هن رڳو شاگرديءَ جي زماني ۾ ڪجهه ڀيرا ''Karl Heinrich'' يا ''Carl Heinrich'' (پنهنجي نالي کان پوءِ پيءُ جو پهريون نالو شامل ڪري) استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}} | birth_place = [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}} | death_place = [[لنڊن]]، [[انگلينڊ]] | burial_place = [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، لنڊن | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[پروشيا|پروشين]] (1818ع–1845ع) * [[بي وطن]] (1845ع کان پوءِ) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[بون يونيورسٽي]] * [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] * [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] }} | political_party = {{Plainlist| * [[ڪميونسٽ رابطي واري ڪاميٽي]] * [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] * [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[جيني فان ويسٽفالين]]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}} | children = گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 7،<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |year=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> جن ۾ [[جيني لونگي]]، [[لورا مارڪس]] ۽ [[ايلينور مارڪس]] شامل آهن. | parents = {{ubl|[[هائنرش مارڪس]]|[[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]]}} | era = [[اوڻيهين صديءَ جو فلسفو]] | region = [[اولهندي فلسفو]] | school_tradition = [[سياسي معيشت]] | thesis_title = [[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]] | thesis_year = 1841ع | doctoral_advisor = [[برونو باؤر]] | main_interests = {{Hlist|فلسفو|معاشيات|تاريخ|سياست}} | notable_ideas = {{Plainlist| * [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگي]] ۽ [[محنت جي استحصال]] * [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] * [[تاريخي ماديت]] * [[قدر جي صورت]] }} | signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg | signature_alt = }} '''ڪارل مارڪس'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}؛ 5 مئي 1818ع – 14 مارچ 1883ع) جرمن فلسفي، سماجي ۽ سياسي نظريه دان، معاشيات دان ۽ [[انقلابي سوشلسٽ]] هو. هن [[تاريخي ماديت]] جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[سرمائيداري]] نظام هيٺ [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]] جو تجزيو ڪيو ويو ۽ اڳڪٿي ڪئي وئي ته آخرڪار [[پرولتاريه]] سرمائيداريءَ جو خاتمو ڪري [[ڪميونزم]] قائم ڪندو. مارڪس، [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان گڏجي ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' (1848ع) جو گڏيل مصنف هو ۽ پنهنجي مشهور ترين تصنيف ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (1867ع–1894ع) ۾ ڪلاسيڪي [[سياسي معيشت]] تي تنقيدي جائزو پيش ڪيو. مارڪس جي نظرين ۽ انهن جي پوءِ ٿيندڙ واڌ ويجهه کي گڏيل طور [[مارڪسزم]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن دنيا جي فڪر، سياست، ڪيترين انقلابي تحريڪن ۽ بغاوتن تي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي. [[ٽرائر]]، [[پروشيا]] ۾ ڄاول مارڪس 1841ع ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] مان فلسفي ۾ [[ڊاڪٽري جي ڊگري]] حاصل ڪئي. هو جلد ئي انقلابي صحافت سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو ۽ [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] ۽ [[نوجوان هيگلي]] مفڪرن جي فلسفي کان متاثر ٿيو، جن جي نظرين تي هن بعد ۾ ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' جهڙن ڪتابن ۾ تنقيد ڪئي. [[پيرس]] ۾ رهائش دوران مارڪس ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا ۽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان سندس ويجهو علمي ۽ سياسي تعاون شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ [[برسلز]] منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ٻئي [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا سرگرم رڪن بڻيا ۽ 1848ع ۾ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' تحرير ڪيو، جنهن ۾ انقلابي پروگرام پيش ڪيو ويو. [[1848ع جون جرمن رياستن واريون انقلابي تحريڪون|1848ع جي انقلابن]] کان پوءِ جرمني مان نيڪالي ملڻ سبب مارڪس [[لنڊن]] وڃي رهيو، جتي هن ''[[گرونڊرِسِه]]'' جا مسودا ۽ ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جا ٽي جلد تيار ڪيا. هو [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]] (پهرين انٽرنيشنل) جو اهم اڳواڻ بڻيو، جتي هن [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي اڳواڻي هيٺ موجود [[انارڪزم|انارڪسٽن]] جي اثر جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] جي واکاڻ ڪئي. پنهنجي پوئين دور جي مطالعي ۽ ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' (1875ع) ۾ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ سماج]] ڏانهن منتقلي بابت پنهنجا نظريا وڌيڪ واضح ڪيا. 1883ع ۾ سندس وفات ٿي ۽ کيس [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾ دفنايو ويو. مارڪس جي [[سياسي معيشت، تاريخ ۽ سماج بابت تنقيد]] موجب انساني سماجن جي ترقي طبقاتي جدوجهد وسيلي ٿيندي آهي. [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] ۾ هي جدوجهد [[حاڪم طبقو|حاڪم طبقن]] (يعني [[بورجوازي]])، جيڪي [[وسيلن جي پيداوار]] تي ضابطو رکن ٿا، ۽ [[پورهيت طبقو|پورهيت طبقن]] (پرولتاريه)، جيڪي اجرت عيوض پنهنجي [[محنتي قوت]] وڪڻي پيداوار کي ممڪن بڻائين ٿا، جي وچ ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿي.<ref name=manifesto/> تاريخي ماديت جي بنياد تي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته سرمائيداري پنهنجي اندر اهڙا [[سرمائي جي گڏ ٿيڻ جون اندروني تضادون|اندروني تضاد]] پيدا ڪري ٿي، جيئن اڳين سماجي ۽ معاشي نظامن ۾ ٿيو هو، ۽ اهي تضاد آخرڪار ان جي زوال جو سبب بڻجندا. سندس نظر ۾ سرمائيداري هيٺ طبقاتي تضادن، ان جي بي استحڪامي ۽ بار بار ايندڙ [[معاشي بحران]] سبب پورهيت طبقو [[طبقاتي شعور]] حاصل ڪندو، پوءِ [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت|سياسي اقتدار]] تي قبضو ڪري، هڪ اهڙو سماج قائم ڪندو جيڪو طبقاتي، رياستي ۽ مالي امتيازن کان پاڪ هوندو ۽ [[آزاد پيدا ڪندڙن جي انجمن]] جي بنياد تي منظم هوندو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=[[Critique of the Gotha Program]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> مارڪس ان نظريي کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جو به حامي هو ۽ دليل ڏيندو هو ته پورهيت طبقي کي منظم [[پرولتاري انقلابي]] جدوجهد وسيلي سرمائيداري جو خاتمو آڻي سماجي ۽ معاشي [[آزادي]] حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}} مارڪس کي جديد دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتن شخصيتن مان هڪ قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ۽ سندس فڪر جي هڪ طرف وڏي واکاڻ، ته ٻي طرف سخت [[مارڪسزم تي تنقيد|تنقيد]] پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="Manchester"/> [[مارڪسزم]] سوشلسٽ فڪر ۽ سياسي تحريڪن تي انتهائي گهرو اثر ڇڏيو آهي، ۽ [[مارڪسزم–ليننزم]] سميت ان جا ڪيترائي فڪري ڌارا ويهين صديءَ ۾ اهڙين [[ڪميونسٽ انقلاب]]ي تحريڪن جي رهنمائي ڪندا رهيا، جن مختلف ملڪن ۾ [[ڪميونسٽ رياست]]ون قائم ڪيون. معاشيات جي ميدان ۾ به مارڪس جي فڪر جديد [[غير روايتي معاشيات]] ۾ محنت ۽ [[سرمايو (معاشيات)|سرمائي]] بابت نظرين تي نمايان اثر ڇڏيو آهي،<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=[[The American Economic Review]] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes | year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415110785 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> ۽ کيس جديد [[سماجيات]] جي بنيادي معمارن مان هڪ پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |encyclopaedia=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == سوانح عمري == === ننڍپڻ ۽ ابتدائي تعليم: 1818ع–1836ع === [[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|left|[[ڪارل مارڪس هائوس|مارڪس جي پيدائش جو گهر]]، جيڪو هاڻي ٽرائر جي برڪن شٽراسي 10 تي واقع آهي. مارڪس جو خاندان زميني ماڙ تي ٻن ۽ پهرين ماڙ تي ٽن ڪمرن ۾ رهندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> 1928ع ۾ [[جرمني جي سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽي]] هن عمارت کي خريد ڪيو، جيڪا هاڻي مارڪس جي يادگار عجائب گهر طور ڪم ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]] ڪارل مارڪس 5 مئي 1818ع تي [[هائنرخ مارڪس]] ۽ [[هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ]] جي گهر، [[ٽرائر]] جي برڪين گاسي 664 ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو ان وقت [[پروشيا جي بادشاهت]] جو حصو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> مارڪس جو خاندان اصل ۾ غير مذهبي يهودي هو، پر سندس پيدائش کان اڳ [[عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ|عيسائيت اختيار]] ڪري چڪو هو. سندس نانا هالينڊ جا هڪ [[ربي]] هئا، جڏهن ته سندس ڏاڏي جي نسل جا ماڻهو 1723ع کان ٽرائر جا ربي رهيا هئا، ۽ اها ذميواري سندس ڏاڏي ميئر هليوي مارڪس نڀائي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> سندس والد هائنرخ پنهنجي خاندان ۾ پهريون شخص هو جنهن مذهبي بدران جديد سيڪيولر تعليم حاصل ڪئي. هو هڪ ڪامياب وڪيل بڻيو، سٺي آمدني حاصل ڪيائين ۽ وڪالت سان گڏ خاندان وٽ [[موزيل شراب]] جا ڪيترائي انگورن جا باغ پڻ هئا. 1815ع ۾ پروشيا طرفان [[رائين لينڊ]] جي الحاق ۽ پوءِ [[يهودين جي آزادي]] ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، هائنرخ پنهنجي وڪالت جاري رکڻ لاءِ يهوديت ڇڏي [[پروشيا جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] ۾ شامل ٿيو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0547348889 |page=419 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref> هائنرخ گهڻو مذهبي نه هو، پر [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور|روشن خياليءَ جي دور]] جي فڪر کان متاثر هو ۽ [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] ۽ [[والٽيئر]] جي خيالن ۾ دلچسپي رکندو هو. هو [[طبقاتي لبرلزم|طبقاتي لبرل]] هو ۽ پروشيا ۾ آئين ۽ سياسي سڌارن جي حمايت ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته ان وقت اتي [[مطلق العنان بادشاهت]] قائم هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> 1815ع ۾ هن وڪيل طور ڪم شروع ڪيو ۽ 1819ع ۾ پنهنجي خاندان کي [[پورٽا نيگرا]] جي ويجهو ڏهن ڪمرن واري گهر ۾ منتقل ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> سندس زال هينريئيٽ پريسبرگ هڪ امير ڊچ يهودي واپاري خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي، جنهن مان بعد ۾ [[فلپس]] ڪمپني وجود ۾ آئي. سندس ڀيڻ سوفي پريسبرگ [[ليون فلپس]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[جيرارڊ فلپس]] ۽ [[آنتون فلپس]] جي ڏاڏي ۽ [[فرٽس فلپس]] جي پڙڏاڏي هئي. ليون فلپس مالدار صنعتڪار ۽ تمباڪو واپاري هو، جنهن کان مارڪس ۽ [[جيني مارڪس]] لنڊن ۾ جلاوطني دوران اڪثر قرض وٺندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> مارڪس جي ننڍپڻ بابت گهڻي معلومات موجود نه آهي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> هو نون ڀائرن ۽ ڀينرن مان ٽيون نمبر هو، پر 1819ع ۾ سندس ڀاءُ مورٽز جي وفات کان پوءِ گهر جو وڏو پٽ بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> مارڪس ۽ سندس بچيل ڀائر ڀينر 28 آگسٽ 1824ع تي [[لوثري چرچ]] ۾ [[بپتسما]] ورتائون،<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> جڏهن ته سندس ماءُ نومبر 1825ع ۾ بپتسما ورتو.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0198613879}}</ref> 1830ع تائين مارڪس جي تعليم سندس والد پاڻ ڪرائي، ان کان پوءِ هو [[ٽرائر جمنازيم]] ۾ داخل ٿيو، جنهن جو پرنسپال [[هوگو ويٽنباخ]] سندس والد جو دوست هو. ويٽنباخ ڪيترن ئي [[لبرل انسانيت پسندي|لبرل انسانيت پسند]] استادن کي مقرر ڪيو، جنهن سبب قدامت پسند حڪومت ناراض ٿي. 1832ع ۾ پوليس اسڪول تي ڇاپو هنيو ۽ اهڙو ادب هٿ آيو جيڪو سياسي لبرلزم جي تبليغ ڪندو هو. حڪومت ان کي بغاوت انگيز عمل سمجهي ڪيترن ئي استادن کي برطرف ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ اهي تبديليون مارڪس جي تعليم دوران ئي عمل ۾ آيون.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1835ع ۾، صرف سورهن ورهين جي عمر ۾، مارڪس [[بون يونيورسٽي]] ۾ فلسفي ۽ ادب پڙهڻ لاءِ داخل ٿيو، پر سندس والد وڌيڪ عملي پيشو سمجهي کيس قانون پڙهڻ تي زور ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> ڪمزور سيني جي بيماري سبب،{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} ارڙهن ورهين جي عمر تي کيس فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. بون يونيورسٽي ۾ هن [[شاعرن جي ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ سياسي انقلابي نوجوان شامل هئا ۽ جنهن تي پوليس نظر رکندي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> هو [[ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب]] نالي مشروب نوشي واري ادبي تنظيم جو پڻ ميمبر ٿيو ۽ هڪ وقت ان جو گڏيل صدر به رهيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> آگسٽ 1836ع ۾ هن يونيورسٽي جي [[بوروشيا ڪور]] جي هڪ ميمبر سان تلوارن جي مقابلي (ڊوئل) ۾ پڻ حصو ورتو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ شروعاتي امتحانن ۾ سندس نتيجا سٺا هئا، پر جلد ئي خراب ٿيڻ لڳا، جنهن تي سندس والد کيس وڌيڪ علمي ماحول واري [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> === هيگليت ۽ ابتدائي صحافت: 1836ع–1843ع === {{Main|نوجوان مارڪس}} [[File:Karl Marx giovane.jpg|left|thumb|1840ع کان اڳ ڪارل مارڪس]] [[File:Jenny von Westphalen-1.jpg|thumb|upright|1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]]]] {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 330 | image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg | caption1 = وائٽ هارس جي سامهون ٽرائر جا شاگرد، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي. | image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg | caption2 = ڪارل مارڪس (تفصيل) | footer = [[ڊيوڊ ليوي ايلڪان]] جي مشهور لٿوگرافي ''Die Trierer'' ۾ 1836ع دوران وائٽ هارس جي سامهون بيٺل ڪيترائي شاگرد ڏيکاريل آهن، جن ۾ ڪارل مارڪس پڻ شامل آهي.{{efn|2017ع تائين هيءَ مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير سمجهي ويندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سندس سڃاڻپ 1890ع ۾ ڪولون جي عدالتي صلاحڪار شنائيڊر ڪئي. بعد ۾ هي تصوير مارڪس جي بيان سان ٺهڪندڙ هئڻ سبب مستند مڃي وئي.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}} نوجوان مارڪس جون هيلمٽ باخ (1953ع) ۽ آءِ. گرنشٽائن (1961ع) جون تصويرون به هن لٿوگرافي تي ٻڌل آهن، پر اهي اصل تصوير کان وڌيڪ مشهور ٿي ويون.}} }} 1836ع جي اونهاري ۽ سرءُ جو موسم ٽرائر ۾ گذارڻ دوران مارڪس پنهنجي تعليم ۽ ذاتي زندگيءَ کي وڌيڪ سنجيدگي سان وٺڻ لڳو. هن [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] سان منگني ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ پڙهيل لکيل [[ايڊلر|ننڍي اشرافيه]] خاندان سان تعلق رکندي هئي ۽ ننڍپڻ کان مارڪس جي سڃاڻپ ۾ هئي. جيني پنهنجي هم عمر هڪ نوجوان [[اشرافيه]] سان منگني ٽوڙي مارڪس سان تعلق قائم ڪيو، تنهنڪري سندن مذهبي ۽ سماجي طبقاتي فرق سبب اهو تعلق تڪراري بڻيو. تنهن هوندي به مارڪس جيني جي والد [[لودوگ فون ويسٽفالين]]، جيڪو لبرل خيالن وارو اشرافيه هو، سان گهري دوستي قائم ڪئي ۽ پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي کي به سندس نالي منسوب ڪيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> منگني کان ست سال پوءِ، 19 جون 1843ع تي ٻنهي [[ڪروئزناخ]] جي هڪ پروٽيسٽنٽ چرچ ۾ شادي ڪئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref> آڪٽوبر 1836ع ۾ برلن پهچڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[برلن يونيورسٽي]] جي قانون واري شعبي ۾ داخلا ورتي ۽ مِٽل شٽراسي ۾ هڪ ڪمرو مسواڙ تي ورتائين.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> پهرين سيمسٽر دوران هن [[ايڊوارڊ گانس]] جا ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو ترقي پسند هيگلي موقف جو حامي هو ۽ تاريخ ۾ عقلي ارتقا، آزادي ۽ سماجي مسئلن جي اهميت تي زور ڏيندو هو. ساڳئي وقت هن [[ڪارل فون ساويني]] جا به ليڪچر ٻڌا، جيڪو [[قانون جي تاريخي اسڪول]] جو نمائندو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ هو قانون پڙهي رهيو هو، پر سندس اصل دلچسپي فلسفي ۾ هئي، ۽ هو سمجهندو هو ته "فلسفي کان سواءِ ڪجهه به حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> مارڪس تازو وفات ڪري ويل جرمن فلسفي [[جورج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي نظرين ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جن تي ان وقت يورپ جي فلسفي حلقن ۾ وڏي بحث جاري هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> اسٽرالائو ۾ بيماريءَ کان صحتيابي دوران هن [[ڊاڪٽرز ڪلب]] ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي، جتي [[هيگليت]] بابت بحث ٿيندا هئا. اتان ئي سندس لاڳاپو [[نوجوان هيگلي]] نالي بنياد پرست مفڪرن سان ٿيو. هي گروهه [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] ۽ [[برونو بائر]] جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندو هو، جڏهن ته مارڪس خاص طور [[ايڊولف روٽنبرگ]] جو ويجهو دوست بڻيو. نوجوان هيگلي، مارڪس وانگر، هيگل جي مابعدالطبيعي مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪندا هئا، پر سندس [[هيگلي جدليات]] کي استعمال ڪندي سماج، سياست ۽ مذهب تي کاٻي ڌر جي نقطه نظر کان تنقيد ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> مئي 1838ع ۾ مارڪس جي والد جي وفات سبب خاندان جي آمدني گهٽجي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44, 69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> مارڪس پنهنجي والد سان گهرو جذباتي تعلق رکندو هو ۽ سندس وفات کان پوءِ به هميشه سندس ياد کي عزت سان ياد ڪندو رهيو.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}} [[File:Gedenktafel Karl Marx im Foyer des Hauptgebäudes der Uni Jena 4 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ لڳل يادگاري ڪتبو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مارڪس کي عطا ڪيل ڊاڪٽري ڊگري جي ياد ۾ نصب ڪيو ويو آهي.]] [[File:Karl Marx dissertation certificate.jpg|thumb|left|15 اپريل 1841ع تي [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] طرفان جاري ڪيل ڪارل مارڪس جي ڊاڪٽري سند.]] 1837ع تائين مارڪس هڪ مختصر ناول ''اسڪارپين اينڊ فيلڪس''، هڪ ڊرامو ''اوئلنم'' ۽ پنهنجي منگيتر جي نالي ڪيترائي عشقيه نظم لکي چڪو هو، پر اهي سڀ سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> سندس عشقيه شاعري بعد ۾ ''ڪارل مارڪس ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي پهرين جلد ۾ شايع ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> جلد ئي هن ادب ڇڏي انگريزي ۽ اطالوي ٻولين، [[فن جي تاريخ]] ۽ لاطيني ڪلاسيڪي ادب جي ترجمن ڏانهن ڌيان ڏنو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> 1840ع ۾ هن [[برونو بائر]] سان گڏجي هيگل جي ''[[مذهب جي فلسفي بابت ليڪچر]]'' جي ايڊيٽنگ شروع ڪئي. ساڳئي وقت هن پنهنجي ڊاڪٽري مقالي ''[[ڊيموڪريٽس ۽ ايپيڪورس جي فطرت بابت فلسفي جو فرق]]'' تي ڪم جاري رکيو، جيڪو 1841ع ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |year=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> هي مقالو [[ڊيموڪريٽس]] ۽ [[ايپيڪورس]] جي فلسفي تي ٻڌل هو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkov |first=Genrikh Nikolaevich |title= The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory |year=1982 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Progress Publishers< USSR |url=https://archive.org/details/BasicsMarxistLeninistTheory/page/n1/mode/2up?q=thesis |page=15}}</ref> ان کي "جرئت ڀريو ۽ اصلي علمي ڪم" قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن ۾ مارڪس دليل ڏنو ته فلسفي جي اعليٰ حڪمت اڳيان الٰهيات کي پوئتي هٽڻ گهرجي.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> برلن يونيورسٽي جي قدامت پسند استادن ان مقالي تي اعتراض ڪيو، تنهنڪري مارڪس اهو [[يينا يونيورسٽي]] ۾ جمع ڪرايو، جتان کيس اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[فلسفي جو ڊاڪٽر]] (PhD) جي ڊگري ملي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مارڪس ۽ بائر ٻئي [[ملحد]] هئا، تنهنڪري مارچ 1841ع ۾ هنن ''آرڪائيو ڊيس اٿيئسمس'' (''ملحدن جا آرڪائيو'') نالي رسالو جاري ڪرڻ جو منصوبو ٺاهيو، پر اهو عملي صورت اختيار نه ڪري سگهيو. جولاءِ ۾ ٻئي برلن کان [[بون]] ويا، جتي چرچ اندر کلڻ، شراب نوشي ڪرڻ ۽ گهٽين ۾ گڏهن تي سواري ڪرڻ سبب هو تڪرار جو مرڪز بڻيا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref> مارڪس علمي دنيا ۾ ڪيريئر ٺاهڻ چاهيو ٿي، پر حڪومت جي وڌندڙ مخالفت سبب، جيڪا طبقاتي لبرلزم ۽ نوجوان هيگلي مفڪرن خلاف هئي، اهو رستو بند ٿي ويو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> نتيجي ۾ 1842ع ۾ هو [[ڪولون]] منتقل ٿيو، جتي هو انقلابي اخبار ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' (''رائين لينڊ نيوز'') ۾ صحافي بڻيو. هتي هن سوشلسٽ خيالن بابت پنهنجا ابتدائي نظريا ۽ معاشيات ۾ وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ڪئي. مارڪس ساڄي ڌر جي يورپي حڪومتن سان گڏوگڏ لبرل ۽ سوشلسٽ اڳواڻن تي به تنقيد ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ اهي غير مؤثر يا نقصانڪار هئا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> اخبار تي پروشيائي [[سنسرشپ]] جا اهلڪار سخت نظر رکندا هئا ۽ هر پرچي کي ڇپجڻ کان اڳ جاچيندا هئا. مارڪس ان تي افسوس ڪندي لکيو: "اسان جي اخبار کي پهرين پوليس وٽ وٺي وڃڻو پوي ٿو، جتي ان کي سونگهيو ويندو آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن پوليس جي نڪ کي ان ۾ ڪا غير عيسائي يا غير پروشيائي ڳالهه محسوس ٿئي ته اخبار ڇپجڻ جي اجازت نٿي ملي."<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> جڏهن ''رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' روسي بادشاهت تي سخت تنقيد ڪندڙ مضمون شايع ڪيو ته روس جي زار [[نيڪولس پهريون]] ان تي پابندي لڳائڻ جو مطالبو ڪيو، ۽ پروشيائي حڪومت 1843ع ۾ اهو مطالبو قبول ڪندي اخبار بند ڪري ڇڏي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref> {{clear}} === پيرس: 1843ع–1845ع === 1843ع ۾ مارڪس پيرس مان نڪرندڙ هڪ نئين بنياد پرست کاٻي ڌر واري اخبار {{lang|de|[[جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا]]}} (''ڊوئچ-فرانزوزِشي ياربوخر''؛ "جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا") جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر بڻيو. اها اخبار جرمن سياسي ڪارڪن [[آرنولڊ روگه]] جرمن ۽ فرانسيسي بنياد پرستن کي گڏ ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان قائم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> نئين نوڪريءَ سبب مارڪس ۽ سندس زال آڪٽوبر 1843ع ۾ پيرس منتقل ٿيا. شروعات ۾ هو روگه ۽ سندس زال سان گڏ [[رو وانو]] نمبر 23 ۾ گڏيل رهائش اختيار ڪري رهيا، پر اتي جون رهائشي حالتون ڏکيون هيون؛ تنهنڪري 1844ع ۾ سندن ڌيءَ جيني جي ڄمڻ کان پوءِ هو اتان منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> جيتوڻيڪ ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جو مقصد فرانس ۽ جرمن رياستن ٻنهي مان ليکڪن کي راغب ڪرڻ هو، پر ان تي گهڻو ڪري جرمن ليکڪن جو غلبو رهيو؛ ان جو واحد غير جرمن ليکڪ جلاوطن روسي [[اجتماعيت پسند انارڪزم|اجتماعيت پسند انارڪسٽ]] [[ميخائل باڪونن]] هو.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> مارڪس اخبار لاءِ ٻه مضمون لکيا: "[[هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد|هيگل جي حق جي فلسفي تي تنقيد ۾ حصي جو تعارف]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=3}}</ref> ۽ "[[يهودي سوال بابت]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=[[On the Jewish Question]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |page=146}}</ref> پوئين مضمون ۾ هن اهو خيال پيش ڪيو ته [[پرولتاريه]] هڪ انقلابي قوت آهي، ۽ اهو مضمون سندس ڪميونزم قبول ڪرڻ جي نشاني پڻ بڻيو.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} [[پال جانسن]]، [[برنارڊ لوئس]]، [[هائيم ميڪوبي]] ۽ [[رابرٽ ايس. وسٽرچ]] جهڙن ليکڪن ''يهودي سوال بابت'' کي مارڪس جي يهودين مخالف خيالن جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو آهي، پر [[وينڊي برائون]]، [[رابرٽ فائن]]، [[ڊيوڊ ميڪليلن]] ۽ [[فرانسس وين]] سميت ٻين عالمن هن تشريح سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. اخبار جو رڳو هڪ پرچو شايع ٿيو، پر اهو نسبتاً ڪامياب رهيو. ان ڪاميابيءَ جو وڏو سبب [[هائنرش هائني]] جا [[باويريا جي لڊوگ پهرئين|باويريا جي بادشاهه لڊوگ]] خلاف طنزيه قصيدا هئا. انهن سبب جرمن رياستن اخبار تي پابندي لڳائي ۽ درآمد ڪيل نسخا ضبط ڪيا. تنهن هوندي به روگه وڌيڪ پرچا شايع ڪرڻ لاءِ مالي سهائتا ڏيڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ مارڪس سان سندس دوستي به ختم ٿي وئي.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> ''جرمن-فرانسيسي ساليانا'' جي بند ٿيڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس {{lang|de|[[فورورٽس!]]}} (''Vorwärts!''؛ "اڳتي!") لاءِ لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ان وقت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ بچيل واحد بنياد پرست اخبار هئي، جنهن تي سنسرشپ لاڳو نه هئي. پيرس مان شايع ٿيندڙ هيءَ اخبار [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان لاڳاپيل هئي، جيڪا پورهيتن ۽ ڪاريگرن جي هڪ ڳجهي [[خيالي سوشلزم|خيالي سوشلسٽ]] تنظيم هئي. مارڪس ان جي ڪجهه گڏجاڻين ۾ شريڪ ٿيو، پر تنظيم ۾ شامل نه ٿيو.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> ''فورورٽس!'' ۾ مارڪس هيگلي ۽ فوئرباخي اثرن هيٺ سوشلزم بابت پنهنجن خيالن کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪيو، ۽ ساڳئي وقت يورپ ۾ سرگرم لبرلن ۽ ٻين سوشلسٽن تي تنقيد به ڪئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}} [[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|[[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، جنهن سان مارڪس جي ملاقات 1844ع ۾ ٿي؛ ٻئي سڄي عمر دوست ۽ ساٿي رهيا.]] 28 آگسٽ 1844ع تي مارڪس جي [[ڪيفي ڊي لا ريژانس]] ۾ جرمن سوشلسٽ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] سان ملاقات ٿي، جنهن سان سندس سڄي عمر جاري رهندڙ دوستي ۽ گڏيل علمي ڪم جي شروعات ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} اينگلز مارڪس کي پنهنجي تازو شايع ٿيل تصنيف ''[[1844ع ۾ انگلينڊ جي پورهيت طبقي جي حالت]]'' ڏيکاري،<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=[[St. Martins Press]] |location=New York |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=[[The Condition of the Working Class in England]] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> جنهن مارڪس کي ان ڳالهه تي قائل ڪيو ته تاريخ جي آخري انقلاب جو ڪارڻ ۽ اوزار پورهيت طبقو هوندو.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} جلد ئي مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي مارڪس جي اڳوڻي دوست [[برونو بائر]] جي فلسفي خيالن تي تنقيد لکڻ لڳا. هيءَ تصنيف 1845ع ۾ ''[[پاڪ خاندان]]'' جي نالي سان شايع ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |year=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ مارڪس بائر تي تنقيد ڪندو هو، پر هو نوجوان هيگلين [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]] جي خيالن کان وڌندڙ حد تائين متاثر ٿيو؛ آخرڪار، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز فوئرباخي ماديت کي به ڇڏي ڏنو.<ref name="et"/> پيرس ۾ رو وانو نمبر 38 تي آڪٽوبر 1843ع کان جنوري 1845ع تائين رهڻ دوران،<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> مارڪس [[سياسي معيشت]] جو گهرو مطالعو ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[ايڊم سمٿ]]، [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]] ۽ [[جيمس مل]] سميت ٻين مفڪرن جون لکڻيون شامل هيون؛{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} هن فرانسيسي سوشلسٽن، خاص طور [[ڪلائوڊ هينري سينٽ سائمن]] ۽ [[چارلس فوريئر]]،{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} ۽ فرانس جي تاريخ جو پڻ اڀياس ڪيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} سياسي معيشت جو مطالعو ۽ تنقيد اهڙو منصوبو هو، جنهن تي مارڪس پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو،<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii.</ref> ۽ جنهن جو نتيجو سندس اهم معاشي تصنيف، ٽن جلدن تي ٻڌل ''[[داس ڪيپيٽل]]''، جي صورت ۾ نڪتو.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[مارڪسزم]] گهڻي حد تائين ٽن اثرن تي ٻڌل آهي: هيگل جي جدليات، فرانسيسي خيالي سوشلزم ۽ برطانوي سياسي معيشت. هيگل جي جدليات بابت سندس اڳوڻي مطالعي سان گڏ، پيرس ۾ ڪيل هن اڀياس جي نتيجي ۾ 1844ع جي سرءُ تائين مارڪسزم جا سڀ بنيادي جزا ٺهي چڪا هئا.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} تنهن هوندي به مارڪس کي سياسي معيشت تي پنهنجي تنقيدي ڪم کان بار بار هٽڻو پوندو هو؛ نه رڳو روزاني زندگيءَ جي عام ذميوارين سبب، پر هڪ بنياد پرست اخبار جي ايڊيٽنگ ۽ پوءِ عوامي انقلابي اڀار جي امڪانن واري دور ۾ سياسي جماعت جي سرگرمين کي منظم ۽ هدايت ڪرڻ سبب پڻ. ان باوجود هو بار بار پنهنجي مطالعي ڏانهن موٽندو هو، جتي سندس مقصد "سرمائيداريءَ جي اندروني ڪارڪردگيءَ کي سمجهڻ" هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} 1844ع جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين ڪارل مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ "مارڪسزم" جو خاڪو واضح طور ٺهي چڪو هو. حقيقت ۾، مارڪسي عالمي نظرئي جون ڪيتريون ئي خاصيتون تفصيل سان ترتيب وٺي چڪيون هيون، پر سياسي معيشت بابت پنهنجي نئين تنقيد کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ مارڪس کي پنهنجي عالمي نظرئي جا سمورا تفصيل لکڻا هئا.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> ان مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا|معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا]]'' لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> انهن مسودن ۾ ڪيترن ئي موضوعن تي بحث ڪيو ويو، جن ۾ مارڪس جو [[بيگانگي واري محنت]] جو تصور به تفصيل سان بيان ٿيل هو.<ref name=sep/> 1845ع جي بهار تائين سياسي معيشت، سرمائي ۽ سرمائيداريءَ جي لڳاتار مطالعي مارڪس کي ان نتيجي تي پهچايو ته سندس پيش ڪيل سياسي معيشت جي نئين تنقيد، يعني [[سائنسي سوشلزم]]، کي هڪ مڪمل طور ترقي يافته مادي عالمي نظرئي جي بنياد تي قائم ٿيڻ گهرجي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}} ''1844ع جا معاشي ۽ فلسفياتي مسودا'' اپريل کان آگسٽ 1844ع جي وچ ۾ لکيا ويا هئا، پر جلد ئي مارڪس محسوس ڪيو ته انهن تي لودوگ فوئرباخ جي ڪجهه غير هم آهنگ خيالن جو اثر موجود هو. تنهنڪري هن تاريخي ماديت جي حق ۾ فوئرباخ جي فلسفي کان الڳ ٿيڻ جي ضرورت سمجهي. هڪ سال پوءِ، پيرس مان برسلز منتقل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ اپريل 1845ع ۾، هن پنهنجا يارهن "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" لکيا.<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> ''فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز'' خاص طور يارهين ٿيسز سبب مشهور آهن، جنهن ۾ لکيل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي؛ اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[ماديت]] تي ان جي رڳو مشاهدي ۽ فڪري غور تائين محدود رهڻ سبب، [[تصوريت]] تي عملي عمل کي نظريي تائين محدود ڪرڻ سبب، ۽ مجموعي طور فلسفي تي تجريدي حقيقت کي مادي دنيا کان مٿانهون رکڻ سبب تنقيد ڪئي.<ref name=sep/> اهڙي طرح هن ۾ مارڪس جي [[تاريخي ماديت]] جي پهرين واضح صورت سامهون آئي، جنهن موجب دنيا خيالن سان نه، پر حقيقي، جسماني ۽ مادي سرگرمي ۽ عمل سان بدلجي ٿي.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> 1845ع ۾ پروشيا جي بادشاهه جي درخواست تي فرانسيسي حڪومت ''فورورٽس!'' کي بند ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ گهرو معاملن واري وزير [[فرانسوا گيزو]] مارڪس کي فرانس مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} === برسلز: 1845ع–1848ع === فرانس ۾ رهڻ يا جرمني موٽڻ ناممڪن ٿيڻ سبب، مارڪس فيبروري 1845ع ۾ بيلجيم جي شهر [[برسلز]] ڏانهن هجرت ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. بهرحال، بيلجيم ۾ رهائش جي اجازت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ کيس اهو واعدو ڪرڻو پيو ته هو همعصر سياست بابت ڪا به شيءِ شايع نه ڪندو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}} برسلز ۾ مارڪس يورپ جي مختلف ملڪن مان آيل جلاوطن سوشلسٽن، جهڙوڪ [[موسيس هيس]]، [[ڪارل هائنزن]] ۽ [[جوزف ويڊيمائر]] سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. اپريل 1845ع ۾ [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] جرمني جي بارمن مان برسلز اچي مارڪس سان مليو ۽ [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي انهن وڌندڙ ميمبرن سان گڏ ٿيو، جيڪي هاڻي برسلز کي پنهنجو مرڪز بڻائي رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 90]}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101.</ref> ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد اينگلز جي ڊگهي عرصي واري ساٿي [[ميري برنس]] پڻ انگلينڊ جي مانچسٽر مان برسلز پهتي.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref> جولاءِ 1845ع جي وچ ڌاري مارڪس ۽ اينگلز انگلينڊ روانا ٿيا، جتي هنن برطانيا جي پورهيت تحريڪ [[چارٽسٽ تحريڪ]] جي اڳواڻن سان ملاقات ڪئي. اها مارڪس جي انگلينڊ ڏانهن پهرين سفر هئي، جڏهن ته اينگلز ان سفر لاءِ بهترين رهنما هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو نومبر 1842ع کان آگسٽ 1844ع تائين مانچسٽر ۾ رهي چڪو هو.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53.</ref><ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> اينگلز نه رڳو انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ مهارت رکندو هو،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} پر چارٽسٽ اڳواڻن سان سندس ويجها لاڳاپا پڻ قائم ٿي چڪا هئا،{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} ۽ هو ڪيترين ئي چارٽسٽ ۽ سوشلسٽ انگريزي اخبارن لاءِ رپورٽر طور به ڪم ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} مارڪس هن سفر کي لنڊن ۽ مانچسٽر جي مختلف لائبريرين ۾ موجود معاشي مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}} برسلز موٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز گڏجي ''[[جرمن نظريو]]'' لکڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کي عام طور تاريخي ماديت بابت مارڪس جي سڀ کان جامع وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> هن تصنيف ۾ مارڪس [[لودوگ فوئرباخ]]، [[برونو بائر]]، [[ميڪس اسٽرنر]] ۽ ٻين نوجوان هيگلين کان نظرياتي طور الڳ ٿي ويو، جڏهن ته [[ڪارل گرون]] ۽ ٻين "حقيقي سوشلسٽن" کان پڻ فاصلو اختيار ڪيو، جن جا فلسفا اڃا تائين ڪنهن حد تائين [[تصوريت]] تي ٻڌل هئا. ''جرمن نظريو'' ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي فلسفي کي مڪمل شڪل ڏني، جيڪو تاريخ ۾ تبديليءَ جي واحد محرڪ طور ماديت تي ٻڌل هو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} هي ڪتاب طنزيه انداز ۾ لکيل هو، پر اهو انداز به ان کي سنسرشپ کان بچائي نه سگهيو. مارڪس جي ٻين ڪيترين ئي شروعاتي تصنيفن وانگر، اهو به سندس حياتيءَ ۾ شايع نه ٿي سگهيو ۽ پهريون ڀيرو 1932ع ۾ منظرعام تي آيو.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}} ''جرمن نظريو'' مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس هڪ اهڙي تصنيف لکڻ ڏانهن متوجه ٿيو، جنهن جو مقصد واقعي انقلابي پورهيت تحريڪ جي "نظريي ۽ حڪمت عملي" بابت پنهنجو موقف واضح ڪرڻ هو، جيڪا واقعي "سائنسي ماديت" جي فلسفي تي بيٺل هجي.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> هن تصنيف ذريعي مارڪس خيالي سوشلسٽن ۽ پنهنجي سائنسي سوشلسٽ فلسفي جي وچ ۾ فرق واضح ڪرڻ گهريو. جتي خيالي سوشلسٽ اهو سمجهندا هئا ته ماڻهن کي هڪ هڪ ڪري قائل ڪري سوشلسٽ تحريڪ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، اتي مارڪس جو خيال هو ته ماڻهو گهڻو ڪري پنهنجن معاشي مفادن مطابق عمل ڪندا آهن؛ تنهنڪري هڪ پوري طبقي، يعني پورهيت طبقي، کي ان جي گڏيل مادي مفادن جي بنياد تي متحرڪ ڪرڻ ئي انقلاب ۽ سماجي تبديليءَ جو مؤثر طريقو آهي. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ هن ''[[فلسفي جي غربت]]'' (1847ع) لکيو،<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> جيڪو فرانسيسي انارڪسٽ سوشلسٽ [[پيئر-جوزف پرودون]] جي ڪتاب ''[[غربت جو فلسفو]]'' (1847ع) جي جواب طور پيش ڪيو ويو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}} [[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|مارڪس (ساڄي پاسي) پنهنجي ڌيئرن ۽ اينگلز سان گڏ]] انهن ڪتابن مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف، يعني سياسي پمفليٽ ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]''، جي نظرياتي بنياد فراهم ڪئي. برسلز ۾ رهائش دوران 1846ع ۾ مارڪس جو [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] سان تعلق برقرار رهيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} مارڪس جو خيال هو ته هي تنظيم ئي اها بنياد پرست قوت آهي، جيڪا يورپ جي پورهيت طبقي کي هڪ وڏي عوامي تحريڪ ۾ منظم ڪري پورهيت انقلاب آڻي سگهي ٿي.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–672.</ref> پر سندس نظر ۾ ان مقصد لاءِ ضروري هو ته ليگ پنهنجي ڳجهي يا زيرزمين تنظيم واري صورت ختم ڪري، کليل سياسي جماعت طور ڪم ڪري.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> آخرڪار ليگ جا ميمبر به ان ڳالهه تي متفق ٿيا، ۽ جون 1847ع ۾ تنظيم کي ٻيهر منظم ڪري هڪ کليل سياسي جماعت ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو نالو [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] رکيو ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} مارڪس ۽ اينگلز ٻنهي ان نئين تنظيم جي پروگرام ۽ تنظيمي اصولن جي تياريءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–357.</ref> [[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|''[[ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو منشور]]'' جو پهريون جرمن ڇاپو، 1848ع]] 1847ع جي آخر ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف لکڻ شروع ڪئي، جيڪا [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جي عملي پروگرام جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪئي وئي. ڊسمبر 1847ع کان جنوري 1848ع تائين گڏجي لکيل ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' پهريون ڀيرو 21 فيبروري 1848ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> هن منشور ۾ نئين ڪميونسٽ ليگ جا بنيادي عقيدا بيان ڪيا ويا. اڳوڻي [[نيڪن جي ليگ]] جي ابتڙ، جيڪا هڪ ڳجهي تنظيم هئي، ڪميونسٽ ليگ پنهنجا مقصد ۽ ارادا عوام آڏو کليل نموني پيش ڪرڻ گهريا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} منشور جي شروعاتي جملي ۾ مارڪسزم جو بنيادي اصول هن ريت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي: "اڄ تائين موجود سموري سماج جي تاريخ، طبقاتي جدوجهد جي تاريخ آهي."<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-0761965497 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> منشور ۾ اڳتي هلي [[بورجوازي]] (سرمائيدار طبقو) ۽ [[پرولتاريه]] (صنعتي پورهيت طبقو) جي وچ ۾ مفادن جي ٽڪراءَ جو جائزو وٺندي اهو دليل ڏنو ويو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ ئي اها تنظيم آهي، جيڪا ٻين سوشلسٽ ۽ لبرل جماعتن جي ابتڙ، حقيقت ۾ پرولتاريه جي مفادن جي نمائندگي ڪندي سرمائيداري سماج کي ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي سوشلسٽ سماج قائم ڪرڻ چاهي ٿي.<ref>[[#Mar48|Marx and Engels 1848]].</ref> ساڳئي سال يورپ ۾ احتجاجن، بغاوتن ۽ ڪيترين ئي هنڌن تي پرتشدد اٿل پٿل جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، جيڪو [[1848ع جا انقلاب]] جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} فرانس ۾ انقلاب جي نتيجي ۾ بادشاهت جو خاتمو ٿيو ۽ [[فرانس جي ٻي جمهوريه]] قائم ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} مارڪس انهن انقلابي سرگرمين جو حامي هو. تازو ئي کيس پنهنجي والد جي وراثت مان، جيڪا سندس چاچي [[ليونل فلپس]] وٽ 1838ع کان روڪيل هئي، لڳ ڀڳ 5,000 يا 6,000 فرانڪ مليا هئا.<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} چيو وڃي ٿو ته هن ان رقم جو ٽيون حصو بيلجيم جي انهن مزدورن کي هٿيار خريد ڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جيڪي انقلابي ڪارروائيءَ جي تياري ڪري رهيا هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}} جيتوڻيڪ هن الزام جي صداقت بابت اختلاف موجود آهي،<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190</ref> پر بيلجيم جي انصاف واري وزارت مارڪس تي اهڙو الزام لڳايو، کيس گرفتار ڪيو، ۽ پوءِ هو ٻيهر فرانس ڏانهن هليو ويو، جتي نئين جمهوري حڪومت قائم ٿيڻ سبب هن پاڻ کي وڌيڪ محفوظ سمجهيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027|issn=0008-9389}}</ref> === ڪولون: 1848ع–1849ع === عارضي طور پيرس ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو انتظامي مرڪز پڻ اتي منتقل ڪيو ۽ پيرس ۾ رهندڙ مختلف جرمن سوشلسٽن سان گڏجي [[جرمن مزدورن جي انجمن|جرمن مزدورن جو ڪلب]] قائم ڪيو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} جرمنيءَ تائين انقلاب پکڙجڻ جي اميد سان مارڪس 1848ع ۾ ٻيهر [[ڪولون]] موٽي آيو، جتي هن ''جرمنيءَ ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جا مطالبا'' نالي هڪ پمفليٽ جاري ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> ان ۾ هن ''[[ڪميونسٽ منشور]]'' جي ڏهن مان رڳو چئن نڪتن جي حمايت ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت جرمنيءَ ۾ پهرين [[بورجوازي]] کي [[جاگيرداري]] بادشاهت ۽ اشرافيه جو خاتمو آڻڻو هو، تنهن کان پوءِ ئي پرولتاريه بورجوازيءَ کي اقتدار تان هٽائي سگهي ٿي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} 1 جون 1848ع تي مارڪس هڪ روزاني اخبار ''[[نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ]]'' (نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ ؛ معنيٰ: "نئين رائن واري اخبار") جاري ڪئي، جنهن جي مالي سهائتا هن پنهنجي والد کان مليل تازين وراثتي رقم مان ڪئي. اخبار جو مقصد يورپ جي مختلف حصن جون خبرون مارڪس جي واقعن بابت مارڪسي تشريح سان پيش ڪرڻ هو. مارڪس ان جو مک ليکڪ ۽ ايڊيٽوريل پاليسيءَ تي غالب اثر رکندڙ شخص هو. جيتوڻيڪ [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جا ٻيا ميمبر به ان ۾ لکندا هئا، پر [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] موجب اخبار ۾ "مارڪس جي سادي آمريت" قائم هئي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/> اخبار جي ايڊيٽر طور ڪم ڪرڻ دوران مارڪس ۽ ٻين انقلابي سوشلسٽن کي پوليس طرفان لڳاتار هراسان ڪيو ويندو هو. مارڪس کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا عدالت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ مٿس مختلف الزام لڳايا ويا، جن ۾ سرڪاري وڪيل جي سربراهه جي توهين، پريس قانون جي ڀڃڪڙي ۽ محصولن جي ادائيگيءَ جي بائيڪاٽ وسيلي هٿياربند بغاوت لاءِ ڀڙڪائڻ شامل هئا.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> پر هر ڀيري عدالت کيس بي ڏوهي قرار ڏنو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1490572741 |pages=76–77}}</ref> ان وچ ۾ [[پروشيا]] جي جمهوري پارليامينٽ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ بادشاهه [[فريڊرش ولهيلم چوٿون]] پنهنجي رجعت پسند حامين تي ٻڌل نئين ڪابينا قائم ڪئي، جنهن ملڪ مان کاٻي ڌر ۽ ٻين انقلابي قوتن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ردِانقلابي قدم کنيا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}} نتيجي طور ''نئوئي رائنيشي سائيٽونگ'' جلد بند ڪئي وئي ۽ 16 مئي 1849ع تي مارڪس کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جو حڪم ڏنو ويو.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} مارڪس ٻيهر پيرس موٽي آيو، پر ان وقت شهر رجعت پسند ردِانقلاب ۽ [[هيضي]] جي وبا جي گرفت ۾ هو. ٿوري ئي عرصي کان پوءِ پيرس جي اختيارين کيس سياسي خطرو سمجهي شهر مان نيڪالي ڏئي ڇڏي. سندس زال جيني چوٿين ٻار جي ڄمڻ واري هئي، جڏهن ته مارڪس جرمني يا بيلجيم به واپس نٿي وڃي سگهيو؛ تنهنڪري آگسٽ 1849ع ۾ هن [[لنڊن]] ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/> === لنڊن ڏانهن منتقلي ۽ وڌيڪ لکڻيون: 1850ع–1860ع === {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 190 | image1 = Karl Marx - 28 Dean Street Soho London W1D 3RY.jpg | image2 = Karl Marx 1818-1883 lived here 1851-56.jpg | caption1 = مارڪس 1851ع کان 1856ع تائين لنڊن جي [[سوهو]] علائقي ۾ ڊين اسٽريٽ نمبر 28 تي رهندو هو. ٻي ماڙ تي [[انگلش هيريٽيج]] جي [[نيري تختي]] نظر اچي ٿي. | caption2 = نيري تختيءَ جو ويجهو ڏيک. | align = | total_width = }} مارڪس جون 1849ع جي شروعات ۾ لنڊن منتقل ٿيو ۽ پنهنجي باقي سڄي زندگي اتي ئي رهيو. [[ڪميونسٽ ليگ]] جو مرڪزي دفتر پڻ لنڊن منتقل ڪيو ويو. بهرحال، 1849ع–1850ع جي سياري ۾ ليگ جي اندر اختلاف پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن [[آگسٽ وليش]] ۽ [[ڪارل شاپر]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ڌڙي فوري بغاوت لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي. وليش ۽ شاپر جو خيال هو ته جيئن ئي ڪميونسٽ ليگ بغاوت شروع ڪندي، تيئن سڄي يورپ جو پورهيت طبقو پاڻمرادو ان ۾ شامل ٿي ويندو ۽ اهڙي طرح يورپ ۾ عام انقلاب برپا ٿي ويندو. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز اعتراض ڪيو ته ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اهڙي اڻ رٿيل بغاوت "مهم جوئي" هوندي ۽ خود ليگ لاءِ خودڪشيءَ برابر ثابت ٿيندي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} سندن خيال ۾ شاپر ۽ وليش جي تجويز ڪيل اهڙي بغاوت کي يورپ جي رجعت پسند حڪومتن جي پوليس ۽ هٿياربند فوجون آسانيءَ سان چيڀاٽي ڇڏين ها. مارڪس جو موقف هو ته ان سان خود ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي تباهي ٿيندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سماج ۾ تبديليون چند ماڻهن جي ڪوشش ۽ ارادي سان هڪ رات اندر پيدا نٿيون ٿين.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} مارڪس موجب سماجي تبديلي معاشري جي معاشي حالتن جي سائنسي تجزيي ۽ سماجي ترقيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن مان گذرندي انقلاب ڏانهن اڳتي وڌڻ سان پيدا ٿيندي آهي. سندس خيال ۾ ان وقت، يعني تقريباً 1850ع ۾، 1848ع جي يورپي بغاوتن جي شڪست کان پوءِ ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي پورهيت طبقي کي اڀرندڙ بورجوازيءَ جي ترقي پسند عنصرن سان اتحاد ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏيڻ گهرجي، ته جيئن آئيني جمهوريه، آزاد چونڊيل اسيمبلين ۽ سڀني بالغ مردن لاءِ عام ووٽ جي حق جهڙن حڪومتي سڌارن جي مطالبن تي جاگيردار اشرافيه کي شڪست ڏئي سگهجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، پورهيت طبقي کي پنهنجي مخصوص پروگرام ۽ پورهيت انقلاب تي زور ڏيڻ کان اڳ بورجوا ۽ جمهوري قوتن سان گڏجي بورجوا انقلاب کي ڪامياب پڄاڻيءَ تائين پهچائڻو هو.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} هڪ ڊگهي اندروني جدوجهد کان پوءِ، جنهن ڪميونسٽ ليگ کي ٽٽڻ جي ڪناري تي پهچائي ڇڏيو، مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو ۽ آخرڪار وليش–شاپر ڌڙو ليگ کان ڌار ٿي ويو. ان دوران مارڪس سوشلسٽ [[جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن]] ۾ پڻ گهڻو سرگرم رهيو.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> انجمن جون گڏجاڻيون وچ لنڊن جي وندر واري علائقي [[سوهو]] ۾ [[گريٽ ونڊمل اسٽريٽ]] تي ٿينديون هيون.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> هيءَ تنظيم پڻ پنهنجي ميمبرن جي اندروني اختلافن جو شڪار ٿي، جن مان ڪجهه مارڪس جي حمايت ڪندا هئا، جڏهن ته ٻيا شاپر–وليش ڌڙي سان گڏ هئا. هن اختلاف جا بنيادي مسئلا اهي ئي هئا، جيڪي ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اندر پيدا ٿيل ورهاست ۾ سامهون آيا هئا. بهرحال، جرمن مزدورن جي تعليمي انجمن ۾ مارڪس شاپر–وليش ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد هارائي ويو ۽ 17 سيپٽمبر 1850ع تي انجمن تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> === ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' ۽ صحافت === لنڊن ۾ شروعاتي عرصي دوران مارڪس پاڻ کي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل طور پنهنجي مطالعي لاءِ وقف ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن سبب سندس ڪٽنب کي سخت غربت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0415215455 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=[[يورپي گريجوئيٽ اسڪول]] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> سندس آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو اينگلز هو، جنهن جي آمدني وري سندس مالدار صنعتڪار والد کان ايندي هئي.{{r|egsbio}} پروشيا ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي اخبار جو ايڊيٽر ۽ ساڳئي فڪر وارين ٻين اخبارن جو ليکڪ هو، جنهن ذريعي هو سڌو سنئون پورهيت طبقي تائين پهچي سگهندو هو. پر لنڊن ۾، جتي پنهنجي اخبار هلائڻ لاءِ مالي وسيلا موجود نه هئا، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز بين الاقوامي صحافت ڏانهن رخ ڪيو. هڪ مرحلي تي سندن مضمون انگلينڊ، آمريڪا، [[پروشيا]]، آسٽريا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڇهن مختلف اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندا هئا.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> مارڪس جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو 1852ع کان 1862ع تائين ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' لاءِ يورپي نامي نگار طور ڪم ڪرڻ مان حاصل ٿيندو هو،<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394508771}}</ref>{{rp|17}} جڏهن ته هو ٻين نسبتاً "بورجوا" اخبارن لاءِ پڻ مضمون لکندو هو. مارڪس جا جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل مضمون [[ولهيلم پيپر]] ترجمو ڪندو هو، جيستائين مارڪس جي انگريزيءَ تي ايتري دسترس نه ٿي وئي جو هو پاڻ سڌو سنئون انگريزيءَ ۾ لکڻ لڳو.<ref name="Dispatches"/> ''[[نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون]]'' اپريل 1841ع ۾ [[هوريس گريلي]] قائم ڪئي هئي.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل بورڊ ۾ ترقي پسند بورجوا صحافي ۽ پبلشر شامل هئا، جن ۾ [[جارج رپلي]] ۽ ايڊيٽر [[چارلس اينڊرسن ڊينا]] نمايان هئا. ڊينا، جيڪو [[فوريئريت]] ۽ [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ]] جو حامي هو، مارڪس سان رابطي جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس لاءِ بحرِ اوقيانوس جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تائين پنهنجي خيالن جي پهچائڻ جو ذريعو ثابت ٿي، خاص طور [[هينري چارلس ڪيري]] خلاف سندس "لڪل فڪري جدوجهد" ۾.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |year=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> هيءَ اخبار شروعات کان ئي پورهيت طبقي ۾ مقبول هئي. ان جي قيمت رڳو ٻه سينٽ هئي،<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> ۽ هر اشاعت جا لڳ ڀڳ 50,000 نسخا ڇپجڻ سبب اها آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ پڙهندڙن واري اخبار بڻجي وئي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} ان جي ايڊيٽوريل پاليسي ترقي پسند هئي ۽ غلاميءَ جي مخالفت ان جي باني گريلي جي فڪر جي عڪاسي ڪندي هئي.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} مارڪس جو پهريون مضمون، جيڪو برطانيا جي پارلياماني چونڊن بابت هو، 21 آگسٽ 1852ع تي شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–332.</ref> 21 مارچ 1857ع تي ڊينا مارڪس کي اطلاع ڏنو ته معاشي بحران سبب هاڻي هر هفتي صرف هڪ مضمون جي ادائيگي ڪئي ويندي، پوءِ ڀلي اهو ڇپجي يا نه؛ جڏهن ته وڌيڪ مضمونن جي ادائيگي صرف انهن جي اشاعت جي صورت ۾ ٿيندي. مارڪس هر اڱاري ۽ جمعي تي پنهنجا مضمون موڪليندو هو، پر ساڳئي سال آڪٽوبر ۾ ''ٽربيون'' مارڪس ۽ [[بي. ٽيلر]] کان سواءِ يورپ ۾ موجود پنهنجا سڀ نامي نگار برطرف ڪري ڇڏيا ۽ مارڪس جا مضمون به هفتي ۾ رڳو هڪ تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيا. سيپٽمبر کان نومبر 1860ع جي وچ ۾ سندس فقط پنج مضمون ڇپيا. ڇهن مهينن جي وقفي کان پوءِ هن سيپٽمبر 1861ع کان مارچ 1862ع تائين ٻيهر لکڻ شروع ڪيو، پر پوءِ ڊينا کيس لکي اطلاع ڏنو ته آمريڪا جي اندروني معاملن سبب لنڊن مان ايندڙ خبرن لاءِ ''ٽربيون'' ۾ هاڻي جاءِ نه رهي هئي.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> 1868ع ۾ ڊينا هڪ مقابلي واري اخبار ''نيويارڪ سن'' قائم ڪئي، جنهن جو هو پاڻ ايڊيٽر اعليٰ بڻيو.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> اپريل 1857ع ۾ هن مارڪس کي دعوت ڏني ته هو ''[[نيو آمريڪن سائڪلوپيڊيا]]'' لاءِ، خاص طور فوجي تاريخ بابت، مضمون لکي. اهو منصوبو جارج رپلي، جيڪو ''ٽربيون'' جو ادبي ايڊيٽر ۽ ڊينا جو دوست هو، پيش ڪيو هو. مجموعي طور مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا 67 مضمون شايع ٿيا، جن مان 51 اينگلز لکيا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن لاءِ گهڻي تحقيق مارڪس [[برٽش ميوزيم]] ۾ ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}.</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين آمريڪي عوام جي يورپي معاملن ۾ دلچسپي گهٽجڻ لڳي، تنهنڪري مارڪس جا مضمون "غلاميءَ جي بحران" ۽ 1861ع ۾ شروع ٿيل [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه]] ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويا.<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> ڊسمبر 1851ع کان مارچ 1852ع تائين مارڪس [[1848ع جو فرانسيسي انقلاب|1848ع جي فرانسيسي انقلاب]] بابت پنهنجي نظرياتي تصنيف ''[[لوئي نيپولين جي ارڙهين برومئير]]'' تي ڪم ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ هن [[تاريخي ماديت]]، [[طبقاتي جدوجهد]]، [[پرولتاريه جي آمريت]] ۽ بورجوا رياست تي پرولتاريه جي فتح جهڙن تصورن کي واضح ڪيو.<ref name="Marx2008"/> 1850ع ۽ 1860ع جا ڏهاڪا عام طور هڪ اهڙي فڪري حد سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، جيڪا [[نوجوان مارڪس]] جي هيگلي [[مثاليت]] کي [[بالغ مارڪس]] جي<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> [[جوڙجڪياتي مارڪسزم]] سان لاڳاپيل سائنسي نظريي کان الڳ ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Johnston2000"/> بهرحال، سڀئي عالم هن ورهاست کي قبول نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> مارڪس ۽ اينگلز لاءِ 1848ع ۽ 1849ع جي انقلابن جو تجربو سندن معاشي نظرين ۽ تاريخي ارتقا بابت سوچ جي تشڪيل ۾ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ هو. 1848ع جي ناڪامين کان پوءِ کين محسوس ٿيو ته انقلابي جوش ختم ٿي چڪو آهي ۽ نئين معاشي بحران کان سواءِ وري پيدا نه ٿيندو. ان دوران مارڪس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي وچ ۾ اختلاف به پيدا ٿيا؛ مارڪس انهن کي "مهم جوئي ڪندڙ" قرار ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال هو ته صرف مضبوط ارادي سان انقلاب آڻي سگهجي ٿو. مارڪس جي نظر ۾ اهڙي سوچ غير حقيقي هئي، ڇو ته انقلابي حالتون پيدا ٿيڻ لاءِ معاشي عنصر بنيادي شرط هو. 1852ع ۾ آمريڪا جي معاشي بحران مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي اميد ڏني ته شايد انقلابي سرگرميون ٻيهر زور وٺنديون، پر جلد ئي سندن خيال ٿيو ته آمريڪي معيشت اڃا سرمائيداراڻي انقلاب لاءِ ڪافي پختي نه هئي. آمريڪا جي اولهه طرف موجود کليل علائقن سماجي بيچينيءَ جي قوتن کي منتشر ڪري ڇڏيو هو. وڌيڪ اهو ته آمريڪا ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪو به معاشي بحران يورپ جي پراڻين قومي معيشتن ۾، جيڪي پنهنجي قومي سرحدن اندر بند نظام هيون، انقلابي لهر پيدا نه ڪندو. جڏهن 1857ع جو مشهور [[1857ع جو مالي بحران]] آمريڪا مان شروع ٿي عالمي سطح تائين پکڙيو، تڏهن ان معاشيات جي اڳوڻن نظرين کي ٽوڙي ڇڏيو ۽ اهو جديد تاريخ جو پهريون حقيقي عالمي معاشي بحران ثابت ٿيو.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> هي حصو مڪمل وڪي ڪوڊ ۾، بنا اختصار جي: === پهرين انٽرنيشنل ۽ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' === [[File:Karl Marx, May 1861.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|لنڊن ۾ 1861ع دوران ورتل مارڪس جي سڀ کان پراڻي سڃاتل تصوير.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://marx200.org/en/fotografien/index.html |title=All Images of Marx Are Good |website=Marx 200 |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref>]] مارڪس ''نيويارڪ ڊيلي ٽربيون'' لاءِ تيستائين مضمون لکندو رهيو، جيستائين کيس پڪ هئي ته ''ٽربيون'' جي ادارتي پاليسي اڃا ترقي پسند هئي. بهرحال، 1861ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ [[چارلس ڊينا]] جي اخبار ڇڏڻ ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ادارتي بورڊ ۾ تبديلي اچڻ سان اخبار نئين ادارتي پاليسي اختيار ڪئي.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> ''ٽربيون'' هاڻي غلاميءَ جي مڪمل خاتمي ۽ [[آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين|يونين]] جي مڪمل فتح لاءِ آواز اٿاريندڙ مضبوط [[غلاميءَ جي خاتمي واري تحريڪ|غلامي مخالف]] اخبار نه رهي. نئين ادارتي بورڊ آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه ۾ يونين ۽ [[آمريڪا جون وفاقي رياستون|ڪنفيڊريسي]] جي وچ ۾ فوري صلح جي حمايت ڪئي، جيتوڻيڪ ان سان ڪنفيڊريسيءَ ۾ غلامي برقرار رهي ها. مارڪس هن نئين سياسي موقف سان سخت اختلاف ڪيو ۽ 1863ع ۾ ''ٽربيون'' جي ليکڪ جي حيثيت تان دستبردار ٿيڻ تي مجبور ٿيو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=345}} 1864ع ۾ مارڪس [[بين الاقوامي مزدورن جي انجمن]]، جيڪا پهرين انٽرنيشنل جي نالي سان مشهور هئي، سان لاڳاپيل ٿيو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622083426/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192 192]}} 1864ع ۾ تنظيم قائم ٿيڻ وقت کيس ان جي جنرل ڪائونسل جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130616235612/http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269 267]}} هن تنظيم اندر مارڪس [[ميخائل باڪونن]] جي چوڌاري منظم ٿيل انارڪسٽ ڌڙي خلاف جدوجهد ۾ شامل رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} جيتوڻيڪ ان تڪرار ۾ مارڪس جو موقف غالب آيو، پر 1872ع ۾ جنرل ڪائونسل جو مرڪز لنڊن مان نيويارڪ منتقل ڪرڻ، جنهن جي مارڪس پڻ حمايت ڪئي، انٽرنيشنل جي زوال جو سبب بڻيو.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> انٽرنيشنل جي وجود دوران سڀ کان اهم سياسي واقعو 1871ع جي [[پيرس ڪميون]] هو، جڏهن پيرس جي شهرين پنهنجي حڪومت خلاف بغاوت ڪري ٻه مهينا شهر تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکيو. ان بغاوت کي رت سان چيڀاٽڻ کان پوءِ مارڪس پنهنجي سڀ کان مشهور پمفليٽن مان هڪ، ''[[فرانس ۾ گهرو ويڙهه]]''، لکيو، جنهن ۾ هن ڪميون جو دفاع ڪيو.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–359.</ref> پورهيت انقلابن ۽ تحريڪن جي بار بار ناڪامين ۽ مايوسين سبب مارڪس [[مارڪسي نظريي موجب سرمائيداراڻو طرزِ پيداوار|سرمائيداراڻي طرزِ پيداوار]] کي سمجهڻ ۽ ان جي مناسب تنقيد تيار ڪرڻ جي به ڪوشش ڪئي. ان مقصد لاءِ هن [[برٽش ميوزيم]] جي مطالعي واري ڪمري ۾ گهڻو وقت تحقيق ڪندي گذاريو.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=20}} 1857ع تائين مارڪس سرمائي، [[زميني ملڪيت]]، اجرتي محنت، رياست، پرڏيهي واپار ۽ عالمي منڊيءَ بابت 800 کان وڌيڪ صفحن تي ٻڌل نوٽ ۽ مختصر مضمون گڏ ڪري چڪو هو. هي مواد 1939ع تائين شايع نه ٿيو، جڏهن اهو ''[[گرونڊرِسِه|گرونڊرِسِه ڊير ڪريٽڪ ڊير پوليٽشن اوڪونومي]]'' (سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد جا خاڪا) جي عنوان هيٺ شايع ٿيو.<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref> 1859ع ۾ مارڪس پنهنجي تصنيف ''[[سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو]]'' شايع ڪئي،<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> جيڪا سياسي معيشت بابت سندس پهرين سنجيده تنقيدي تصنيف هئي. هي ڪتاب سندس ٽن جلدن واري ''[[داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' (معنيٰ: ''سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد'') جو رڳو ابتدائي خاڪو هو، جنهن کي هو پوءِ شايع ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکندو هو. ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' ۾ مارڪس معاشي سوچ جي بنيادي مفروضن ۽ درجابندين جو تنقيدي جائزو وٺڻ شروع ڪيو.{{sfn|Postone|1993|pp=54–55, 173, 192}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marx |title=Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |quote=[...] اڪيلو ۽ سماج کان الڳ شڪاري يا مهاڻو، جنهن کي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو پنهنجي بحث جي شروعاتي نقطي طور پيش ڪن ٿا، ارڙهين صديءَ جي رابنسن ڪروسو جهڙن رومانوي قصن جي بي تخيل خيالي تخليقن مان هڪ آهي. سماجي تاريخدانن جي دعوائن جي ابتڙ، اهي ڪردار رڳو حد کان وڌيل تهذيب خلاف ردعمل يا ڪنهن غلط سمجهيل فطري زندگيءَ ڏانهن واپسيءَ جي نمائندگي نٿا ڪن. [...] هي هڪ وهم آهي، ۽ ننڍين توڙي وڏين رابنسوني ڪهاڻين جو رڳو جمالياتي وهم. حقيقت ۾، اهو اهڙي ”بورجوا سماج“ جي اڳڪٿي آهي، جيڪو سورهين صديءَ ۾ اڀرڻ لڳو ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ ۾ پختگيءَ ڏانهن تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. آزاد مقابلي تي ٻڌل هن سماج ۾ فرد ظاهري طور انهن فطري لاڳاپن کان آزاد نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪي گذريل تاريخي دورن ۾ کيس انسانن جي ڪنهن مخصوص ۽ محدود جماعت جو جزو بڻائيندا هئا. ارڙهين صديءَ جا مفڪر، جن جي فڪر تي ايڊم سمٿ ۽ ريڪارڊو اڃا مڪمل طور بيٺل هئا، هن ارڙهين صديءَ واري فرد کي—جيڪو هڪ پاسي جاگيردار سماج جي ٽٽڻ ۽ ٻئي پاسي سورهين صديءَ کان ترقي ڪندڙ نين پيداواري قوتن جو نتيجو هو—اهڙي مثالي انسان طور پيش ڪندا هئا، جنهن جو وجود ڄڻ ماضيءَ سان تعلق رکندو هو. هنن فرد کي تاريخي عمل جي نتيجي طور نه، پر تاريخ جي شروعاتي نقطي طور ڏٺو.<br /> [...]<br /> ”محنت“ ظاهري طور هڪ تمام سادي درجي بندي لڳي ٿي. محنت جو تصور هن عام ۽ آفاقي صورت ۾، يعني عام محنت طور، به نهايت پراڻو آهي. تنهن هوندي به معاشي لحاظ کان ”محنت“ پنهنجي هن سادي صورت ۾ اوترو ئي جديد درجو آهي، جيترا اهي سماجي لاڳاپا جديد آهن، جيڪي هن سادي تجريد کي جنم ڏين ٿا.|archive-date=8 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2012|p=138|ps=: "Marx used social criticism as his standard form of social analysis. Marx defined criticism as the 'radical negation of social reality.{{'"}}}}</ref> هن تصنيف کي وڏي جوش سان قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جو ڇاپو جلد وڪامي ويو.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=318}} [[File:Zentralbibliothek Zürich Das Kapital Marx 1867.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[سرمايو: سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد|داس ڪاپيٽال]]'' جو پهريون جلد]] ''سياسي معيشت جي تنقيد ۾ حصو'' جي ڪامياب وڪري مارڪس کي 1860ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي سڀ کان وڏي ڪم جا ٽي جلد مڪمل ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو. انهن ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' ۽ ''[[فاضل قدر جا نظريا]]'' شامل هئا. پوئين تصنيف ۾ هن سياسي معيشت جي نظريه دانن، خاص طور [[ايڊم سمٿ]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ريڪارڊو]]، جي نظرين تي بحث ۽ تنقيد ڪئي.{{r|egsbio}} ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' کي اڪثر ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو چوٿون جلد چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهو [[معاشي فڪر جي تاريخ]] بابت پهرين جامع تصنيفن مان هڪ آهي.<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> 1867ع ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو پهريون جلد شايع ٿيو، جنهن ۾ سرمائي جو تنقيدي تجزيو پيش ڪيو ويو.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/><ref name=":0" /> ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' سرمائيداراڻي [[پيداواري طرز]] جي ابتدا کان ان جي امڪاني مستقبل تائين ان جي "حرڪت جي قانونن" جي وضاحت پيش ڪري ٿو. ڪتاب ۾ سرمائي جي گڏجڻ جي حرڪتن، [[اجرتي محنت]] جي واڌ، ڪم جي جڳهه جي تبديلي، [[سرمائي جي گڏجاڻي]]، مقابلي، [[بئنڪنگ]] نظام، [[نفعي جي شرح گهٽجڻ جو لاڙو]]، زميني محصول ۽ ان ڳالهه تي بحث ڪيو ويو آهي ته اجرتي محنت ڪيئن مسلسل سرمائي جي حڪمراني کي ٻيهر پيدا ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–375}}{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}} مارڪس موجب سرمائي جي محرڪ قوت [[محنت جو استحصال|محنت جي استحصال]] ۾ آهي، ۽ پورهيتن جي بي اجرت محنت [[فاضل قدر]] جو آخري ذريعو آهي. ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي روسي ترجمي جي وڌندڙ گهرج سبب ان جا روسي ٻوليءَ ۾ 3,000 نسخا ڇپيا، جيڪي 27 مارچ 1872ع تي شايع ٿيا. 1871ع جي سرءُ تائين جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ پهرين ڇاپي جا سڀ نسخا وڪامي چڪا هئا، جنهن کان پوءِ ٻيو ڇاپو شايع ڪيو ويو. [[File:Karl-Marx (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|مارڪس جي 1875ع واري تصوير]] ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جا ٻيا ۽ ٽيان جلد مارڪس جي حياتيءَ ۾ مسودن جي صورت ۾ رهيا، جن تي هو پنهنجي باقي زندگي ڪم ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جي وفات کان پوءِ ٻئي جلد اينگلز شايع ڪيا.{{r|egsbio}} ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو جلد اينگلز تيار ڪري 1885ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٻيو: سرمائي جي گردش جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ڪيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> ٽيون جلد نَوَ سال پوءِ، آڪٽوبر 1894ع ۾ ''سرمايو، جلد ٽيون: مجموعي طور سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار جو عمل'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيو.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' وسيع ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' مان ورتل هو، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٻيو مسودو هئا. اهي مسودا ''مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جا گڏيل ڪم'' جي جلدن 30 کان 34 تائين پکڙيل آهن. خاص طور ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جلد 30 جي پوئين حصي کان شروع ٿي جلد 32 جي پڄاڻيءَ تائين هلن ٿا؛<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> جڏهن ته مڪمل ''1861ع–1863ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جلد 30 جي شروعات کان جلد 34 جي پهرين اڌ تائين پکڙيل آهن. جلد 34 جي پوئين اڌ ۾ ''1863ع–1864ع جا معاشي مسودا'' جا بچيل ٽڪرا شامل آهن، جيڪي ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جو ٽيون مسودو هئا. انهن جو وڏو حصو پينگوئن جي ''داس ڪاپيٽال''، جلد پهرئين، جي ضميمي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=[[مارڪسسٽ انٽرنيٽ آرڪائيو]] |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716154952/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ''فاضل قدر جا نظريا'' جو مختصر جرمن ڇاپو 1905ع ۽ 1910ع ۾ شايع ٿيو. ان مختصر ڇاپي جو انگريزي ترجمو 1951ع ۾ لنڊن مان شايع ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته مڪمل ۽ غير مختصر ڇاپو 1963ع ۽ 1971ع ۾ ماسڪو مان ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' جي "چوٿين جلد" طور شايع ٿيو.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref> {{پڻ ڏسو |پوئين دور جو مارڪس}} [[File:Marx8.jpg|thumb|upright|1882ع ۾ مارڪس]] پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي آخري ڏهاڪي دوران مارڪس جي صحت مسلسل خراب ٿيندي وئي ۽ هو اڳين دور وانگر ڊگهي عرصي تائين محنت ڪرڻ جي قابل نه رهيو.{{r|egsbio}} تنهن هوندي به هن همعصر سياست، خاص طور جرمني ۽ روس جي معاملن، تي اهم تبصرا ڪيا. سندس ''[[گوٿا پروگرام تي تنقيد]]'' ۾ هن پنهنجن پوئلڳن [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ [[آگسٽ بيبل]] جي ان رجحان جي مخالفت ڪئي، جنهن تحت هو متحد سوشلسٽ جماعت ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[فرڊيننڊ لاسال]] جي [[رياستي سوشلزم]] وارن خيالن سان ٺاهه ڪرڻ چاهيندا هئا.{{r|egsbio}} هيءَ تصنيف مارڪس جي مشهور قول، "[[هر ڪنهن کان سندس صلاحيت مطابق، هر ڪنهن کي سندس ضرورت مطابق]]"، سبب پڻ مشهور آهي.<ref name="CGP P1"/> 8 مارچ 1881ع تي [[ويرا زاسوليچ]] ڏانهن لکيل خط ۾ مارڪس ان امڪان تي غور ڪيو ته روس سرمائيداراڻي ترقيءَ واري مرحلي کي ٽپي، ڳوٺاڻي ''[[مير (سماج)|مير]]'' ۾ موجود گڏيل زميني ملڪيت جي بنياد تي ڪميونزم قائم ڪري سگهي ٿو.{{r|egsbio}}<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> روس جي ڳوٺاڻي "ڪميون" کي "روس جي سماجي نئين سر جوڙجڪ جو مرڪزي سهارو" قرار ڏيندي مارڪس خبردار ڪيو ته جيڪڏهن مير کي سرمائيداراڻي مرحلي کان سواءِ سڌو سوشلسٽ مرحلي ڏانهن منتقليءَ جو ذريعو بڻائڻو آهي، ته "سڀ کان پهرين انهن نقصانڪار اثرن کي ختم ڪرڻ ضروري هوندو، جيڪي ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون تي هر طرف کان حملو ڪري رهيا آهن".<ref name="k72"/> انهن نقصانڪار اثرن جي خاتمي کان پوءِ مارڪس موجب ڳوٺاڻي ڪميون جي "پاڻمرادو ترقيءَ جون عام حالتون" موجود ٿي سگهن ٿيون.<ref name=k72/> بهرحال، ساڳئي خط ۾ مارڪس نشاندهي ڪئي ته "سرمائيداراڻي نظام جي بنياد ۾... پيدا ڪندڙ کي پيداوار جي وسيلن کان مڪمل طور جدا ڪرڻ شامل آهي".<ref name=k72/> هن خط جي هڪ مسودي ۾ مارڪس جي [[بشريات]] ڏانهن وڌندڙ دلچسپي ظاهر ٿئي ٿي، جيڪا سندس ان يقين مان پيدا ٿي ته مستقبل جو ڪميونزم اسان جي قبل از تاريخي ماضيءَ جي اشتراڪيت ڏانهن هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ سطح تي واپسي هوندو. هن لکيو: <blockquote> اسان جي دور جو تاريخي لاڙو اهو اڻٽر بحران آهي، جنهن مان يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جي انهن ملڪن ۾ سرمائيداراڻي پيداوار گذري رهي آهي، جتي اها پنهنجي بلند ترين سطح تي پهچي چڪي آهي. هي بحران ان جي تباهيءَ ۽ جديد سماج جي سڀ کان قديم صورت، يعني گڏيل پيداوار ۽ گڏيل ملڪيت، جي هڪ وڌيڪ اعليٰ شڪل ڏانهن واپسيءَ تي ختم ٿيندو. </blockquote> هن وڌيڪ لکيو ته "ابتدائي برادرين جي حياتياتي قوت سامي، يوناني، رومي وغيره سماجن کان بي انداز وڌيڪ هئي، ۽ جديد سرمائيداراڻي سماجن کان ته اڃا به وڌيڪ".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels ''Collected Works'', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> پنهنجي وفات کان اڳ مارڪس اينگلز کي اهي خيال مرتب ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو. اهي 1884ع ۾ ''[[خاندان، نجي ملڪيت ۽ رياست جو بڻ بنياد]]'' جي عنوان سان شايع ٿيا، جيڪو جزوي طور مارڪس پاران [[ليوس ايڇ. مورگن]] جي ڪتاب ''[[قديم سماج]]'' بابت لکيل نوٽن تي ٻڌل هو. == ذاتي زندگي == === خاندان === [[File:Jenny laura marx.jpg|thumb|upright|جيني ڪيرولائنا ۽ جيني لورا مارڪس (1869ع): مارڪس جي سڀني ڌيئرن جو نالو سندن ماءُ [[جيني فون ويسٽفالين]] جي عزت ۾ جيني رکيو ويو هو.]] مارڪس ۽ فون ويسٽفالين کي ست ٻار ٿيا، پر لنڊن ۾ رهائش دوران سندن ڏکين معاشي ۽ رهائشي حالتن سبب رڳو ٽي ٻار بالغ عمر تائين زنده رهيا.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Singer |author-link=Peter Singer |year=2000 |title=Marx: A very short introduction |page=5 |isbn=0192854054 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford}}</ref> سندن ٻار هي هئا: [[جيني لونگي|جيني ڪيرولائنا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لونگي؛ 1844ع–1883ع)، [[لورا مارڪس|جيني لورا]] (شاديءَ کان پوءِ لافارگ؛ 1845ع–1911ع)، ايڊگر (1847ع–1855ع)، هينري ايڊورڊ گائي ("گيدو"؛ 1849ع–1850ع)، جيني ايويلين فرانسس ("فرانزسڪا"؛ 1851ع–1852ع)، [[ايلينور مارڪس|جيني جوليا ايلينور]] (1855ع–1898ع)، ۽ هڪ ٻيو ٻار، جيڪو نالو رکڻ کان اڳ ئي جولاءِ 1857ع ۾ فوت ٿي ويو. سندس ناٺي [[پال لافارگ]] موجب مارڪس هڪ پيار ڪندڙ پيءُ هو.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Lafargue |author-link=Paul Lafargue |editor=[[مارڪس–اينگلز–لينن ادارو]] |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1972 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |title=''Reminiscences of Marx'' (September 1890) |quote=هو هڪ پيار ڪندڙ، نرم دل ۽ درگذر ڪندڙ پيءُ هو. [...] پنهنجي ڌيئرن سان سندس لاڳاپن ۾ حڪم هلائيندڙ پيءُ واري روش جو ذري برابر به نشان نه هو، جڏهن ته سندس ڌيئرن جو ساڻس پيار غيرمعمولي هو. هو کين ڪڏهن به حڪم نه ڏيندو هو، پر جيڪو ڪم ڪرائڻ چاهيندو هو، تنهن لاءِ کين مهربانيءَ طور درخواست ڪندو هو، يا اهڙي نموني احساس ڏياريندو هو ته جنهن ڳالهه کان هو کين روڪڻ چاهي ٿو، اها کين نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. تنهن هوندي به شايد ئي ڪنهن پيءُ جا ٻار هن جي ٻارن جيترا فرمانبردار رهيا هجن.|access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816133812/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> 1962ع ۾ اهو الزام سامهون آيو ته مارڪس کي پنهنجي گهر جي ملازمہ [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]] مان شاديءَ کان ٻاهر فريڊي نالي هڪ پٽ ٿيو هو،<ref name=Montefiore>{{cite news|last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=The Means of Reproduction |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926042626/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=173}} پر دستاويزي ثبوتن جي کوٽ سبب هن دعويٰ تي اختلاف ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Carver, 1991">{{cite book |quote=this [claim] is not well founded on the documentary materials available |last=Carver |first=Terrell |title=The Cambridge Companion to Marx |year=1991 |publisher=[[ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521366946 |page=11 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |editor-last=Carver |editor-first=Terrell |chapter=Reading Marx: Life and Works |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608131100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |url-status=live }}</ref> هيلين ڊيمٿ مارڪس جي ڀروسي جوڳي ساٿي پڻ هئي. [[فريڊرش اينگلز]] پاران لکيل سندس تعزيتي نوٽ ۾ هن جي ڪردار بابت ڄاڻايو ويو آهي ته: "مارڪس هيلينا ڊيمٿ کان نه رڳو پارٽيءَ جي ڏکين ۽ پيچيده معاملن ۾، پر پنهنجي معاشي لکڻين بابت به صلاح وٺندو هو."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Helene Demuth Obituary |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/family/demuth/obitry.htm |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> مارڪس اڪثر فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو، خاص طور گهر يا فليٽ مسواڙ تي وٺڻ وقت، شايد ان لاءِ ته سرڪاري اختيارين لاءِ سندس پتو لڳائڻ ڏکيو ٿئي. پيرس ۾ هو "موسيو رامبوز" جو نالو استعمال ڪندو هو، جڏهن ته لنڊن ۾ پنهنجن خطن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ "اي. وليمز" لکي صحيح ڪندو هو. سندس دوست سندس سانوري رنگ ۽ ڪارن گهنڊيدار وارن سبب کيس "مور" سڏيندا هئا، جڏهن ته هن پنهنجن ٻارن کي پاڻ کي "اولڊ نِڪ" ۽ "چارلي" سڏڻ جي همٿ ڏني.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} هو پنهنجن دوستن ۽ گهرڀاتين لاءِ پڻ لقب ۽ فرضي نالا استعمال ڪندو هو؛ فريڊرش اينگلز کي "جنرل"، گهر جي ملازمہ هيلين کي "لينچن" يا "نِم"، ڌيءَ جينيچن کي "ڪُئي ڪُئي، [[چين جو شهنشاهه]]"، ۽ لورا کي "[[ڪاڪاٽو|ڪاڪادو]]" يا "[[خوئي خوئي|هوٽنٽوٽ]]" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} === صحت === مارڪس 1830ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ ٽرائر ٽاورن ڪلب نالي شراب نوشي واري تنظيم ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ گهڻي شراب نوشي ڪرڻ لڳو ۽ اهو سلسلو سندس وفات تائين جاري رهيو.<ref name="drinking1"/> مارڪس گهڻي عرصي تائين خراب صحت جو شڪار رهيو، جنهن کي هو پاڻ "وجود جي بدحالي" سڏيندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}} مختلف ليکڪن سندس بيمارين جي نوعيت ۽ سببن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. سندس سوانح نگار ورنر بلومينبرگ موجب انهن جو سبب جگر ۽ پتيءَ جون بيماريون هيون، جيڪي مارڪس کي 1849ع ۾ ٿيون ۽ پوءِ هو انهن مان مڪمل طور صحتياب نه ٿي سگهيو. نامناسب طرزِ زندگيءَ انهن بيمارين کي وڌيڪ شديد بڻايو. بيماريءَ جا دورا اڪثر مٿي جي سور، اکين جي سوزش، مٿي ۾ [[تنتي سور]] ۽ سنڌن جي سور سان گڏ ٿيندا هئا. 1877ع ۾ کيس تنتي نظام جي هڪ سنگين بيماري ٿي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ڊگهي عرصي تائين [[بي خوابي]] رهيس، جنهن کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ هو نشي آور دوائون استعمال ڪندو هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} رات جو حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ ۽ نامناسب خوراڪ سبب سندس بيماري وڌيڪ بگڙندي رهي. مارڪس تيز مصالحن واري کاڌي، دونهي ۾ سڪايل مڇي، ڪئويار ۽ اچاريل ڪڪڙين جو شوقين هو، جيتوڻيڪ اهي سڀ شيون جگر جي بيمارن لاءِ نقصانڪار هيون. کيس شراب ۽ ليڪور به پسند هئا ۽ هو تمام گهڻا سگار پيئندو هو؛ مالي تنگيءَ سبب اهي اڪثر گهٽ معيار جا هوندا هئا. 1863ع کان مارڪس ڦٽن ۽ ڦرڙين جي گهڻي شڪايت ڪرڻ لڳو. بلومينبرگ موجب "اهي جگر جي مريضن ۾ گهڻو ٿيندا آهن ۽ ممڪن آهي ته انهن جا سبب به ساڳيا هجن."{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} اهي ڦرڙا ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو مارڪس نه صحيح نموني ويهي سگهندو هو ۽ نه سڌو بيهي ڪم ڪري سگهندو هو. بلومينبرگ موجب مارڪس ۾ چڙچڙاپڻ جگر جي بيمارن ۾ عام طور ڏسجندڙ ڪيفيت هئي: <blockquote> بيماريءَ سندس شخصيت جي ڪجهه خاصيتن کي وڌيڪ نمايان ڪري ڇڏيو. هو بحث ۾ تمام تيز هوندو هو، سندس چڀندڙ طنز توهين کان به نه ڪيٻائيندو هو ۽ سندس اظهار ڪڏهن ڪڏهن بي ادبي ۽ سختيءَ تي ٻڌل هوندو هو. جيتوڻيڪ مجموعي طور مارڪس پنهنجن ويجهن دوستن تي انڌو اعتماد رکندو هو، پر پاڻ به شڪايت ڪندو هو ته ڪڏهن ڪڏهن هو انهن سان به حد کان وڌيڪ شڪي ۽ ناانصاف ٿي ويندو هو. دشمنن ته ڇا، دوستن بابت به سندس فيصلا ڪڏهن ايترا سخت هوندا هئا جو گهٽ حساس ماڻهو به ناراض ٿي پوندا هئا... شايد تمام ٿورا ماڻهو اهڙا هئا، جن تي هن اهڙي تنقيد نه ڪئي هجي... اينگلز به ان کان بچيل نه هو.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|pp=99–100}} </blockquote> پرنسٽن يونيورسٽي جي تاريخدان [[جيرالڊ سيگل]] موجب، نوجوانيءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ مارڪس کي نمونيا يا پلوريسي ٿي سگهي ٿي، جنهن جي اثرن سبب کيس پروشيائي فوجي خدمت کان ڇوٽ ملي. پوئين زندگيءَ ۾ ''داس ڪاپيٽال'' تي ڪم ڪندي، جنهن کي هو مڪمل نه ڪري سگهيو،{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=494}} مارڪس ٽن اهم بيمارين جو شڪار رهيو. جگر جي بيماري، جيڪا شايد موروثي هئي، حد کان وڌيڪ ڪم، خراب خوراڪ ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ سبب وڌيڪ بگڙي وئي. رات جو گهڻو ڪم ڪرڻ سبب سندس اکين ۾ سوزش ٿيندي هئي. ٽئين بيماري طور کيس ڪاربنڪل يا ڦرڙا ٿيندا هئا، جيڪي "شايد جسماني ڪمزوريءَ جو نتيجو هئا؛ مارڪس جي طرزِ زندگيءَ جون مختلف خاصيتون، جهڙوڪ شراب، تمباڪو، خراب غذا ۽ ننڊ جي کوٽ، انهن سڀني ان ۾ حصو ورتو." اينگلز اڪثر مارڪس کي پنهنجي خطرناڪ طرزِ زندگي بدلائڻ جي صلاح ڏيندو هو. سيگل موجب مارڪس پاران پنهنجي صحت کي اهڙي سخت نموني نقصان پهچائڻ جي پويان ذاتي مفادن ۽ خودپسنديءَ بابت ڏوهه جو احساس ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو اصل ۾ سندس والد مارڪس جي ذهن ۾ پيدا ڪيو هو.{{sfn|Seigel|1978|pp=495–496}} 2007ع ۾ [[نيوڪاسل يونيورسٽي]] جي چمڙيءَ جي ماهر سام شسٽر مارڪس جي چمڙيءَ جي بيماريءَ جي [[پوئين دور جي تشخيص]] ڪئي. شسٽر موجب وڌيڪ ممڪن وضاحت اها هئي ته مارڪس جگر جي بيماريءَ بدران [[هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا]] جو شڪار هو، جيڪا وار جي ڦوٽن ۾ کلندڙ [[اپوڪرائن]] نالين جي بند ٿيڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ ورجائيندڙ وچڙندڙ بيماري آهي.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|pp=1–2}} شسٽر بيماريءَ جي امڪاني [[نفسياتي ۽ سماجي]] اثرن تي پڻ غور ڪيو. هن نشاندهي ڪئي ته چمڙي رابطي جو هڪ اهم عضوو آهي، ۽ هائڊراڊينائٽس سپوريٽيوا شديد نفسياتي تڪليف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن ۾ نفرت، بيزاري، ذاتي تصور، مزاج ۽ خوشحاليءَ ۾ گهٽتائي شامل آهن. شسٽر موجب مارڪس جي خطن ۾ اهڙن احساسن جا "گهڻا ثبوت" موجود آهن. هن اهو سوال به اٿاريو ته ڇا بيماريءَ جي ذهني اثرن مارڪس جي لکڻين تي اثر وڌو ۽ شايد سندس [[مارڪس جو بيگانگيءَ جو نظريو|بيگانگيءَ واري نظريي]] جي تشڪيل ۾ پڻ ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|p=3}} === وفات === [[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|[[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو]]، اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]]، لنڊن]] ڊسمبر 1881ع ۾ سندس زال جيني جي وفات کان پوءِ مارڪس کي [[نزلو]] ٿيو، جنهن سندس زندگيءَ جي آخري پندرهن مهينن دوران سندس صحت خراب رکي. آخرڪار ان بيماريءَ مان [[ساھ جي نلين جي سوزش]] ۽ [[ڦڦڙن جي پردي جي سوزش]] پيدا ٿي، جن سبب هو 14 مارچ 1883ع تي لنڊن ۾ 64 ورهين جي عمر ۾ [[بي وطن]] شخص جي حيثيت ۾ فوت ٿي ويو.<ref name="stateless"/> سندس گهرڀاتين ۽ دوستن 17 مارچ 1883ع تي کيس لنڊن جي اوڀر [[هائي گيٽ قبرستان]] ۾، لاادري ۽ ملحد ماڻهن لاءِ مخصوص حصي ۾ دفن ڪيو. [[فرانسس وين]] موجب سندس جنازي ۾ نَوَ کان يارهن ماڻهو شامل هئا.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA382 382]}}<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> همعصر ذريعن جي تحقيق موجب جنازي ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تيرهن سڃاتل ماڻهو موجود هئا: [[فريڊرش اينگلز]]، [[ايلينور مارڪس]]، [[ايڊورڊ ايولنگ]]، [[پال لافارگ]]، [[شارل لونگي]]، [[هيلين ڊيمٿ]]، [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]]، گوٽليب ليمڪي، [[فريڊرڪ ليسنر]]، جي. لوخنر، سر [[ري لينڪيسٽر]]، [[ڪارل شورليمر]] ۽ [[ارنسٽ ريڊفورڊ]].<ref>John Shepperd, 'Who was really at Marx's funeral?', in "Friends of Highgate Cemetery Newsletter ", April (2018), pp. 10–11. https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204074940/https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf |date=4 February 2020 }}</ref> هڪ همعصر اخبار موجب جنازي ۾ پنجويهن کان ٽيهه مٽن مائٽن ۽ دوستن شرڪت ڪئي.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx', in ''[[دي سنڊي پيپل|دي پيپل]]'', 25 March 1883, p. 3.</ref> ''[[دي گرافڪ]]'' جي هڪ ليکڪ لکيو: <blockquote> هڪ عجيب غلطيءَ سبب... سندس وفات جو اعلان ٻن ڏينهن تائين نه ڪيو ويو، ۽ پوءِ به اهو چيو ويو ته سندس وفات پيرس ۾ ٿي آهي. ٻئي ڏينهن پيرس مان تصحيح آئي؛ ۽ جڏهن سندس دوست ۽ پوئلڳ دفن جي وقت ۽ هنڌ بابت ڄاڻڻ لاءِ [[هيورسٽاڪ هل]] ۾ سندس گهر پهتا، تڏهن کين معلوم ٿيو ته هو اڳ ئي ٿڌي زمين ۾ دفن ٿي چڪو هو. جيڪڏهن اها رازداري ۽ تڪڙ نه ڪئي وڃي ها ته سندس قبر تي يقيناً هڪ وڏو عوامي مظاهرو ٿئي ها.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx' in ''The Graphic'', 31 March 1883, pp. 319, 322.</ref> </blockquote> سندس ڪيترن ويجهن دوستن جنازي ۾ تقريرون ڪيون، جن ۾ [[ولهيلم ليبڪنيخت]] ۽ فريڊرش اينگلز شامل هئا. اينگلز جي تقرير ۾ هي لفظ شامل هئا: {{blockquote| 14 مارچ تي منجهند جو پوڻين ٽين وڳي، زنده انسانن مان سڀ کان وڏو مفڪر سوچڻ ڇڏي ويو. کيس رڳو ٻن منٽن لاءِ اڪيلو ڇڏيو ويو هو، ۽ جڏهن اسين واپس آياسين ته کيس پنهنجي ڪرسيءَ تي سڪون سان سمهيل ڏٺوسين—پر هميشه لاءِ.<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx"/> }} مارڪس جون زنده بچيل ڌيئرون [[ايلينور مارڪس|ايلينور]] ۽ [[لورا مارڪس|لورا]]، ۽ سندس ٻه فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ ناٺي [[شارل لونگي]] ۽ [[پال لافارگ]] پڻ جنازي ۾ موجود هئا.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> سندس زال ۽ وڏي ڌيءَ اڳ ئي فوت ٿي چڪيون هيون؛ وڏي ڌيءَ جنوري 1883ع ۾، مارڪس کان ڪجهه مهينا اڳ، وفات ڪئي هئي. جرمن سوشل ڊيموڪريٽڪ پارٽيءَ جي باني ۽ اڳواڻ ليبڪنيخت جرمن ٻوليءَ ۾ تقرير ڪئي، جڏهن ته فرانسيسي پورهيت تحريڪ جي اهم اڳواڻ لونگي فرانسيسيءَ ۾ مختصر خطاب ڪيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> فرانس ۽ اسپين جي پورهيت جماعتن پاران موڪليل ٻه [[تار]] پڻ پڙهيا ويا؛<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> هڪ ميڊرڊ واري شاخ طرفان [[هوسي ميسا اي ليومپارٽ]] موڪليو هو، ۽ ٻيو فرانسيسي مزدورن جي پارٽيءَ جي پيرس شاخ طرفان سيڪريٽري ليپين موڪليو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1883: The death of Karl Marx |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> اينگلز جي تقرير سميت اهو ئي جنازي جو مڪمل پروگرام هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ شامل غير مائٽن ۾ مارڪس جا ٽي ڪميونسٽ ساٿي پڻ هئا: فريڊرڪ ليسنر، جنهن کي 1852ع جي [[ڪولون ڪميونسٽ مقدمو]] کان پوءِ ٽي سال قيد ڪيو ويو هو؛ جي. لوخنر، جنهن کي اينگلز "ڪميونسٽ ليگ جو پراڻو ميمبر" قرار ڏنو؛ ۽ [[ڪارل شورليمر]]، جيڪو مانچسٽر ۾ ڪيميا جو پروفيسر، [[رائل سوسائٽي]] جو ميمبر ۽ 1848ع جي [[باڊن انقلاب]] ۾ شامل ڪميونسٽ ڪارڪن هو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> جنازي ۾ [[ري لينڪيسٽر]] نالي برطانوي حيوانيات دان پڻ شامل هو، جيڪو پوءِ هڪ اهم عالم بڻيو.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> وصيت جي عدالتي تصديق وقت مارڪس جي ذاتي ملڪيت جي قيمت 250 پائونڊ مقرر ڪئي وئي،<ref name="probate">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk |title=Marx, Karl |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1883 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807135123/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> جيڪا 2024ع جي حساب سان لڳ ڀڳ 38,095 پائونڊ جي برابر هئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=£250 in 1883 → 2024 {{!}} UK Inflation Calculator |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=www.in2013dollars.com |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128173620/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |url-status=live }}</ref> 1895ع ۾ پنهنجي وفات وقت اينگلز پنهنجي وڏي ملڪيت جو "نمايان حصو" مارڪس جي ٻن زنده بچيل ڌيئرن لاءِ ڇڏيو، جنهن جي قيمت 2024ع جي حساب سان 68 لک آمريڪي ڊالر هئي.<ref name="Montefiore"/> نومبر 1954ع ۾ مارڪس ۽ سندس خاندان جي باقيات کي ويجهو ئي هڪ نئين هنڌ ٻيهر دفن ڪيو ويو. نئين هنڌ تي قائم [[ڪارل مارڪس جو مقبرو|مقبرين]] جو افتتاح 14 مارچ 1956ع تي ٿيو.<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|title=Marx monument unveiled in Highgate cemetery – archive, 15 March 1956|date=15 March 2016|access-date=7 January 2018|work=The Guardian|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227094820/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|url-status=live}}</ref> ان تي ''ڪميونسٽ منشور'' جي آخري سٽ، "[[دنيا جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!|سڀني ملڪن جا پورهيتو، متحد ٿيو!]]"، ۽ اينگلز پاران ترتيب ڏنل يارهين "[[فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز|فوئرباخ بابت ٿيسز]]" مان هي قول اُڪريل آهي: "فلسفين دنيا جي رڳو مختلف طريقن سان تشريح ڪئي آهي—پر اصل ڳالهه ان کي بدلائڻ آهي."<ref name="wh1" /> [[برطانيا جي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي]] اهو يادگار تعمير ڪرايو، جنهن تي [[لارنس بريڊشا]] جو ٺاهيل مارڪس جو نيم مجسمو لڳايو ويو؛ جڏهن ته مارڪس جي اصل قبر تي رڳو سادي سينگار هئي.<ref name="wh1"/> مارڪسي تاريخدان [[ايرڪ هابسبام]] لکيو ته: "اهو نٿو چئي سگهجي ته مارڪس ناڪام شخص طور فوت ٿيو." جيتوڻيڪ برطانيا ۾ سندس پوئلڳن جو تعداد وڏو نه هو، پر سندس لکڻيون جرمني ۽ روس جي کاٻي ڌر جي تحريڪن تي اثر وجهڻ شروع ڪري چڪيون هيون. سندس وفات کان پنجويهن سالن اندر براعظمي يورپ جون اهي سوشلسٽ جماعتون، جيڪي پنهنجي سياست تي مارڪس جي اثر کي تسليم ڪنديون هيون، [[نمائنده جمهوريت|نمائنده جمهوري]] چونڊن ۾ نمايان ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪري چڪيون هيون.<ref>[[#Hob11|Hobsbawm 2011]]. pp. 3–4.</ref> == مارڪس == مارڪس 1848ع ۾ جيڪو ڪميونسٽ منشور لکيو ان ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيالَ شامل نه هئا بلڪي نومبر 1847ع ۾ لنڊن ۾ ڪميونسٽ ليگ جي اجلاس ۾ مارڪس ۽ اينگلز کي پارٽيءَ جو نظرياتي منشور لکڻ جي ذميواري ڏني وئي ۽ هڪ سال کان پوءِ منشور لکجڻ کان پوءِ ان کي ڇپايو ويو. سوال اهو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ان منشور ۾ مارڪس جا ذاتي خيال نه هئا ته پوءِ ان کي مارڪس جي لکڻي ڪيئن چئي سگهجي ٿو. فرانسيسي سوشلسٽ '''وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرينٽ''' 1843ع ۾ سوشلزم جا اُصول؛ اڻويهين صدي جي جمهوريت جو منشور (Principles of Socialism: Manifesto of Democracy of the Nineteenth Century) جي عنوان سان فرانسيسي ٻوليءَ ۾ مقالو لکيو، جنهن جو ٻيو ايڊيشن 1847ع ۾ پيرس ۾ ڇپيو يعني مارڪس جي ڪميونسٽ منشور کان هڪ سال پهرين. انهن ڏينهن ۾ مارڪس، اينگلز سان گڏ پيرس ۾ هئو. 147 صفحن واري ان پمفليٽ ۾ وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ، سوشلزم جا سڀئي اُصولَ لکيا. مارڪس ۽ اينگلز 1848ع ۾ جيڪو منشور لکيو ان جو نظرياتي مواد اصل ۾ ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ تان ورتل آهي، ايستائين جو مارڪس جو لکيل منشور جو مواد به ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي لکڻيءَ جي کچڻي آهي. وڪتر ڪونسيڊرنٽ باب ٻيئي جو عنوان هنيئن رکيو هو؛ The Present Situation & 89; The Bourgeoisie & Proletrains جڏهن ته مارڪس ۽ اينگلز، ان باب جو عنوان The Bourgeois & Proletarians رکيو. ڪونسيڊرنٽ پنهنجي پمفليٽ ۾ جمهوريت تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي ۽ سوشلسٽ جمهوريت تي هي عنوان ترتيب ڏنا. 1. جامد جمهوريت، 2. مزاحمتي جمهوريت، 3. مزاحمتي جموريت ۾ سوشلسٽ پارٽي. ٻئي پاسي، جڏهن مارڪساهو مواد اتان کنيو ته ان جا عنوان تبديل ڪري نوان عنوان هي رکيا. 1. رجعت پسند سوشلزم، 2. قدامت پرست ۽ بورزوا سوشلزم، 3. تنقيدي تصوراتي سوشلزم ۽ ڪميونزم. '''انٽوني سي سٽن'''، پنهنجي ڪتاب '''فيڊرل ريزرو ڪنسپائريسي''' ۾ ۽ '''ڊبليو ڪيرڪيسوف''' پنهنجي لکڻي Pages of Socialist History ۾ مارڪس جي ان عمل تي ٽيڪاٽپڻي ڪئي آهي. انهن ڪتابن ۾ اهو به ڄاڻايل آهي ته مارڪس کي سرمائيدارن طرفان مالياتي مدد حاصل هئي، ڇو جو مارڪس جو ذاتي آمدنيءَ جو ٻيو ڪو ذريعو نه هو. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي، مارڪس ۽ اينگلز جي خرچن جا پئسا جرمني ۽ آمريڪا جي مٿيئن طبقي وٽان ايندا هئا. ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي لاءِ '''جين لافٽي''' جي ذريعي مالي مدد مارڪس کي پهچائي ويندي هئي. مارڪس کي ملڻ واري مالي مدد جا تفصيل Stanley Clisby Arthur جي ٻن ڪتابن Jean Laffite, The Gentleman Rover ۽ The Journal of Jean Laffite ۾ موجود آهن ۽ انهن ڪتابن ۾ ڪميونسٽ منشور جي ڇپائي جي خرچن جو طريقيڪار ۽ انهن جا اصلي ڪاغذ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا. ڪارل مارڪس کي آمريڪا مان به سدو سنئون مالي مدد ملندي هئي. مارڪس جي مالي مدد جو ذريعو '''نيو يارڪ ٽائمز''' هئي. هن اخبار جي ايڊيٽر '''چارلس اينڊرسن ڊانا'''، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز ۾ لکڻ لاءِ ڪارل مارڪس جون خدمتون حاصل ڪيون هيون. 1851ع کان وٺي 1861ع تائين مارڪس، نيو يارڪ ٽائمز جي لاءِ پنج سئو کان وڌيڪ مضمون لکيا. جن لاءِ مارڪس کي وڏيون رقمون ڏنيون ويون. ساڳي طرح مارڪس جي مالي مدد، فريڊرڪ اينگلز ۽ پروشيا جي مالدارن طرفان به ڪئي ويندي هئي. پروشيا جي '''ويسٽ فالن''' خاندان ۾ مارڪس جي شادي ٿي، توڙي جو اهو خاندان مالدارن (اشرافيا) جو نمائندو هو، پر ان جي باوجود به ويسٽ فالن خاندان مارڪس جي مدد ڪندو رهيو. مارڪس جيڪڏهن پنهنجي منشور جي مواد وڪٽر ڪونسيڊرنٽ جي پمفليٽ مان حاصل ڪيو هو ته پوءِ مارڪس کي ان جو ڪريڊٽ به ڪونسيڊرنٽ کي ڏيڻ گهرجي ها. تاريخي حقيقتن مان ڄاڻ ملي ٿي ته مارڪس سان لاڳاپيل منشور رڳو سندس ذهن جي تخليق نه هو بلڪي ان منشور کي هڪ اهڙي لکڻيءَ تان ورتو ويو هو، جيڪا پوءِ تاريخ جي اُمائوس راتين ۾ گم ٿي وئي. کاٻي ڌر جي سياسي پارٽين ۽ مارڪسزم جي مڃڻ وارن لاءِ هي نئين تحقيق نه رڳو حيران ڪندڙ ٿي سگهي ٿي، بلڪي اهي هن کي سرمائيدارڻي نظام جي ڪميونزم جي خلاف شازش به قرار ڏئي سگهن ٿا.<ref>[http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1027059 کیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ - Opinions - Dawn News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>ڪیا کارل مارکس بھی چربہ ساز تھا؟ اکمل سومرو</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{ڪچو}} {{ابتدائی_ترتیب:مارڪس}} [[زمرو:1818ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1883ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سياست]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ڪميونزم]] [[زمرو:جرمن مرد غير افسانوي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] qgqoz3ocyv4m2fdtya7qbj58d8qrlks اڇي مک 0 18814 394736 394273 2026-07-16T02:22:27Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394736 wikitext text/x-wiki [[فائل:Neomaskellia bergii from CSIRO.jpg|thumb|center|''نيئوماسڪيليا برگئي'' (''Neomaskellia bergii'')، جنهن ۾ پرن جون رڳون ۽ پيٽ جي پڇاڙيءَ کان مٿي واسيفارم سوراخ ڏيکاريل آهي]] [[فائل:Aleyrodidae Udamoselis Venation Enderlein 1909.jpg|thumb|center|''يوڊاموسيليس'' (''Udamoselis'') جي هڪ وڏي جنس ۾ پرن جي رڳبندي وڌيڪ پيچيده آهي]] {{Taxobox | image = Weisse-Fliege.jpg | image_caption = اڇيون مکيون (''[[ٽرائليوروڊيس ويپوريرئورم]]'') | regnum = [[جانور]] | phylum = [[آرٿروپوڊا]] | classis = [[حشرات]] | ordo = [[هيميپٽرا]] | subordo = [[اسٽرنورنڪا]] | superfamilia = '''الييروڊوئيڊيا''' | familia = '''الييروڊيڊي''' | synonyms = الييورڊيڊي | subdivision_ranks = ذيلي خاندان<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=J.H. |last2=Mound |first2=L.A. |year=2007 |title=An annotated check list of the world's whiteflies (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=1492 |pages=1–84}}</ref> | subdivision = [[اليوروڊيسيني]]<br> [[الييروڊيني]]<br> [[يوڊاموسيليئني]] }} '''اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک''' ('''''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'''''; ''Bemisia tabaci'')، جنهن کي غير رسمي طور '''مٺي پٽاٽي جي اڇي مک''' ۽ '''ڪپهه جي اڇي مک''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite report |title=Cotton whitefly: Bemisia tabaci |last=Shahzad |first=R. K. |last2=Hasnain |first2=M. |last3=Naeem |first3=M. |last4=Aslam |first4=M. |last5=Sangi |first5=A. |last6=Khan |first6=S. |date=2013 |doi=10.1079/pwkb.20147801355 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[اڇيون مکيون|اڇين مکين]] جي انهن ڪيترين ئي جنسن مان هڪ آهي، جيڪي هن وقت زراعت ۾ اهم [[زرعي آفت]] طور سڃاتيون وڃن ٿيون. 2011ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ جائزي موجب، اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک حقيقت ۾ [[جنسي مجموعو]] (اسپيشيز ڪامپليڪس) آهي، جنهن ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 40 اهڙيون جنسون شامل آهن، جيڪي ظاهري بناوت (مارفولاجي) جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ سڃاڻڻ ڏکيو آهي.<ref name="Tang et al.">{{Cite journal|author1=Tang, Xiao-Tian |author2=Cai, Li |author3=Yuan, Shin |author4=Xu, Li–Li |author5=Du, Yu–Zhou |year=2019|title=Competitive Displacement between ''Bemisia tabaci'' MEAM1 and MED and Evidence for Multiple Invasions of MED|journal=Insects|volume=11|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.3390/insects11010035|pmid=31906186|pmc=7022974|doi-access=free}}</ref> اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک دنيا جي اڪثر گرم ۽ نيم گرم علائقن، ۽ گهٽ مقدار ۾ معتدل آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ به ملي ٿي. ٿڌي گرمي پد سبب هن جنس جا بالغ ۽ اپسر (نمفس) ٻئي مري وڃن ٿا.<ref name="Greenberg">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-29.4.851|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233589603|title=Temperature-Dependent Life History of ''Eretmocerus eremicus'' (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on Two Whitefly Hosts (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)|journal=Environmental Entomology|volume=29|issue=4|pages=851–860|year=2000|last1=Greenberg|first1=S. M.|last2=Legaspi|first2=B. C.|last3=Jones|first3=W. A.|last4=Enkegaard|first4=A.|s2cid=85854037}}</ref> هيءَ اڇي مک ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٻين جيتن، جهڙوڪ [[ڊروسوفيلا ميلانوگاسٽر|عام ميوي جي مک]]، سان مشابهت رکي ٿي، پر ويجهي جائزي سان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته اها قد ۾ ڪجهه ننڍي هوندي آهي ۽ ان جي پرن جو مخصوص رنگ ان کي ٻين جيتن کان الڳ سڃاڻڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو. جيتوڻيڪ اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک 1896ع کان [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ۾ موجود هئي، پر 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري [[فلوريڊا]] ۾ [[پوينسيٽيا]] جي فصلن تي ان جي هڪ انتهائي جارحاڻي قسم ظاهر ٿي. سهولت خاطر ان کي '''قسم بي''' (بايو ٽائپ بي) سڏيو ويو، جيئن ان کي اڳ ۾ موجود نسبتاً گهٽ نقصانڪار '''قسم اي''' (بايو ٽائپ اي) کان الڳ سڃاتو وڃي. سڃاڻپ کان هڪ سال اندر ئي قسم بي [[ٽماٽو|ٽماٽن]] ۽ ٻين ميون ۽ ڀاڄين جي فصلن تائين پکڙجي ويو. پنجن سالن اندر هن اڇي مک [[ٽيڪساس]] ۽ [[ڪيليفورنيا]] جي زراعت کي 100 ملين آمريڪي ڊالرن کان وڌيڪ نقصان پهچايو. == زرعي اهميت == '''اڇي مک''' فصلن جي اهم زرعي آفتن مان هڪ آهي، جيڪا ٻوٽن جو رس چوسي انهن جي واڌ ويجهه، گلجڻ ۽ ڦرجڻ کي متاثر ڪري ٿي. دنيا ۾ اڇي مک جون لڳ ڀڳ 1٬200 جنسون سڃاتل آهن، جن مان رڳو ٿوريون جنسون زرعي فصلن لاءِ معاشي اهميت رکن ٿيون. پاڪستان ۾ هن جا 104 کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته سنڌ ۾ 50 کان وڌيڪ ميزبان ٻوٽا رڪارڊ ڪيا ويا آهن.<ref>{{Citation |title=اڇي مک : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا) |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%DA%87%D9%8A%20%D9%85%DA%A9 |access-date=2016-05-21 |archive-date=2016-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411181512/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%DA%87%D9%8A%20%D9%85%DA%A9 |url-status=dead }}</ref> اڇي مک جي تيزي سان پکڙجڻ جا اهم سبب ميزبان ٻوٽن جي گهڻائي، نائٽروجن (يوريا) ڀاڻ جو حد کان وڌيڪ استعمال، زرعي زهريلي دوائن جو بيجا استعمال ۽ ان جي حياتياتي چڪر بابت مناسب ڄاڻ جو نه هئڻ آهن. اهڙيون حالتون اڇي مک جي واڌ ويجهه کي هٿي ڏين ٿيون ۽ ساڳئي وقت ان جا قدرتي دشمن به گهٽجي وڃن ٿا، جنهن ڪري ان تي ضابطو آڻڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو.<ref name="Sindhiana" /> سنڌ ۾ '''''Bemisia tabaci''''' خاص طور [[وونڻ]]، [[ٽماٽو]]، [[واڱڻ]]، [[ڀينڊي]] ۽ ٻين ڀاڄين ۽ گلن جي فصلن لاءِ اهم نقصانڪار جنس آهي. هيءَ جنس رس چوسڻ سان گڏ ٻوٽن ۾ مختلف ٻوٽن جي وائرسن جي منتقلي جو پڻ اهم ذريعو آهي.<ref name="Sindhiana" /> == حياتياتي چڪر == اڇي مک پنهنجي حياتياتي چڪر جي شروعات پنن جي هيٺئين سطح تي بيضا ڏيڻ سان ڪري ٿي. هڪ مادي عام طور هڪ وقت ۾ 30 کان 40 بيضا ڏئي ٿي. بيضا ڦٽڻ کان پوءِ متحرڪ ٻچو (Crawler) مناسب جاءِ ڳولي پن ۾ پنهنجو سونڊ نما وات داخل ڪري رس چوسڻ شروع ڪري ٿو. ان کان پوءِ اهو ڪيترن غير متحرڪ مرحلن مان گذري سوٻٽ (Pupa) جي مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿو، جتي بالغ مک جا پر ۽ ٻيا عضوا مڪمل ٿين ٿا. آخرڪار بالغ اڇي مک سوٻٽ مان نڪري وري نسل وڌائڻ شروع ڪري ٿي، اهڙيءَ طرح ان جو حياتياتي چڪر جاري رهي ٿو<ref name="Sindhiana">{{Citation |title=اڇي مک : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا) |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%DA%87%D9%8A%20%D9%85%DA%A9 |access-date=2016-05-21 |archive-date=2016-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411181512/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%DA%87%D9%8A%20%D9%85%DA%A9 |url-status=dead }}</ref>. [[فائل:Bemisia argentifolii 1316008.jpg|thumb|''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'' پنن تي کل مٽائيندي. پنن تي نظر ايندڙ چانديءَ جهڙيون خالي بناوتون ان جي ڇڏيل کلون آهن.]] مادي '''''بيميسيا ٽيباسي''''' پنن جي هيٺئين سطح تي عام طور 50 کان 400 بيضا ڏئي ٿي، جن جي ڊيگهه لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|0.10 to 0.25|mm|frac=128}} هوندي آهي. ماديون [[ڊپلائيڊ]] هونديون آهن ۽ بارآور ٿيل بيضن مان نڪرنديون آهن، جڏهن ته نر [[هيپلائيڊ]] هوندا آهن ۽ غير بارآور بيضن مان پيدا ٿيندا آهن. بيضا ننڍن ٽولن جي صورت ۾ ڏنا ويندا آهن؛ انهن جي ويڪر لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|0.2|mm|frac=128}} ۽ اوچائي {{convert|0.1|mm|frac=128}} هوندي آهي. شروعات ۾ بيضا اڇاڻ مائل هوندا آهن، پر ڦٽڻ کان 5–7 ڏينهن اڳ ناسي رنگ اختيار ڪري وٺندا آهن. بيضا ڦٽڻ کان پوءِ ٻچو (Nymph) واڌ ويجهه دوران چار [[انسٽار]] مرحلن مان گذرندو آهي. [[فائل:Silverleaf Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) adult.jpg|thumb|ڪپهه جي پن تي بالغ ''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'']] [[فائل:Bemisia argentifolii 5194038.jpg|thumb|left|سائي پن تي بالغ ''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'']] پهريون [[انسٽار]]، جنهن کي عام طور '''ريڙهيندڙ ٻچو''' (Crawler) چيو ويندو آهي، واحد متحرڪ ٻچي وارو مرحلو هوندو آهي. هي ٻچو لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|0.3|mm|frac=128}} ڊگهو، سائي مائل ۽ چپٽي جسم وارو هوندو آهي.<ref name="Johnson">{{Cite book|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN00400.pdf|title=Sweetpotato/Silverleaf Whitefly Life Stages and Damage|author1=Johnson, F. A.|author2=Short, D. E.|author3=Castner, J. L.|publisher=Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida|year=2005|edition=revised|series=Entomology and Nematology Department special publication 90|location=Gainesville, Florida|access-date=2011-04-22|archive-date=2012-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925194421/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN00400.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="UFl-Entomo">{{Cite web|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/silverleaf_whitefly.htm|title=''Bemisia tabaci'' (Gennadius) or ''Bemisia argentifolii'' Bellows & Perring|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu|access-date=2017-12-06}}</ref> هي مناسب جاءِ ڳولڻ لاءِ پن تي هلندو رهي ٿو، پوءِ [[کل مٽائڻ]] (Ecdysis) کان پوءِ غير متحرڪ مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿي وڃي ٿو. ان کان پوءِ ايندڙ ٽي [[انسٽار]] مرحلا تقريباً 40 کان 50 ڏينهن تائين ساڳئي هنڌ تي رهندا آهن ۽ آخرڪار بالغ مرحلي ۾ تبديل ٿيندا آهن.<ref name="Brown & Rosell">{{Cite journal|author1=Brown, J. K.|author2=Frohlich, D. R.|author3=Rosell, R. C.|year=1995|title=The Sweetpotato or Silverleaf whiteflies: Biotypes of ''Bemisia tabaci'' or a species complex?|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|volume=40|issue=1|pages=511–534|doi=10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.002455}}</ref> انهن مرحلن دوران پنن تي چانديءَ جهڙيون ڇڏيل کلون (Exuviae) رهجي وينديون آهن. غير متحرڪ ٻچا اڇاڻ مائل هوندا آهن ۽ پنهنجي سونڊ نما وات جي ذريعي ٻوٽي ۾ گهڙي ان جو رس چوسيندا آهن.<ref name="Johnson" /> چوٿين [[انسٽار]] کان پوءِ ٻچو '''سوٻٽ''' (Pupal stage) جهڙي مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿيندو آهي، جنهن دوران سندس اکيون ڳاڙهيون، جسم پيلو ۽ ٿلهو ٿي ويندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ هي حقيقي [[سوٻٽ]] وارو مرحلو نه آهي، جيئن [[مڪمل روپ مٽائيندڙ حشرات]] ۾ هوندو آهي، پر ڪم جي لحاظ کان ان سان مشابهت رکي ٿو. بالغ اڇي مک بيضي جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ چار ڀيرا وڏي هوندي آهي. ان جو جسم هلڪو پيلو ۽ پر اڇا هوندا آهن، جيڪي جسم ۽ پرن تي موجود مومي مادّي جي تهه سبب اڇا نظر ايندا آهن.<ref name="Brown & Rosell" /> بالغ مک جي ڊيگهه لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|0.9|mm|frac=128}} تائين هوندي آهي. آرام ڪرڻ يا رس چوسڻ دوران اها پنهنجا پر خيمي جي شڪل ۾ جسم جي مٿان ويڙهي رکندي آهي.<ref name="UFl-Entomo" /> == ورڇ == === اصلي پکيڙ === [[فائل:Weihnachtsstern - groß.jpg|thumb|right|[[پوينسيٽيا]]، اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک جي پسنديده ميزبان ٻوٽن مان هڪ آهي.]] تحقيق موجب، اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک ('''''بيميسيا ٽيباسي''''') جو اصل وطن غالباً [[ڀارت]] آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هيءَ جنس گهڻو ڪري [[گرم علائقا|گرم]] ۽ [[نيم گرم علائقا|نيم گرم]] آبهوا وارن علائقن سان لاڳاپيل آهي، تنهن ڪري سائنسدانن جو ڌيان ان ڳالهه تي مرڪوز رهيو آهي ته اها معتدل آبهوا وارن علائقن جي فصلن تائين ڪيئن پهتي.<ref name="Brown & Rosell"/> هڪ [[مفروضو]] موجب، گرم علائقن مان آرائشي ٻوٽن جي منتقلي هن جنس جي معتدل علائقن تائين پکڙجڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. مختلف ميزبان ٻوٽن سان موافقت ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت سبب هيءَ اڇي مک ٻوٽن جي ڪيترين ئي خطرناڪ وائرسي بيمارين جي منتقلي ۾ پڻ اهم ذريعو بڻجي وئي آهي.<ref name="Azab">{{cite journal|author1=Azab AK|author2=Megahed MM|author3=EI-Mirsawi, HD|year=1971|title=On the biology of ''Bemisia tabaci'' (Genn.) Hemiptera, Homoptera: Aleyrodidae|journal=Bulletin de la Société entomologique d'Égypte|volume=55|pages=305–315}}</ref> اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک ڪيترن ئي زرعي ۽ باغباني وارن ٻوٽن کي متاثر ڪري ٿي، جن ۾ [[ٽماٽو]]، [[اسڪواش]]، [[پوينسيٽيا]]، [[ڪڪڙي]]، [[واڱڻ]]، [[ڀينڊي]]، [[بين (ٻوٽو)|بين]] ۽ [[وونڻ]] شامل آهن.<ref name="Johnson" /> هيءَ مک ٻوٽن جو رس چوسي، پنن کي ڪمزور ڪري، انهن جي سڪڻ ۽ ڪرڻ جو سبب پڻ بڻجي ٿي.<ref name="Johnson" /> === متعارف ڪرايل پکيڙ === اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ هڪ [[دخل انداز زرعي آفت]] طور قائم ٿي چڪي آهي، جنهن ۾ [[فلوريڊا]]<ref name="UFl-Entomo" /> ۽ [[ڪيليفورنيا]]<ref name="UCR-CISR">{{cite web |first1=Timothy |last1=Paine |first2=Thomas |last2=Bellows |first3=Mark |last3=Hoddle |title=Silverleaf Whitefly |website=UCR Center for Invasive Species Research |date=2019-12-27 |url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/silverleaf-whitefly |access-date=2022-07-09}}</ref> پڻ شامل آهن. == معاشي اثر == اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک ('''''بيميسيا ٽيباسي''''') کي [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]]، [[آسٽريليا]]، [[آفريڪا]] ۽ يورپ جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ هڪ [[دخل انداز نوع]] ۽ اهم [[زرعي آفت]] طور تسليم ڪيو وڃي ٿو. [[يونان]] ۾ ان کي لڳ ڀڳ 1889ع ڌاري زرعي آفت قرار ڏنو ويو، جتي هن تمباڪو جي فصلن کي نمايان نقصان پهچايو. آمريڪا ۾ هن جنس جو پهريون رڪارڊ 1897ع ۾ مٺي پٽاٽي جي فصل تي مليو.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biological Control: A Grower's Guide to Using Biological Control for Silverleaf Whitefly on Poinsettias in the Northeast United States |url=https://ag.umass.edu/greenhouse-floriculture/fact-sheets/biological-control-growers-guide-to-using-biological-control-for |website=Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment |date=6 March 2015 |access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Silverleaf Whitefly |website=National Invasive Species Information Center, USDA |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/silverleaf-whitefly |access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref> هي ننڍڙو جيت ٻوٽن کي ٻن بنيادي طريقن سان نقصان پهچائيندو آهي: ٻوٽن جو رس چوسي ۽ ٻوٽن جون بيماريون منتقل ڪري. هي پنهنجي سونڊ نما وات ذريعي پنن جي هيٺئين سطح يا [[فلوئم]] ۾ گهڙي غذائي مادا چوسي ٿو، جنهن سبب متاثر ٿيل حصن ۾ [[ڪلوروسس]]، سڪاڻ ۽ پنن جو ڪرڻ جهڙا اثر ظاهر ٿين ٿا. اڇي مک هڪ چپچپي مادي، [[هني ڊيو]]، پڻ خارج ڪري ٿي، جيڪو [[ڪاري ڦپوند]] جي واڌ ويجهه لاءِ سازگار ماحول فراهم ڪري ٿو.<ref name="Brown & Rosell"/> ڪاري ڦپوند پنن تي تهه ٺاهي روشني جي جذب ٿيڻ کي گهٽائي ٿي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ٻوٽن جي واڌ سست ٿي وڃي ٿي، پيداوار ۽ معيار گهٽجي وڃن ٿا. فصل لڻڻ کان پوءِ انهن کي چڱيءَ طرح ڌوئڻو پوي ٿو، جنهن سان پروسيسنگ جي خرچ ۾ پڻ واڌ اچي ٿي.{{cn|date=December 2022}} اڇي چانديءَ جهڙي مک ٻوٽن جي ڪيترين ئي وائرس بيمارين جي اهم منتقل ڪندڙ (Vector) پڻ آهي. اها [[جيميني وائرس]]ن، جهڙوڪ [[ليٽس انفيڪشس ييلوز وائرس]]، [[ٽماٽي جي پيلي پنن جي وڪڙ وائرس]] ۽ [[آفريقي ڪساوا موزيڪ وائرس]] کي مختلف براعظمن ۾ منتقل ڪندي رهي آهي.<ref name="Brown & Rosell"/> هن وقت اها [[ڪساوا برائون اسٽريڪ وائرس بيماري]] جي به اهم منتقل ڪندڙ سمجهي وڃي ٿي.<ref name="Legg">{{cite web |url=http://c3project.iita.org/Doc/A25-CBSDbriefMay6.pdf |title=New Spread of Cassava Brown Streak Virus Disease and its Implications for the Movement of Cassava Germplasm in the East and Central African Region |author1=Pheneas Ntawuruhunga |author2=James Legg |date=May 2007 |access-date=2012-08-12 |archive-date=2007-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215000729/http://c3project.iita.org/Doc/A25-CBSDbriefMay6.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي دوران ''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'' آمريڪا جي ڏکڻ اولهندي علائقن ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جي فصلن لاءِ هڪ سنگين مسئلو بڻجي وئي. ماهرن جو خيال آهي ته اها متاثر ٿيل آرائشي ٻوٽن ذريعي آمريڪا ۾ متعارف ڪرائي وئي. 1986ع کان [[فلوريڊا]] جي [[پوينسيٽيا]] جي گرين هائوسن ۾ هن جي وبا پکڙجڻ شروع ٿي، ۽ 1991ع تائين اها [[جارجيا (آمريڪي رياست)|جارجيا]]، [[لوزيانا]]، [[ٽيڪساس]]، [[نيو ميڪسيڪو]]، [[ايريزونا]] ۽ [[ڪيليفورنيا]] تائين پهچي وئي. ڪيليفورنيا، جيڪو آمريڪا جي سياري جي ڀاڄين جي لڳ ڀڳ 90 سيڪڙو پيداوار ڏئي ٿو، اتي هن آفت سبب لڳ ڀڳ 500 ملين آمريڪي ڊالرن جو زرعي نقصان ٿيو.<ref name="Service">Service, A. R. National Invasive Species Information Center: [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/silverleaf-whitefly Silverleaf Whitefly]. ''United States Department of Agriculture''.</ref> اندازي موجب، هن آفت سبب ڪيليفورنيا ۾ نجي شعبي جي ٻوٽن جي وڪري ۾ 774 ملين آمريڪي ڊالرن جي گهٽتائي، 12٬540 روزگار ختم ٿيڻ ۽ ذاتي آمدني ۾ 112.5 ملين آمريڪي ڊالرن جي گهٽتائي آئي.{{Clarify|date=December 2017}} قومي سطح تي آمريڪا ۾ هن آفت سبب فصلن ۽ آرائشي ٻوٽن کي هڪ ارب آمريڪي ڊالرن کان وڌيڪ نقصان پهتو آهي.<ref name="Service" /> هيءَ جنس 500 کان وڌيڪ ٻوٽن جي جنسن تي پلجي سگهي ٿي. ان جا عام ميزبان [[ٽماٽو]]، [[اسڪواش]]، [[بروڪلي]]، [[گوبي]]، [[ڪرنب]]، [[خربوزو]]، [[وونڻ]]، [[گاجر]]، [[مٺو پٽاٽو]]، [[ڪڪڙي]] ۽ [[ڪدو]] سميت ڪيترائي زرعي فصل آهن، جڏهن ته آرائشي ٻوٽن ۾ [[پوينسيٽيا]]، [[ڪريپ مرٽل]]، [[باغيچا گلاب]]، [[لينٽانا]] ۽ [[سوسن]] شامل آهن. هي مختلف ميزبان ٻوٽن ۾ مخصوص علامتون پيدا ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ اسڪواش ۾ ''سلورليف''، ٽماٽن ۾ اڻبرابر پچڻ، بروڪلي ۽ گوبي ۾ اڇو تنو، پوينسيٽيا ۾ اڇو تنو ۽ گاجر ۾ هلڪي رنگ جون پاڙون.<ref name="Service" /> == نيوڪليئر ريسيپٽر == ٻين سڀني [[آرٿروپوڊ]]ن وانگر '''''بيميسيا ٽيباسي''''' ۾ پڻ [[ايڪڊائيسون ريسيپٽر]] (EcRs) موجود هوندا آهن، جيڪي مستقبل ۾ [[حشرات ڪش]] دوائن جي تياري ۽ ترقيءَ لاءِ اهم هدف ٿي سگهن ٿا.<ref name="Dawson-Xia-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Dawson |first1=Marcia I. |last2=Xia |first2=Zebin |title=The Retinoid X Receptors and Their Ligands |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids |publisher=Elsevier |volume=1821 |issue=1 |date=2021-06-02 |pages=21–56 |doi=10.1016/j.bbalip.2011.09.014 |pmid=22020178 |pmc=4097889 |id=NIHMSID 341742}}</ref> ڪارمائيڪل ۽ همڪارن 2005ع ۾ ''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'' جي ايڪڊائيسون ريسيپٽر جي [[ليگينڊ-بائينڊنگ ڊومين]] (Ligand-binding domain) جي [[ايڪس-ري قلمياتي بناوت]] (X-ray crystal structure)، جيڪا 1Z5X جي نالي سان سڃاتي وڃي ٿي، پيش ڪئي.<ref name="Dawson-Xia-2021" /> == گڏيل جيت سنڀال == هن عام زرعي نقصانڪار جيت تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ ڪيترائي طريقا گڏيل طور استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهم طريقن ۾ قدرتي يا نباتاتي تيلن جو استعمال، [[اپهيلينڊيئي]] خاندان جي [[پيراسائٽوئيڊ]]ن جهڙن قدرتي دشمنن جو استعمال، [[ڦاسائيندڙ فصل]] (ٽريپ ڪراپ) پوکڻ، [[حشرن جي واڌ ويجهه جا ضابطا آڻيندڙ دوائون]] (انسيڪٽ گروٿ ريگيوليٽرز) استعمال ڪرڻ ۽ مختلف قسمن جا ڦاسا (ٽريپس) لڳائڻ شامل آهن.{{cn|date=December 2022}} انهن مان گهڻا طريقا ٻوٽن ۽ زمين جي خاصيتن تي گهٽ اثر ڇڏين ٿا. جديد تحقيق جو ڌيان اهڙن طريقن تي آهي، جيڪي ماحول کي آلودو ڪرڻ کان سواءِ ''[[بيميسيا ٽيباسي]]'' تي ضابطو آڻي سگهن. مقصد اهو آهي ته ٻوٽن تي آباد ٿيندڙ اڇي مک جو تعداد گهٽايو وڃي، جنهن سان وائرسن جي منتقلي ۽ ٻوٽن کي ٿيندڙ نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي اچي سگهي ٿي. اهو مقصد بالغ مکن جي آباد ٿيڻ، آنا ڏيڻ ۽ آباديءَ جي واڌ کي محدود ڪري حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="Schuster & Thompson">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1603/029.102.0412 |pmid=19736760 |title=Laboratory Evaluation of Products to Reduce Settling of Sweetpotato Whitefly Adults |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=1482–1489 |year=2009 |last1=Schuster |first1=D. J. |last2=Thompson |first2=S. |last3=Ortega |first3=L. D. |last4=Polston |first4=J. E. |s2cid=45206625}}</ref> === حياتياتي ضابطو === [[حياتياتي جيت سنڀال|روايتي حياتياتي ضابطو]] اڇي مک جهڙن ٻاهرين نقصانڪار جيتن جي ڊگهي مدي واري ۽ پائيدار سنڀال جو سڀ کان ڪامياب طريقو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ ان جي ڪاميابي هر هنڌ هڪجهڙي نه هوندي آهي.<ref name="Goolsby">{{Cite journal |last1=Goolsby |first1=J. A. |last2=Debarro |first2=P. J. |last3=Kirk |first3=A. A. |last4=Sutherst |first4=R. W. |last5=Canas |first5=L. |last6=Ciomperlik |first6=M. A. |last7=Ellsworth |first7=P. C. |last8=Gould |first8=J. R. |last9=Hartley |first9=D. M. |last10=Hoelmer |first10=K. A. |last11=Naranjo |first11=S. E. |last12=Rose |first12=M. |last13=Roltsch |first13=W. J. |last14=Ruiz |first14=R. A. |last15=Pickett |first15=C. H. |last16=Vacek |first16=D. C. |year=2005 |title=Post-release evaluation of biological control of ''Bemisia tabaci'' biotype "B" in the USA and the development of predictive tools to guide introductions for other countries |journal=Biological Control |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2004.07.012 |bibcode=2005BiolC..32...70G |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1353&context=usdaarsfacpub |url-access=subscription}}</ref> آمريڪا جي زرعي تحقيقاتي مرڪز جي ماهرن موجب اڇي مک جي موت جا اهم سبب ٻين جيتن جو شڪار بڻجڻ، [[پيراسائٽزم]] ۽ موسمي اثر آهن.<ref name="USDA">United States Department of Agriculture: [https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2006/apr/whitefly Beyond Insecticides: Improved Methods of Whitefly Control]. Retrieved March 15, 2011.</ref> انهن تحقيقن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته حياتياتي ضابطي وارن طريقن کي [[حشرن جي واڌ ويجهه جا ضابطا آڻيندڙ دوائون]] سان گڏ استعمال ڪرڻ سان شڪاري ۽ نقصانڪار جيتن جو تناسب بهتر ٿئي ٿو.<ref name="McGinnis">McGinnis, L. (April 5, 2006) [https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2006/alternate-methods-of-whitefly-control/ Alternate Methods of Whitefly Control]. usda.gov</ref> مثال طور [[بپروفيزن]] ۽ [[پائيريپروڪسيفن]] جهڙيون دوائون قدرتي دشمنن کي محفوظ رکنديون آهن، جڏهن ته روايتي حشرات ڪش دوائون فائديمند ۽ نقصانڪار ٻنهي قسمن جي جيتن کي ماري ڇڏينديون آهن.<ref name="McGinnis"/> ==== قدرتي دشمن ==== اڇي مک جي آباديءَ کي قدرتي طور تي [[شڪاري]]، [[پيراسائٽوئيڊ]] ۽ [[روڳ پيدا ڪندڙ جاندار]] قابو ۾ رکندا آهن. ''[[بيميسيا ٽيباسي]]'' جا شڪاري گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آرٿروپوڊن جي اٺ مختلف حڪمن سان واسطو رکن ٿا، جن ۾ [[فائٽوسيئيڊيئي]] (''Phytoseiidae'')، [[ڪاڪسينيلڊيئي]] (''Coccinellidae'')، [[سرفيڊيئي]] (''Syrphidae'')، [[اينٿوڪوريڊيئي]] (''Anthocoridae'')، [[نيبيڊيئي]] (''Nabidae'')، [[ميريڊيئي]] (''Miridae'')، [[ڪرسوپيڊيئي]] (''Chrysopidae'') ۽ [[ڪونيئوپٽيريجيڊيئي]] (''Coniopterygidae'') شامل آهن.<ref name="Hoddle">Hoddle, Mark S. (1999). [http://www.biocontrol.ucr.edu/bemisia.html The Biology and Management of the Silverleaf Whitefly, ''Bemisia argentifolii'' Bellows and Perring (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Greenhouse Grown Ornamentals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526034725/https://biocontrol.ucr.edu/bemisia.html |date=2020-05-26 }}.</ref> واپاري طور تي استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم شڪارين ۾ ''[[ڊيلفاسٽس پوسيليس]]'' (''Delphastus pusillus'')، ''[[ميڪرو لوفس ڪيليجينوسس]]'' (''Macrolophus caliginosus'')، ''[[ڪرسوپرلا ڪارنيا]]'' ۽ ''[[ڪرسوپرلا روفيلابرس]]'' شامل آهن.<ref name="Hoddle"/> ''ڊيلفاسٽس پوسيليس'' جا بالغ ۽ ٻچا اڇي مک جي زندگيءَ جي سڀني مرحلن تي خوراڪ حاصل ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته ''ڪرسوپرلا روفيلابرس'' رڳو نابالغ مرحلن تي حملو ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Hoddle"/> اڇي مک جا ٻيا اهم قدرتي دشمن [[پيراسائٽوئيڊ]] ڀنڀريون آهن، جيڪي ميزبان جي اندر پنهنجي واڌ مڪمل ٿيڻ بعد ان کي ماري ڇڏين ٿيون. انهن ۾ [[Platygasteridae]]، [[Aphelinidae]] ۽ [[Eulophidae]] خاندان جون جنسون شامل آهن.<ref name="Hoddle"/> ''[[انڪارسيا فارموسا]]'' ۽ ''[[ايريٽموسيرس ايريميڪس]]'' واپاري طور موجود ٻه اهم حياتياتي ضابطا ڪندڙ پيراسائٽوئيڊ آهن. تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايريٽموسيرس'' جون جنسون ''بيميسيا ٽيباسي'' جي ڪنٽرول ۾ ''انڪارسيا فارموسا'' کان وڌيڪ مؤثر ثابت ٿين ٿيون.<ref name="Hoddle"/> اڇي مک جي خلاف ڪيترائي [[ڦڦوند]] پڻ قدرتي دشمن طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ ''[[پيسيلومائيسس فيوموسوروسيس]]'' (''Paecilomyces fumosoroseus'')، ''[[ايسڪرسانيا اليئروڊس]]'' (''Aschersonia aleyrodis'')، ''[[ورٽيسيليم ليڪاني]]'' (''Verticillium lecanii'') ۽ ''[[بيوويريا باسيانا]]'' (''Beauveria bassiana'') شامل آهن.<ref name="Hoddle"/> مثال طور ''ويرٽيسيليم ليڪاني'' جا اسپور بيضن تي اسپري ڪرڻ سان لڳ ڀڳ 90 سيڪڙو بيضا تباهه ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ''بيوويريا باسيانا'' گهٽ گرمي پد ۽ وڌيڪ نمي واري ماحول ۾ مؤثر حياتياتي ضابطو فراهم ڪري ٿي.<ref name="Hoddle"/> === ڪيميائي ضابطو === ==== قدرتي تيل ==== قدرتي تيل پڻ اڇي مک جي ضابطي ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا. موجوده وقت ۾ [[پيرافين]] تي ٻڌل الٽرا فائن آئل بالغ مکن جي آباد ٿيڻ، آنا ڏيڻ ۽ [[ٽماٽي جي پنن جي پيلي ويڙهجي وڃڻ واري وائرس]] جي منتقلي کي گهٽائڻ ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Schuster & Thompson"/> ان کان سواءِ [[ليمونين]]، [[سيٽرونيلال]]، زيتون، ڪپهه، ارنڊي، مونگ ڦلي، سويا بين، سورج مکي ۽ [[شگر ايپل]] (''Annona squamosa'') جي ٻجن مان حاصل ڪيل تيل به مختلف درجن تائين اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا آهن.<ref name="Chien-Yih">{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=C. Y. |last2=Wu |first2=D. C. |last3=Yu |first3=J. Z. |last4=Chen |first4=B. H. |last5=Wang |first5=C. L. |last6=Ko |first6=W. H. |year=2009 |title=Control of silverleaf whitefly, cotton aphid and kanzawa spider mite with oil and extracts from seeds of sugar apple |journal=Neotropical Entomology |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=531–536 |doi=10.1590/S1519-566X2009000400016 |pmid=19768275 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== حشرن جي واڌ ويجهه جا ضابطا آڻيندڙ دوائون ==== روايتي حشرات ڪش دوائن جي مقابلي ۾ [[پائيريپروڪسيفن]] جهڙا واڌ ويجهه تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ ضابطا ڪندڙ مرڪب ڪدو، ونگي، ڪڪڙي ۽ ٻين فصلن تي اڇي مک جي آبادي گهٽائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ثابت ٿيا آهن.<ref name="Qureshi">{{Cite journal |last1=Qureshi |first1=M. S. |last2=Midmore |first2=D. J. |last3=Syeda |first3=S. S. |last4=Playford |first4=C. L. |year=2007 |title=Floating row covers and pyriproxyfen help control silverleaf whitefly ''Bemisia tabaci'' Biotype B in zucchini |journal=Australian Journal of Entomology |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=313–319 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-6055.2007.00600.x}}</ref> === ميخانياتي ضابطو === ==== هٿرادو ڦاسا ۽ ڍڪ ==== [[ايل اي ڊي]] روشنيءَ وارا ڦاسا اڇي مک جي نگراني ۽ ضابطي لاءِ مؤثر ثابت ٿيا آهن. اهي رات جي وقت بالغ مکن کي پاڻ ڏانهن ڇڪين ٿا ۽ فائديمند جيتن کي نقصان نه پهچائيندا آهن.<ref name="Elstein">Elstein, David (2002). New Trap To Control Silverleaf Whiteflies. USDA.</ref> ==== ڦاسائيندڙ فصل ==== [[ڪدو]]، [[ڪينٽالوپ]] ۽ [[ڪڪڙي]] جهڙا فصل اڇي مک کي پاڻ ڏانهن وڌيڪ ڇڪين ٿا، تنهنڪري انهن کي [[ڦاسائيندڙ فصل]] طور استعمال ڪري ٽماٽي جهڙن اهم فصلن کي وائرس کان بچائي سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="Schuster">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuster |first1=D. J. |year=2004 |title=Squash as a trap crop to protect tomato from whitefly-vectored tomato yellow leaf curl |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.1080/09670870412331284591 |s2cid=84016262}}</ref> === ثقافتي ضابطو === ميزبان فصلن کي هڪ ٻئي کان مناسب فاصلي تي پوکڻ، سياري ۽ بهار جي فصلن مان ٻوٽن جا باقيات ۽ [[گندگاهه]] ختم ڪرڻ، ۽ چانديءَ جهڙي چمڪدار پلاسٽڪ ملچ جو استعمال اڇي مک جي آباد ٿيڻ کي گهٽائي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="UC IPM">UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Peppers. December 2009.</ref> خاص طور تي [[ڪڪڙين جو خاندان|ڪڪڙين واري خاندان]] جي فصلن ۾ اهڙا ثقافتي طريقا [[اسڪواش وين ييلوئنگ وائرس]] (SqVYV) جهڙن وائرسن جي پکڙجڻ کي به محدود ڪن ٿا.<ref name="Flores">Flores, A. (2007). On the Guard Against Watermelon Vine Decline. ''Agricultural Research''.</ref> == حوالا == {{Reflist|35em}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == * [http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/silverleaf_whitefly.htm فلوريڊا يونيورسٽي ۽ انسٽيٽيوٽ آف فوڊ اينڊ ايگريڪلچرل سائنسز جي ''فيچرڊ ڪريچرز'' تي سلورليف اڇي مک] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090218081553/http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/fasulo/whiteflies/wfly0002.htm آمريڪي زراعت کاتي جو وائيٽ فلائي ناليج بيس] * [http://cisr.ucr.edu/silverleaf_whitefly.html سلورليف اڇي مک بابت سينٽر فار انويزو اسپيشيز ريسرچ (CISR) جو خلاصو] * [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/silverleaf-whitefly سلورليف اڇي مک (''Bemisia argentifolii'') جو نوعي پروفائيل]، [[آمريڪا جي قومي زرعي لائبريري]] جي نيشنل انويزو اسپيشيز انفارميشن سينٽر تي. {{Taxonbar|from=Q1303946}} {{DEFAULTSORT:سلورليف اڇي مک}} [[زمرو:اڇيون مکيون]] [[زمرو:اتر آمريڪا جا هيميپٽيرا]] [[زمرو:زرعي نقصانڪار جيت]] [[زمرو:ٻوٽن جي روڳن جا حشري ناقل]] [[زمرو:1889ع ۾ بيان ڪيل جيت]] [[زمرو:ڀارت جا جيت]] 6hlbeo4upxz9xmw9g258h9f61ro2doi ارٿ شاستر 0 19021 394724 302676 2026-07-16T01:05:11Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مبسس4}} حڪمرانيءَ جي طور طريقن بابت دنيا جي قديم ڪتابن ۾ ”ارٿ شاستر“ (Arthashastra) به هڪ قديم ڪتاب آهي، جيڪو [[سنسڪرت|سنسڪرت ٻوليءَ]] ۾ 400 ق.م کان 150 ق.م جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ اچارينا '''چاڻڪيا ڪوٽليا''' (Chanakya Kauṭilya or Chaannkiya Kottiliya or Vishnugupta) لکيو. ”ارٿ شاستر“ کي اقتصادي علم جو باضابطا پهريون ڪتاب ڄاتو وڃي ٿو، جنهن جو ڪيترن ئي ٻولين ۾ ترجمو ٿي چڪو آهي. ترجمو ڪندڙ هن ڪتاب کي اهڙي دستاويز جي حيثيت ۾ ڏٺو آهي، جيڪو حڪمرانن کي معاشي معاملن ۽ خلق جي بهتر زندگي ۽ اقتدار جا گر سيکاري ٿو، ائين چئي سگهجي ٿو ته هي ڪتاب رياست جي مجموعي نظام هلائڻ جا طور طريقا ڏسي ٿو. [[چندر گپت موريا]] جي بادشاهي جن شخصيتن جي ڪري قائم هئي، انهن ۾ چاڻڪيه جو مرڪزي ڪردار هو. هي ڪتاب چندر گپت موريا جي حڪمراني دوران لکيل آهي، قدرتي ۽ مالي وسيلن ۽ بنيادي معاشي سرگرمين تي ڪتاب ۾ لاڀائتو بحث ٿيل آهي. هن ڪتاب ۾ زراعت، واپار، صنعت ۽ ٻين شعبن جو به پيرائتو ذڪر آهي. هي ڪتاب جيتوڻيڪ ان زماني ۾ لکيو ويو هو، جڏهن جبري بادشاهت هئي، پوءِ به چاڻڪيا عوام جي ڀلائي واري پاسي کي نظر انداز نه ڪيو، هي ڪتاب پندرهن بابن ۾ ورهايل آهي. هن ڪتاب ۾ نظم ۽ ضبط، سرڪاري عملدارن جي ذميوارين، بهتر حڪمرانيءَ جي راهه جي رنڊڪ هٽائڻ، درٻارين جي ڪردار ۽ عملن، رياستي خودمختياري جي بڻ بڻياد، سماجي براين، هنگامي حالتن، جنگ، دشمن سان بهتر نموني هلڻ، بين الرياستي معاهدن ۽ جاسوسيءَ جي ڪردار تي بحث ڪيو ويو آهي. هن ڪتاب ۾ [[آچاريه چاڻڪيه]] بادشاهه جون وصفون به بيان ڪيون آهن. جهڙوڪ: وٽس رياست جون واڳون مضبوط هجن، با اخلاق هجي، پرائي ڌن ۽ پرائي عورت تي نظر نه رکي، اهنسا جي راهه تي هلي، اجاين خرچن ۽ -بد- ڪردار ماڻهن کان -پاسو- ڪري، وڌ ۾ وڌ علم حاصل ڪري، خاميون ڏسيندڙ جو فڪر ڪري ۽ صرف خامين کي ختم ڪري، يادگيريءَ جو پڪو هجي، ڪنهن جي به رهنمائيءَ وٺڻ ۾ نه هٻڪي، دفاعي مامرن ۾ ڀڙ هجي، طبيعت ۾ اعتدال پسند هجي، بخيل نه هجي، بحرانن ۾ وائڙو نه ٿئي، -جنگ- وڙهڻ ۽ جنگبنديءَ بابت نظر شناس هجي، دشمن سان وقتائتي معاهدي جي ڄاڻ رکندو هجي، دشمن جي ڪمزورين تي نظر رکڻ ڄاڻندو هجي. ڪتاب ۾ بادشاهه جي فرضن جو خاڪو چٽيو ويو آهي. چاڻڪيه مثالي بادشاهه ان کي چوي ٿو، جيڪو اعليٰ خاندان سان تعلق رکندڙ هجي، هيڪاندي دولت، ذهانت ۽ مهارت وارو هجي، زماني شناس ماڻهن سان رابطو رکندڙ ۽ اعليٰ ڪردار وارو هجي. قول جو پڪو، پاڙيسري حڪمرانن کان طاقتور هجي، باصلاحيت ماڻهن کي صلاحڪار بنائي. چاڻڪيه ۽ ارٿ شاستر تي تنقيد ڪندڙ سياسي مبصر ۽ مؤرخ چون ٿا ته چاڻڪيه ارٿ شاستر ۾ رياستي يا حڪومتي معاملن ۾ عوام جي سگهاري ڪردار جو ذڪر نه ڪيو آهي. چاڻڪيه تي ٻيو اعتراض اهو ڪيو ويو آهي ته هن حڪمران طبقي کي حڪمرانيءَ جو حقدار قرار ڏيندي، شاهي طبقي جي وڪالت ڪئي آهي. ٻئي پاسي چاڻڪيه، شاهي خاندان ۾ اقتدار لاءِ -جاري- رهندڙ ڇڪتاڻ کي رياست لاءِ انتهائي نقصانڪار قرار ڏنو آهي، چاڻڪيه معيشت ۽ سياست جي بنيادي اصولن جي تعليم بابت عام ماڻهن کي ڪنهن به مرحلي تي لائق نه سمجهيو آهي، چاڻڪيه مستقبل جي بادشاهه جي ترتيب کي به غير معمولي اهميت ڏني آهي. ان دور جي گهرجن مطابق بادشاهت کي ئي [[انسان]] جي سياست، معيشت ۽ معاشرت جو محور قرار ڏنو ويو آهي. چاڻڪيه پنهنجي ڏاهپ ذريعي ماڻهن کي بادشاهه جي ذات مان رهنمائي حاصل ڪرڻ جو تحرڪ ڏنو آهي. چاڻڪيه چندر گپت موريه جي ذهني تربيت ڪئي هئي، ان ڏس ۾ سندس ڪردار اهڙو ئي هو جهڙو يوناني فاتح سڪندر اعظم لاءِ -ارسطو- ۽ مغل شهنشاهه -جلال- الدين اڪبر لاءِ -بيرم خان- جو هو. چاڻڪيه ڀارتي معاشري کي چئن ورڻن ۾ ورهائڻ جي حمايت ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارٿ شاستر : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BF%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1 |access-date=2020-06-27 |archive-date=2024-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241115183252/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BF%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == پنڊت چاڻڪيا ڪوٽليا جا ڪجهه اصول == اَرٿ شاستر ۾ پنڊت چاڻڪيا ڪجهه اصول ٻڌايا ويا آهن، انهن مان ڪجهه هي آهن. * اقتدار کي ڪڏهن به ٿڌو نه ڪجي، سدائين گرم رکجي. * اقتدار جي سياست ۾ سڀ ڪجهه جائز هوندو آهي. * پاڙيسري قومن ۽ ملڪن کي ’دشمن‘ تصور ڪرڻ گهرجي. * اڻ پاڙيسري ملڪن سان ناتا وڌائي، پاڙيسري ملڪن کي دٻيل ۽ هيسيل رکڻ گهرجي. * ’امن‘ ۽ ’صلح‘ ٻئي بي معنا لفظ آهن،<ref>{{Citation |title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (Specialized)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Specialized/Book2/Book_page3.html |accessdate=2016-09-18 |archive-date=2021-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025135828/http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Specialized/Book2/Book_page3.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == سرڪاري بدعنواني == چاڻڪيا سرڪاري معاملن ۾ ٿيندڙ بدعنوانيءَ جي باري ۾ چئي ٿو ته، ”جهڙيءَ ريت زبان جي تي رکيل ماکيءَ يا وههَ (زهر) کي چکڻ کان سواءِ رهي نٿو سگهجي بلڪل ساڳي نموني سرڪاري ڪاموري جي لاءِ اها اڻٿيڻي ڳالهه آهي ته اهو سرڪاري مال کي ٿورو گهڻو نه چکي (ڪرپشن نه ڪري). جهڙيءَ ريت پاڻيءَ ۾ موجود مڇيءَ کي ڏسي اهو نٿو چئي سگهجي ته اها پاڻي پي رهي آهي يا نه، بلڪل ساڳي نموني سرڪاري ڪاموري جي باري ۾ به اهو نٿو چئي سگهجي ته اهو بدعنواني ڪري پيو يا نه. <ref>چاڻڪيا (ارٿ شاستر، 4 سئو ورهيه قبل مسيح</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ھندومت]] [[زمرو:قديم تاريخ]] [[زمرو:سنسڪرت لکتون]] [[زمرو:هندو لکتون]] qodhcf5yutc4moc7x2ug75p7yut7zon ارجن شاد 0 19028 394696 98476 2026-07-16T00:04:55Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394696 wikitext text/x-wiki سنڌ ۽ هند جي نالي واري شاعر -ارجن شاد- جو اصل نالو -ارجن- گوبندرام ميرچنداڻي آهي. سندس -جنم- 17 ڊسمبر 1924ع تي [[سنڌ]] ۾ ٿيو. پي.ايڇ. ڊي ”سنڌي غزل“ جي عنوان تي ڪيل اٿس. جيڪا ٿيسز هند ۽ سنڌ ۾ڇپيل آهي. ادبي دنيا ۾ شاعر ۽ نقاد جي حيثيت سان مشهور رهيو آهي. ”-بيوس ۽ نئون دور-“ عنوان سان لکيل سندس ڪتاب، ڪشنچند بيوس تي هڪ اهم مستند ڪتاب آهي. ورهاڱي کان پوءِ ڀارت هليو ويو. جئه هند ڪاليج جي سنڌي شعبي جو سربراهه رهيو آهي. سندس شاعريءَ جا پنج ڪتاب ڇپيل آهن: ’آءٌ گهٽين جو ڳائيندڙ‘ (1957ع)، ’ڏاهيون ڏک ڏسن‘ (1962ع)، ”انڌو دونهون“ (1982ع) ۽ ”ڌرتيءَ جو درد“ (1997ع). هن روسي شاعريءَ جو ترجمو ”وولگا جي ڪناري“ (1967ع) ڪيو. آل -انڊيا- ريڊيو ۽ -بمبئي- ٽي. ويءَ تي شاعر، ليکڪ ۽ اداڪار جي حيثيت ۾ ڪيترائي ڀيرا شرڪت ڪيائين. ڪونج ادبي مئگزين جا ڪيترا پرچا ايڊٽ ڪيل، ادبي اڪيڊميءَ جي صلاحڪار بورڊ جو ميمبر، ڀارت سرڪار جي سنڌي صلاحڪار بورڊ جو ميمبر، ڪيترين ئي تعليمي ڪاميٽين جو چيئرمئن ۽ ميمبر رهيو آهي. هن 2006ع ۾ لاڏاڻو ڪيو.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارجن شاد : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%86%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412104936/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%86%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} iqq1mdblk54v4lczmbi2vng6appq7kl ارچڪ مرچڪ 0 19030 394725 342356 2026-07-16T01:07:01Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394725 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ارچڪ مرچڪ''' هڪ ٻاراڻي راند آھي. ارچڪ مرچڪ راند جا پھريان ٻہ لفظ آھن. راند جي سڄي چوڻي هن طرح آهي: <poem> ارچِڪِ مِرچڪ، ڌاڻا ڌِرچِڪِ آڳَ پٽيھِرَ، ٽوڀو ٽِيھرَ لوهو لاٽون، چنڻ گهاٽُون نانگڻ جوڳڻ، خيران کٽي ٻُٽي، هُتِ ڇُٽي لاڙ ۾ اُن جا ٻول هن ريت آهن: ارچڪ مرچڪ، ڌاڻا ڌِرچڪ، آڳَ پٽولڻ، ناگڻ جوڳڻ، لاهيان لوٽو، چندن گهاٽو هُرٻو ڇوڙ، ڇُٽ ڀَٽارا </poem> انھن ٻولن جا مختلف روپ مختلف علائقن ۾ مروج آهن، انھن ٻولن چوڻ سان گڏ هرهڪ ٻار تي هٿ رکبو وڃبو، جنھن ٻار تي ٻول، کُٽو، اهو ٻار وڃي لڪندو. ائين ڪندي ڪندي آخر ۾ جيڪو ٻار بچيو، اُهو آڳ ڏيندو. هن راند جي ٻي صورت اها آهي تہ سڀ ٻار هٿ ابتا ڪري اڳيان رکي ويھندا. ڪو هڪڙو (عام طرح گهر جو وڏو فرد) هٿن تي آڱر رکي اهي ٻول چوندو ويندو، جنھن جي هٿ تي ٻول کٽو اهو هٿ سڌو ڪندو، ائين سڀني لاءِ ٿيندو، جيڪڏهن وري ڪنھن سنئين ٿيل هٿ تي آڱر پھتي تہ اهو راند مان خارج ٿي ويندو. سڀني کان آخر ۾ بچيل ٻار راند کٽي ويندو.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA%20%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA ارچڪ مرچڪ – انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409172601/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA%20%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA |date=2016-04-09 }} [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻارن جا راند]] [[زمرو:رانديون]] j7f9w58ianqj01xaezj6p8hz57rxiq0 ارچڪ مرچڪ (رسالو) 0 19031 394726 139436 2026-07-16T01:09:04Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394726 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ارچڪ مرچڪ'''نالي سان عبرت گروپ آف پبليڪيشن [[حيدرآباد]] پاران ڪيترا سال لاڳاتار ٻارن لاءِ ماهوار پرچو ڪڍيو ويو، جيڪو هاڻي -بند- ٿي ويو آهي.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA%20%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%86%DA%AA%20(%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88) ارچڪ مرچڪ (رسالو) : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ٻاراڻو ادب]] grrbsvjpja453bwmz32p70k57ctqdk8 اردابيگي 0 19032 394697 98477 2026-07-16T00:06:33Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394697 wikitext text/x-wiki ترڪي- ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جيڪو مغليه دور ۾ [[سنڌ]] ۾ رائج ٿيو. هيءُ لفظ انهيءَ هٿيارن پهريل ۽ ورديءَ واري عورت لاءِ ڪم آيو آهي، جيڪا شاهي حرم جي دروازي تي پهرو ڏئي ۽ چوڪيداري ڪري.<ref>{{Citation |title=اردابيگي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%DA%AF%D9%8A |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2024-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241103201057/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%DA%AF%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> جيئن شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ پنهنجي ڪلام ۾ آندو آهي ته: ”-جت- اچن نه اُردابيگيون، اُت ڪوٺايو امين“. (شاهه) == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 4p9yitsqjobgao7dbwyuijvqvbyu1oj ارداس 0 19033 394698 98478 2026-07-16T00:08:24Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394698 wikitext text/x-wiki [[فارسي ٻولي|فارسي ٻوليءَ]] جي ”عرضداشت“ لفظ جو بگڙيل اُچار، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي، عرض، سوال، التجا، وغيره. سک ڌرم ۾ روزانو -پاٺ- ڪرڻ يا اهم ڪرياڪرم سرانجام ڏيڻ تي ’-ارداس-‘ پڙهي ويندي آهي. -ان- وقت جملي حاضرين هٿ -ٻڌي- بيهندا آهن. هڪڙو شخص -ارداس- پڙهندو ۽ ٻيا ماٺ ڪري ٻڌندا ۽ آخر ۾ ’واه گرو‘ چوندا، انهيءَ -ارداس- جو به مطلب آهي ”التجا، سوال، عرض وغيره.“<ref>{{Citation |title=ارداس : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410234257/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} s2au4gyghfesg08zdqsm6uto7ausiv3 اردشير ڪائوسجي 0 19034 394699 372915 2026-07-16T00:10:10Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394699 wikitext text/x-wiki {{صندوق معلومات شخص}} اردشير ڪائوسجي- نامور صحافي ۽ واپاري شخصيت آهي. ڪراچيءَ جي هڪ قديم، معزز -پارسي- خاندان ۾ ڄائو. -تعليم- مڪمل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ پنهنجو اباڻو ڌنڌو ۽ سامونڊي واپار شروع ڪيائين. هن جي پنهنجي هڪ شپنگ ڪمپني هئي، 1986ع ۾ روزاني ”ڊان“ (DAWN) ۾ -ان- وقت جي حالتن تي، -ايڊيٽر- جي نالي خط لکڻ شروع ڪيائين. هن جا خط منفرد خيالن ۽ اسلوب تحرير جي تکائيءَ سبب، سياست ۽ دانش جي صاحبن ۽ وڏن وڏن نامور ڪالم نگارن کان به وڌيڪ شهرت حاصل ڪري چڪا آهن. ”ڊان“ جي -ايڊيٽر- جي فرمائش تي هن هفتيوار ڪالم لکڻ شروع ڪيا. سندس پهريون ڪالم ئي تحرير جي آزاديءَ متعلق هو. پنهنجن سياسي ڪالمن سبب، ڪيترائي دفعا توهين عدالت جو ڏوهاري بڻجي، سپريم ڪورٽ آڏو پيش ٿي چڪو آهي. -اردو- ۽ سنڌي اخبارون هن جي هر ڪالم جو ترجمو شايع ڪنديون رهنديون آهن. اردشير کي مغربي ملڪن جي آرٽ جا شاهڪار جمع ڪرڻ جو به شوق آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=اردشير ڪائوسجي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1%20%DA%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AC%D9%8A |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123221819/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1%20%DA%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AC%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:پاڪستاني ڪالم نگار]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:1926ع جون پيدائشون]] o9w15hwmwinmfvvzed5whael90hnc0x اردو ڊڪشنري بورڊ 0 19035 394703 342961 2026-07-16T00:18:42Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394703 wikitext text/x-wiki '''اردو ڊڪشنري بورڊ''' 1958ع ڌاري [[اردو]] زبان جي وڏي عالم، محسن ۽ اديب، باباءِ -اردو- مولوي عبدالحق، هڪ اداري طور ڪراچيءَ ۾ قائم ڪيو. هن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ اردوءَ جا ناميارا اديب شامل رهيا آهن، جڏهن ته سنڌي عالمن مان پير سيد حسام الدين راشدي ۽ ڊاڪٽر نبي بخش خان -بلوچ- ۽ ٻيا پڻ هن اداري سان لاڳاپيل رهيا. هن بورڊ جي سربراهن ۾ پروفيسر ڊاڪٽر فرمان فتحپوري، پروفيسر ڊاڪٽر اسلم فرخي ۽ ڊاڪٽر جميل جالبي وغيره رهيا آهن ۽ هن وقت -ان- جي چيف -ايڊيٽر- -اردو- زبان جي مشهور شاعره فهميده رياض آهي. اردو ڊڪشنري بورڊ هن وقت تائين -اردو- لغت جا ايڪيهه جلد شايع ڪري چڪو آهي ۽ ٻاويهين جلد تي ڪم هلندڙ آهي. 27 -جنوري- 2007ع تي ڪيبينيٽ ڊويزن جي هڪ فيصلي کي لاڳو ڪرڻ لاءِ وفاقي حڪومت جي -تعليم- واري وزارت کي -اردو- سائنس بورڊ ۽ نئشنل بڪ فائونڊيشن سان گڏي هڪ اداري بنائڻ لاءِ ڪوشش ڪئي. تازو 2 جون 2009ع تي نئشنل بڪ فائونڊيشن جي مئنيجنگ ڊائريڪٽر ۽ -اردو- سائنس بورڊ جي ڊائريڪٽر جنرل وزارت -تعليم- جي عملدارن سان هڪ گڏجاڻي ڪئي ۽ -ان- فيصلي تي عمل ڪرڻ جي لاءِ وفاقي وزارت -تعليم- هڪ نوٽيفيڪيشن -جاري- ڪيو، جنهن مطابق -اردو- سائنس بورڊ، نئشنل بڪ فائونڊيشن ۽ -اردو ڊڪشنري بورڊ- کي ملائي هڪ ادارو بنايو ويندو، -ان- فيصلي جي -اردو ڊڪشنري بورڊ- جي ملازمن ۽ موجوده چيف -ايڊيٽر- فهميده رياض پاران پهرين -جولاءِ- 2009ع واري ڊان -اخبار- ۾ آيل هڪ خبر موجب مخالفت ڪئي وئي ۽ تصديق ڪرڻ تي پاڻ ٻڌايائين ته اهڙو ساڳيو خط وفاقي حڪومت واري سيڪريٽري -تعليم- کي به لکيو ويو آهي. حڪومت طرفان اهڙي نوٽيفڪيشن ڪڍڻ جو پس منظر اهو آهي ته سپريم ڪورٽ ۾ داخل ڪيل هڪ پٽيشن جي جواب ۾ فيصلو ٿيو هو ته ٺهرائن/رزوليوشنن ذريعي قائم ڪيل ادارا -ان- وقت تائين حڪومت جا ذيلي ادارا رهندا، جيستائين انهن جي حيثيت قانون سازيءَ ذريعي خودمختيار نٿي ڪئي وڃي.<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%DA%8A%DA%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A%20%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%8A |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409210753/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%DA%8A%DA%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A%20%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:اردو]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ تعليم]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ قائم تعليمي تنظيمون]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان جا وفاقي ادارا ۽ گماشتگيري]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان حڪومت جي ملڪيت ڪمپنيون]] 2qrtfqha71kai2lmjzu6fimkpet7ynx اردو سنڌي لغت (1960ع) 0 19036 394701 235104 2026-07-16T00:14:55Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394701 wikitext text/x-wiki '''اردو سنڌي لغت''' ڊاڪٽر [[غلام مصطفيٰ خان]] ۽ ڊاڪٽر [[نبي بخش بلوچ|نبي بخش خان بلوچ]] جي گڏ مرتب ڪيل آهي. سنڌ ۾ اردو ۽ سنڌي آباديءَ ۾ مستقل ويجهڙائي ۽ هڪ ٻئي جي ٻولين ۽ ادب کي سمجهڻ واري مقصد کي آڏو رکي [[امداد علي امام علي قاضي|علامه آءِ. آءِ قاضي]] ”اردو سنڌي“ ۽ ”سنڌي اردو“ لغتن تيار ڪرائڻ جي رٿا جوڙائي، جنھن موجب اهي ٻئي لغتون تيار ڪرايون ويون. هن ڊيمي سائيز پڪي جلد واري ڪتاب ۾ 590 صفحا آهن ۽ قيمت 9 رپيا ڄاڻايل آهي. پھريون ڇاپو، [[انسٽيٽيوٽ آف سنڌولاجي|انسٽيٽيوٽ آف سنڌالاجيءَ]] پاران، سنڌ يونيورسٽي پريس، حيدرآباد مان 1960ع ۾ ڇپيو.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%20%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA اردو سنڌي لغت] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409145231/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%20%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA |date=2016-04-09 }} [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]] (ويبسائيٽ)، [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]]، [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} pnbffjghvpq6fnwvr3wo7hjfmowrnfr اردو سنڌي لغت (2003ع) 0 19037 394702 117567 2026-07-16T00:16:49Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book | name = اردو سنڌي لغت (2003ع) | title_orig = | translator = | image = | image_size = | author = عبدالستار بلوچ | cover_artist = | country = پاڪستان | language = سنڌي | series = | subject = [[لغت]] | publisher = [[سنڌيڪا اڪيڊمي]] <br/> [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو]] | release_date = 2003 | media_type = ڪتاب | pages = 1024 | isbn = }} سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽيءَ ۽ [[سنڌيڪا اڪيڊمي|سنڌيڪا اڪيڊميءَ]] جي سهڪار سان ڇپيل لغت آهي، جنهن جي -تحقيق- ۽ ترتيب عبدالستار -بلوچ- جي ڪيل آهي ۽ نگران نور احمد ميمڻ اٿس. پنجاهه هزار لفظن واري هن لغت ۾ 1024 صفحا آهن ۽ قيمت 750 رپيا لکيل آهي. هيءَ لغت سال 2003ع ۾ شايع ڪئي وئي.<ref>{{Citation |title=اردو سنڌي لغت (ڪتاب) : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%20%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA%20(%DA%AA%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8) |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409202224/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%20%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%20%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA%20(%DA%AA%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8) |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 3rajjz70loeyut31epkhgg4ojkkl6my ارڏو اترادي 0 19038 394727 98509 2026-07-16T01:10:49Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394727 wikitext text/x-wiki ارڏي اتراديءَ جو اصل سندس اصل نالو ارصلاح ولد ڪوهدل -باجڪاڻي- آهي. 17 مئي 1949ع تي ڳوٺ گلواڻي [[ڪنڌڪوٽ تعلقو|تعلقي ڪنڌڪوٽ]] ۾ پيدا ٿيو. پنهنجي ڳوٺ ۽ ڪنڌڪوٽ هاءِ اسڪول کان -تعليم- حاصل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ سنڌ يونيورسٽِيءَ مان سنڌيءَ ۾ ايم اي ڪيائين. 1968ع ۾ ”عاجز“ تخلص سان شاعريءَ ذريعي ادب ۾ داخل ٿيو. سندس سموري شاعري ارڏائي واري هئي -ان- ڪري دوستن جي اسرار تي ”-ارڏو اترادي-“ نالو اختيار ڪيائين. سٺو شاعر، اديب ۽ -استاد- آهي. سندس لکڻيون مختلف اخبارن ۽ رسالن ۾ شايع ٿينديون رهن ٿيون. سائين جي. ايم. سيد سان عقيدت رکڻ ڪري ڪجهه عرصو جيئي سنڌ محاذ سان به وابسته رهيو. سماجي ورڪر آهي ۽ سگا شاخ ڪنڌڪوٽ سان وابسته آهي. سندس شاعريءَ جو هڪ مجموعو ”-جنگ جو اعلان-“ شايع ٿيل آهي. جڏهن ته ”موت کي مات“ ۽ ”اکڙين جو -جام-“ سندس شاعري جا اڻ ڇپيل مجموعا آهن ۽ ”-آتم ڪهاڻي-“ ۽ ”اڻ وسرندڙ ڪهاڻي“ نثري ڪتاب اڃا شايع ٿي نه سگھيا آهن.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارڏو اترادي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%8F%D9%88%20%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2025-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250612044220/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%8F%D9%88%20%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 0rfug6jo37xvj212nw6wnzw5oe9p6h3 ارڙ فقير جو مقبرو 0 19040 394728 254653 2026-07-16T01:12:33Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394728 wikitext text/x-wiki هي مقبرو ارغون- -ترخان- دور جو آهي. بٺوري -اسٽيشن- کان 7-8 ڪلوميٽر پري کنڀري واري مسجد کان اولهه ۾- ديهه ڄانڀو ڪنڊي ۾ واقع آهي. هتي پراڻي دور جي ھڪ بزرگ جي مزار آھي ۽ مزار جي -آس- پاس وڏو [[قبرستان]] آھي، هن بزرگ کي مقامي ماڻهو ارڙ فقير چوندا آهن. هتي ڇور ذات جا ماڻهو رھن ٿا. مقام به سندن آھي. عام روايت آھي ته ڇور ذات جا ماڻھو ڪلھوڙا عھد ۾ ھتي آيا ته ھيءَ مزار اڳ ۾ ھتي موجود ھئي. جيڪا -ان- وقت به پراڻي حالت ۾ موجود ھئي. ممڪن آهي ته -ارغون- -ترخان- دور جو ڪو شھيد بزرگ ھجي؟<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%99%20%D9%81%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B1%20%DB%BD%20%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D8%AC%D9%88%20%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411102740/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%99%20%D9%81%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B1%20%DB%BD%20%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D8%AC%D9%88%20%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 7e1c8eq9a7wm4yuqf1gamulqpk9tuyx ارسطو 0 19043 394704 302233 2026-07-16T00:22:06Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{بهترين مضمون|2023 مهينو جولاءِ}} {{Infobox philosopher | name=ارسطو <br> Aristotle | image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg | caption= ارسطو جو مجسمو | birth_date=384 ق م | birth_place=[[اسٽيجيريا]] (قديم شھر),<br/>[[چالڪيديڪي]],<br/>[[چالسيڊين ليگ]],<br/>اتر يونان | death_date={{nowrap|322 ق م (لڳ ڀڳ 62 سال)}} | death_place=[[يوبيئا]]، مقدوينہ | era= [[قديم فلسفو]] | region= [[مغربي فلسفو]] | school_tradition={{Flatlist}} * [[سيلاني فڪر]] يا پيريپٽيٽڪ اسڪول * [[ارسطوئيت]] {{Endflatlist}} | main_interests={{Flatlist}} * [[علم حياتيات]] * [[زولاجي]] * [[علم نفسيات]]<ref> {{cite book | last=Kantor | first=J. R. | title=The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I| year=1963 | publisher=Principia Press |page=116 | isbn=978-0-911188-25-7}}</ref><ref>Aristotle (350 B.C.). [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.html ''On the soul'']. Translated by J. A. Smith</ref> * [[علم طبعيات]] * [[مابعدالطبعيات]] * [[منطق]] * [[اخلاقيات]] * [[فصاحت۽ بلاغت]] يا ريٽرڪ * [[موسيقي]] * [[شاعري]] * [[معاشيات]] * [[سياست]] * [[حڪومت]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_ideas={{Flatlist}} * [[ارسطو جو فلسفو]] * [[قياس]] يا [[سلوجزم]] (Syllogism) * [[نظريو ۽ روح]] * [[نيڪي جي اخلاقيات]] | influences = {{Flatlist}} * [[افلاطون]]، [[سقراط]]، [[ايمپيڊوڪليز]] {{Endflatlist}} | influenced = {{longitem|لڳ ڀڳ سڀ بعد ۾ ايندڙ، [[مغربي فلاسافي]], [[عيسائي فلاسافي]] ۽ جاڳرتا کان اڳ وارو دور }} {{Endflatlist}} }} '''ارسطو''' (Aristotle) (384 ق.م- 322 ق.م) [[يونان|پراچين يونان]] جو [[فلسفو|فلسفي]]، [[رياضي|رياضي دان]] ۽ [[فلڪيات]] جي ڄاڻو هيو. ھن کي [[يوناني ٻولي|يوناني]] ۾ "ارسطاطاليس" سڏيندا آهن. عام طور تي ارسطو جي زندگي بابت تفصيل تسلي سان ثابت ناھن. ان جي سوانح تي لکيل قديم دؤر واريون لکڻيون ڪلپنا تي مشتمل آهن. اتهاس ڪار انھن مان صرف ڪجهه مکيه گُڻن تي متفق آهن. سندس لکڻين ۾ [[فلسفو]]، [[لسانيات]]، [[اقتصاديات|معاشیات]]، [[سياست]]، [[نفسيات]] ۽ [[فنون لطيفہ|فنون]] شامل آهن. جيئن ته [[اٿينس|ايٿنس]] جي "ليسيم" ۾ فلسفي جي ارسطو جو پوئلڳ اسڪول جي باني جي طور تي، هن وڏي پيماني تي ارسطو جي روايت جي شروعات ڪئي، جنهن بعد جديد سائنس جي ترقي جي لاءِ بنياد رکيو. ارسطو جي جيون جي باري ۾ تمام گھٽ ڄاڻ موجود آھي. هو ڪلاسيڪل دور ۾ اتر [[يونان]] جي شهر، استاگيرا ۾ پيدا ٿيو. جڏهن ارسطو ٻار هو، ته سندس پيءُ، نڪوماڪس، مري ويو ۽ هن کي هڪ سرپرست پاليو. سترهن يا ارڙهن ورهين جي ڄمار ۾ هن ايٿنس ۾ [[افلاطون]] جي "اڪيڊمي" ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪئي ۽ 347 ق.م. تائين اتي رهيو. افلاطون جي مرڻ کان ٿورو پوءِ، ارسطو ايٿنس ڇڏي، مقدوني جي فلپ ٻيون جي ارضيءَ تي، 343 ق.م ۾ اُن جي پٽ، [[سڪندر اعظم]] کي پاٺُ پڙهائڻ لڳو۔ هن لائيسيم ۾ هڪ لائبريري قائم ڪئي جنهن هن جي مدد ڪئي ته هن جا ڪيترائي سوين ڪتاب پيپيرس اسڪرول تي تيار ڪرڻ ۾ سهائتا ڪئي. ==زندگي== ارسطو جو جنم 384 ق.م ۾ [[يونان]] جي شھر، [[ٿسالونيڪي|ٿيسالونيڪي]] جي اوڀر طرف 55 ڪلوميٽر جي فاصلي تي [[ڪلڪڊيڪي]] اپٻيٽ جي ھڪ قديم شھر [[اسٽيجائرا]] ۾ ٿيو.<ref name = "سنڌيانا "/><ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/> ارسطوءَ جو پيءُ نيڪوماخوس يونان جي رياست [[مقدونيا (قديم رياست)|مقدونيا]] جي بادشاهه ۽ سڪندر اعظم جي ڏاڏي، [[امينٽاس ٻيون|امينٽاس ٻئين]] جو درٻاري حڪيم هو.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ"/><ref name = " سنڌيانا "/> ننڍپڻ ۾ کيس [[طب]] ۽ [[حياتيات|علم حياتيات]] جي تعليم سندس والد کان ملي.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Borchers|first1=Timothy A. |title=Rhetorical theory : an introduction|date=2018|first2=Heather |last2=Hundley|isbn=978-1-4786-3580-2|edition=Second |location=Long Grove, Illinois|oclc=1031145493}}</ref> ارسطو ارڙهن سالن جي عمر ۾ [[اٿينس]] آيو. ويهن سالن تائين هڪ ٻئي عظيم فيلسوف، [[افلاطون]] جي صحبت ۾ رهيو ۽ ان جي درسگاھه، "اڪيڊمي" ۾ کانئس گهڻو ڪجهه پرايائين.<ref name=" سنڌيانا ">[ http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=ارسطو {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823150742/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88 |date=2024-08-23 }} ارسطو : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->] انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا</ref> ارسطو پاڻ، ان وقت جي حڪيمن جي بيداريءَ واري تنظيم جو ميمبر هو. هو دوائن جي فضا ۾ پليو هو،<ref name="ول ڊيورنٽ">[http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Philosophy/Book4/Book_page2.html] ڪتاب : فلسفي جي ڪھاڻي؛ ليکڪ: ول ڊيورنٽ </ref> هڪ قصي موجب، هن پنهنجي وڏن جي جائداد، عيش عشرت ۾ ختم ڪري ڇڏي. ان کان پوءِ هو، پيٽ ۽ قوت حاصل ڪرڻ خاطر فوج ۾ داخل ٿيو ۽ آخرڪار اسٽيجائرا موٽي، طب اختيار ڪيائين. ٽيهن سالن جي ڄمار ۾ افلاطون جي فلسفي کي سکڻ لاءِ اٿينس روانو ٿيو. ٻئي هڪ قصي مطابق، جڏهن هو اڃا ارڙهن سالن جو مس هو، ته هن پاڻ کي افلاطون جي سنڀال ۽ رهبريءَ هيٺ سونپيو.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارسطو : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88 |access-date=2019-12-15 |archive-date=2024-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823150742/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ارسطوءَ جي نالي ارسطاطاليس جي معنيٰ ”حڪمت سان پيار ڪندڙ“ آهي.<ref name = " سنڌيانا"/> افلاطون فوت ٿي ويو ته ارسطو اتان ''ميسيا'' هليو آيو، جتي بادشاهه وٽ وڃي نوڪري ڪيائين. ارسطوءَ بادشاهه جي ڀاڻيجيءَ، ''پائيٿياس'' سان شادي ڪئي.<ref name = " سنڌيانا"/> چئن سالن کان پوءِ مقدونيا آيو، جتي کيس بادشاهه فلپ گهرايو هو. ارسطوءَ اتي سڪندر اعظم کي ڇهه سال پڙهايو. ڪجهه سال مقدونيا ۾ رهڻ کان پوءِ 327 ق.م ۾ ارسطو ٻيهر اٿينس هليو آيو، جتي هن اسڪول ”ليسئم“ جو بنياد وڌو.<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/> هو پڙهائڻ کان سواءِ لکندو به رهيو. جڏهن 323 ق. م ۾ اوچتو سڪندر اعظم جي دوستن کي گرفتار ڪيو ويو. ارسطو اٿينس مان ڀڄي ايوپيا جي شهر چلس هليو آيو. ارسطوءَ جي جامع شخصيت، [[ادب]]، [[فنون لطيفہ|فنون لطيفه]]، [[سائنس]]، [[منطق]] ۽ [[فلسفو|فلسفي]] تي نهايت دور رس اثر مرتب ڪيا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح کيس وري فاتح عالم، سڪندر اعظم جي استاد هئڻ جو پڻ شرف حاصل آهي.<ref name = "سنڌيانا "/> 347 يا 348 ق.م تائين لڳ ڀڳ 20 سال ھن افلاطون جي اڪيڊمي ۾ گذاريا. جڏھن اڪيڊمي جو نگران [[افلاطون]] جو ڀائيٽو، [[اسپوسيپز]] ٿيو تہ ھن افلاطون جي وفات کان ٿورو اڳ [[اڪيڊمي]] کي ڇڏي [[زينوڪريٽيز]] سان گڏجي موجوده [[ترڪي]] جي خطي [[اناطوليه]] جي علائقي [[اٽارنيئس]] جي حاڪم [[ھرميئس]] جي درٻار ۾ آيو. ھرنيئس ھن جو دوست ھيو جيڪو پڻ اڪيڊمي ۾ پڙھيو ھو. ھرميئس جي وفات کان پوءِ جي پنھنجي ھڪ شاگرد، [[ٿيوڦراسٽس|ٿيوفراسٽس]] سان گڏجي موجوده [[ترڪي]] جي [[ايجيئن سمنڊ]] ۾ واقع [[ليزباس وارو ٻيٽ| ليزباس ٻيٽ]] ڏانھن سفر ڪيو جتي ھن علم حياتيات ۽ علم نباتات تي تحقيق ڪئي. ان ٻيٽ تي ھن جي شادي ھرميئس جي پاليل نياڻي يا ڀائيٽي [[پٿيئس]] سان ٿي. ھن کي ان مان ھڪ ڌي پيدا ٿي، جنھن جو نالو پڻ پٿيئس رکيو ويو. سال 343 ق.م ۾ [[مقدونيه (پراچين بادشاهت)|مقدونيه]] جي بادشاھ [[فلپ ٻيون، مقدوينه|فلپ ٻئين]] کيس پنھنجي پٽ سڪندر اعظم کي پڙھائڻ لاء گھرايو. [[File:Aristotle_tutoring_Alexander.jpg|thumb|"[[جين ليون جيروم فيرس]] پاران ٺاهيل تصوير ۾"ارسطوءَ کي الیگزینڊر کي پاٺُ پڙهائيندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي"]] [[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|ارسطو جي منھن جي مورتي]] ھن کي مقدوينه جي شاھي درسگاه جو نگران بڻايو ويو. مشرق طرف [[فارس صوبو|فارس]] جي فتح جو سڪندر اعظم جي ذھن ۾ خيال ارسطو وڌو ھيو. سال 355 ق.م ۾ ارسطو اٿينس ۾ موٽي آيو ۽ پنھنجي درسگاه [[لئسيوم]] جي نالي سان وڻن جي جهڳٽي ۾ قائم ڪئي جتي ھن 335 ق.م کان 323 ق.م تائين ٻارھن سالن تائين پڙھايو. اهو پوءِ هلندڙ ڦرندڙ (Peripatetic) اسڪول جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃڻ لڳو. انهي ڪري جو ارسطو کي پنهنجن شاگردن سان ڳالهائيندي گهمڻ جي عادت هوندي هئي.<ref name="عباسي">[http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/Litrature/Book45/Book_page1.html]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ڪتاب جو نالو؛ هڪ سؤ عظيم ڪتاب؛ مصنف: محمد احمد منصور عباسي؛ ايڊيشن:2012ع؛ ڇپائيندڙ:سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو</ref> ان عرصي دوران ھن پنھنجا اھم ڪتاب اتي لکيا. اٿينس ۾ ھن جي زال، پٿيئس وفات ڪئي جنھن بعد ھن اسٽيجائرا جي ھڪ عورت ھرپائيلس کي رکيل بڻايو جنھن مان کيس ھڪ پٽ ڄائو، جنھن تي ھن پنھنجي پيءُ وارو نالو يعني نيڪوماخوس رکيو. سال 322 ق.م ۾ سڪندر اعظم جي وفات بعد اٿينس وارا مقدوينه جي خلاف ٿي ويا ۽ ارسطو جي مخالفت شروع ڪيائون جنھن ڪري ھن اٿينس کي خيرباد چئي پنھنجي ناناڻي علائقي يوبيئا ۾ آيو جتي زندگي جا باقي ڏينھن گذاري وفات ڪئي. ==ارسطو جو فلسفو== هن پنهنجي فلسفي جو آغاز افلاطون جي نظرين تي تنقيد سان ڪيو. ارسطو هن ڪائنات کي ازلي ۽ ابدي تسليم ڪري ٿو. کيس هن ڪائنات ۾ عظيم مقصد ڪارفرما نظر اچي ٿو<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. ساڳئي وقت هن جي نظر ۾ ڪائنات جو ازلي محرڪ، آخري حقيقت، ”خير“ يعني ”نيڪي“ آهي، جنهن کي حاصل ڪرڻ ضروري آهي. هو روح کي پڻ حقيقت قرار ڏئي ٿو، ليڪن هو ان کي جسم لاءِ هيئت (form) جو درجو ڏئي ٿو ۽ ان کي جسم لاءِ مقصد ۽ تڪميل جو ڪارڻ سمجهي ٿو ھن جي خيال مطابق جسم سان روح جو تعلق اهڙو آهي، جيئن نظر جو اک سان<ref name = "سنڌيانا "/>. هتي اهو ٻڌائڻ مناسب آهي ته ارسطو سڀني فاني شين جا ٻه جزا ڄاڻائي ٿو: اول مادو ۽ ٻيو صورت يا قبول ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت<ref name = "سنڌيانا "/>. صورت جي ڪري ئي اسين ان شيءِ کي ڪنهن قسم يا نوع سان منسوب ڪندا آهيون. ارسطوءَ جي ان تعريف مطابق اسان کي مادو ڪڏهن به ملي نه سگهندو، ڇوته صورت کان سواءِ اهو لاشيءِ ٿي پوندو. ان لحاظ کان هو خدا کي محض صورت (form) ڪوٺي ٿو، ۽ مادي کان پاڪ سمجهي ٿو<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. اهو ارسطو ئي هو، جنهن فلسفي جي دنيا ۾ مابعد الطبعيات (Metaphysics) جو اصطلاح وضع ڪيو جنهن مان هن جو مطلب هو ته هي مضمون يا ڳالهيون، طبعيات جي دائري کان ٻاهر آهن، جهڙوڪ: ذهن، نفس، روح ۽ خدا وغيره. -ان- کان سواءِ اهڙا سوال به -ان- دائري کان ٻاهر آهن ته مادي ۽ ذهن ۾ ڪهڙو تعلق آهي؟ ڇا [[انسان]] آزاد ۽ خودمختيار آهي؟ ڇا خدا جو وجود آهي وغيره. انهن سوالن کي -ارسطو- ئي پهريون دفعو مابعدالطبعيات جي عنوان سان بحث هيٺ آندو<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. ارسطوءَ، علت (Causality) جي تصور تي به نهايت تفصيلي غور ۽ فڪر ڪيو، ۽ هن علت جا چار قسم ڄاڻايا: #علت مادي (Material cause)، #علت فاعلي (Efficient cause)، #علت صوري (Formal cause)، #علت غائي (Final cause). <br> هو خدا کي علت غائي سمجهي ٿو<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. ڏٺو وڃي ته [[وچون دور|وچئين دور]] ۾ ارسطوءَ جي منطق ۽ فڪر، مسلمان مفڪرن، -[[ابن سينا]]- ۽ -[[ابن رشد]]- وغيره کي ڪافي متاثر ڪيو، پر هنن ارسطوءَ جي فڪر ۾ گهڻا سڌارا ۽ واڌارا پڻ ڪيا<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. ===انسان بابت خيال=== ”ارسطو“ انسان کي ”حيوانِ ناطق“ يعني ”ڳالهائيندڙ جانور“ سڏيو آهين. ارسطو جي خيال ۾ ”ڳالهائڻ يا پنهنجي خيالن ۽ ويچارن جو اظهار ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت ئي انسان کي ٻين حيوانن کان مٿانهون رکي ٿي.“ انسان جي اها فضيلت ئي سندس سڃاڻپ آهي ۽ ان فضيلت کان انسان کي جدا ڪرڻ جو تصور به اڻٿيڻو آهي. ان ڪري راءِ جي اظهار جو حق نه رڳو انسان جو پيدائشي حق آهي پر ان حق کان انسان کي محروم ڪرڻ يا ان ۾ گهٽ وڌائي ڪرڻ جي هر ڪوشش پڻ انسان دشمن قدم آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=سياست، سماج ۽ آزادي (خالد چانڊيو) {{!}} سنڌ سلامت ڪتاب گهر<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://books.sindhsalamat.com/book.php?book_id=383#19578 |accessdate=2016-12-28 |archive-date=2017-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912112229/http://books.sindhsalamat.com/book.php?book_id=383#19578 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>ڪتاب: سياست، سماج ۽ آزادي</ref> === منطق جو بنياد === سڀ کان پهرين رتبو، ارسطوءَ کي انهيءَ ڪري مليو، جو سواءِ ڪنهن سابق رهبر جي، محض پنهنجي دماغي محنت سان، هن هڪ نئين سائنس ايجاد ڪئي. جنهن کي منطق جي نالي سان سڏيو وڃي ٿو<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. رينن (Renan) چوي ٿو ته ايستائين ڪنهن به شخص جي تعليم ۽ تربيت مڪمل نه ٿيندي، جيستائين هو، سڌي يا اڻ سڌي طرح، يونان جي ضابطي هيٺ نه آيو آهي. پر درحقيقت، خود يوناني ذهن، بي ضابطي ۽ بي ترتيب هو، جيستائين ارسطوءَ جو سخت ۽ ڪڙي نسخي، هڪ طريقو مهيا نه ڪيو، جنهن سان خيال کي آزمائي سگهجي ۽ درست ڪري سگهجي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ"/>. === آتما بابت خيال === ارسطوءَ جو آتما بابت نظريو، هڪ دلچسپ وصف سان شروع ٿئي ٿو. آتما حياتيءَ جو بنيادي تَتوَ آهي ۽ سندس قوتن ۽ عملن جو جوڙ آهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. ٻوٽن ۾ آتما، ڇَڙو خوراڪ ۽ نسل وڌائڻ جي سَگهه آهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. انسان ۾ آتما، عقل ڪم آڻڻ ۽ ويچار ڪرڻ جي سگهه پڻ آهي. جانورن ۾ آتما، حواس ڪم آڻڻ ۽ چرپر ڪرڻ جي سگهه آهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. پر آتما بدن کان سواءِ رهي نٿو سگهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. آتما ۽ جسم، ائين آهي، جيئن ميڻ ۽ ان جي صورت. صرف تصور ۾، اهي هڪ ٻئي کان جدا ڪري سگهجن ٿا، پر حقيقت ۾ اهي هڪ نظام قائم ڪن ٿا. ڪا انفرادي ۽ خاص آتما، فقط پنهنجي جسم ۾ ئي رهي سگهندو<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ"/>. تنهن هوندي به آتما هڪ جسماني شيءِ ڪانه آهي ۽ اها فنا به نٿي ٿي سگهي. انساني آتما جي، عقل واري سگهه جو هڪ حصو، ساڪن آهي، اهو حافظي سان وابسته آهي ۽ جسم سان گڏ مري وڃي ٿي. ڇاڪاڻ ته جسم ئي، حافظي کي قائم رکيو<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. پر متحرڪ عقل يا خيال جي نج نبار قوت، حافظي جي محتاج نه آهي ۽ زوال ان تي اثر پذير نٿو ٿي سگهي. متحرڪ عقل، انسان جو، ڪُلي تتو آهي ۽ نه شخصي. ڪنهن به بني بشر جي اهڙي شخصيت زنده نٿي رهي، جيڪا عارضي محبت ۽ خواهش سان ڀرپور آهي، پر ذهن، خيالي ۽ غير شخصي حيثيت ۾ هميشه قائم رهي ٿو<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. == لئسيوم درسگاه == [[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | [[مقدوينه]] جي شھر [[ميزا، مقدوينه|ميزا]] ۾ قائم ڪيل ارسطو جو اسڪول]] پنهنجي عمر جي ٽيونجاهين سال ۾، ارسطوءَ اٿيينز ۾ هڪ اسڪول قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو نالو ’لئسيوم‘ (Lyceum) هو<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. ايترا ته شاگرد ان اسڪول ۾ داخل ٿيا، جو هن کي انتظام جي لحاظ کان، ڪيترن پيچيده قاعدن ٺاهڻ جي ضرورت محسوس ٿي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. شاگردن خود قاعدا جوڙيا ۽ ڏهن ڏهن ڏينهن کان پوءِ، پاڻ مان هڪ کي اسڪول جي نگرانيءَ لاءِ چونڊيندا هئا<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. اهو نئون اسڪول، افلاطون جي قائم ڪيل اسڪول جو هوبهو نقل ته نه هو. تڏهن به هن تعليم گاهه ۾، رياضي، الاهيات ۽ سياست ڏانهن وڌيڪ زور ڏنو ويندو هو. ان کان سواءِ علم حياتيات ۽ طبيعات طرف پڻ ڌيان ڏنو ويندو هو<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ"/>. جيڪڏهن اسان پلني تي اعتبار ڪريون، ته سندس چوڻ مطابق، سڪندر، شڪار ڪندڙن، شڪار گاهن جي نگهبانن، باغبانن ۽ مهاڻن کي حڪم ڏنو هو، ته هو ارسطوءَ کي سندس خواهش موجب هر قسم جي حيواني ۽ نباتاتي مواد مهيا ڪري ڏين. ٻيا مؤرخ اسان کي ٻڌائين ٿا، ته ڪنهن زماني ۾، هڪ هزار ماڻهو، هن جي حڪم موجب، يونان ۽ ايشيا ۾ پکڙجي ويا، انهيءَ ارادي سان ته هو ارسطوءَ کي هرهڪ ملڪ جا قسمين قسمين جانور ۽ ٻوٽا جمع ڪري ڏين<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. اهڙي قسم جي مواد جي ڪري، هو دنيا جي پهرين چڙيا گهر ۾ نباتاتي باغ قائم ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي ويو. انهن جانورن ۽ ٻوٽن کي هڪ هنڌ ڪٺو ڪرڻ، ارسطوءَ جي علمي ۽ فلسفياڻي مطالعي جو هڪ اهم سبب هو. هن ڳالھه جي اهميت ۾ ڪو وڌاءُ ٿي نٿو سگهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. اٿينس چوي ٿو ته سڪندر کيس (ارسطوءَ کي) علم طبيعي ۽ علم حيات جي کوجنا لاءِ 800 يوناني سڪا ڏنا. جن جو ملهه موجوده زماني ۾ اٽڪل چاليهه لک ڊالر آهي<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. ڪيترن جو خيال آهي، ته ارسطوءَ جي صلاح تي، سڪندر هڪ ماهرن جو ٽولو موڪليو، ته هو نيل نديءَ جي سرچشمي وٽ وڃ جاچ جوچ ڪري، ته ڪهڙن سبب ڪري نيل ندي، ڪن خاص موسمن ۾ سيلاب آڻي ٿي<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. ارسطوءَ لاءِ 158 مختلف سياسي آئينن جو ڊائيجسٽ تيار ڪرڻ، ڏيکاري ٿو ته کيس ڪافي مددگار مليل هئا<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. يورپ جي تاريخ ۾ هيءُ پهريون مثال آهي، جو سائنس جي ترقيءَ لاءِ ايڏي وسيع پئماني تي ملڪ جي دولت صرف ڪئي وئي<ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/>. == ارسطو جا لکيل ڪتاب == ارسطوءَ جي مستقل تصنيفن ۾ شعر، سياست ۽ اخلاقيات خاص ڪري قابل ذڪر آهن. -ان- کان سواءِ طبعيات، حياتيات، مابعدالطبعيات، منطق ۽ تقرير تي سندس مختصر رسالا موجود آهن<ref name = "سنڌيانا "/>. ارسطوءَ تمام گهڻن موضوعن تي لکيو آهي، -جن- ۾ سائنس، ادب، فلسفو، سياست وغيره اچي وڃن ٿا. سندس ڪتابن جي فلسفي جي هاڻوڪي دؤر ۾ به تمام وڏي اهميت ۽ قدر آهي. هن اهڙيون بيشمار ڳالهيون لکيون آهن، جن جو لاڀ اڄ جو انسان به ماڻي سگهي ٿو. دنيا جي تقريباً مڙني موضوعن تي سندس ويچار ملن ٿا.<ref name = " سنڌيانا "/>. ارسطو جون تصنيفون، سَوَن جي تعداد ۾ آهن. ڪي قديمي مصنف چون ٿا، ته هن چار سؤ ڪتاب لکيا. پر ڪي وري ائين چون ٿا، ته هن هڪ هزار ڪتاب لکيا. جيڪي ڪتاب اسان کي هن وقت دستياب ٿيا آهن، سي اصلوڪي ڪم جو صرف هڪ حصو آهن پر ان جي باوجود، سندس سڄي ڪم جي وسعت ۽ بلنديءَ کي خيال ۾ رکندي اسان کي مڃڻو ٿو پوي، ته سندس لکتون، هڪ مڪمل ڪتبخانو ٺاهين ٿيون. سڀ کان پهريائين، منطقي ڪتاب اچن ٿا، جن مان مشهور آهن: *درجا بندي (Categaries)، *موضوع (Topics)، *تحليل کان پهرين (Prior)، *تحليل کان بعد ۾(Posterior analytics)، *ڌُڪا (Propsitions)، *سوفسطائي ترديدون (Sophistical Refutation). اهي سڀ ڪتاب ارسطوءَ جي پوئلڳن جمع ڪري، نظام منطق (Organon) جي عنوان سان شايع ڪيا، جنهن جو مطلب آهي صحيح خيال ڪرڻ جي قاعدن جو ڪتاب. تنهن کان پوءِ، سائنس جا ھيٺيان ڪتاب اچن ٿا: *طبيعات (Physics)، *فلڪيات (On the Heavens)، *نشوونما ۽ زوال (Growth and Decay)، *موسميات (Meteorology)، *قدرتي تاريخ (Natural History)، *روحانيت (On the Soul)، *جانورن جا حصا (Parts of Animals)، *جانورن جي حرڪت (Movement of Animals) ، *جانورن جي پيدائش (Generation of Animals) ٻيا اهي ڪتاب آهن، جن جو جماليات سان واسطو آهي، جهڙوڪ: *خطابت جو فن (Rhetoric) *شاعريءَ تي تنقيد (Peotics). آخر ۾ اهي ڪتاب اچن ٿا، جن جو فلسفي سان تعلق آهي، جهڙوڪ: *اخلاقيات (Ethicals)، *سياسيات (Politics)، *مابعدالطبعيات (Metaphysics).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Philosophy/Book4/Book_page2.html}}{ڪتاب : فلسفي جي ڪھاڻي؛ ليکڪ: ول ڊيورنٽ}</ref>ڏهين صديءَ ۾ اهي ڪتاب عربيءَ ۽ هيبريو (عبراني) ۾ ترجمو ڪيا ويا. سن 1225ع ۾ لئٽن ۾ ترجمو شايع ٿيو. ابيلارڊ (Abelard) جي خوش گفتاريءَ کان وٺي ٿامس اڪيناس (Thomas Aquinas) جي انسائيڪلوپيڊيا تائين وارا مڪتب فڪر تمام وڌيا ويجها. صليبي لڙاين وقت عيسائين، سندس ڪتابن جا صحيح نسخا، يورپ ۾ آندا. ان کان پوءِ قسطنطنيه جي عالمن سن 1453ع ۾ حملو ڪندڙ ترڪن کان ڀڄي، پاڻ سان گڏ ارسطوءَ جا علمي خزانا آندا. جهڙيءَ طرح بائيبل، ديني ادارن ۾ ، هڪ مشڪل کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ بي نقص ڪتاب ليکيو ويندو هو، ساڳيءَ ريت ارسطوءَ جي لکڻين پڻ، فلسفي جي ادارن ۾ بي مثال اهميت حاصل ڪئي. سن 1215ع ۾ پوپ جي نمائندي، پئرس ۾ ارسطوءَ جي تصنيفن تي تقريرون ڪرڻ کان منع ڪئي. سن 1231ع ۾ گريگوري يارهين (Gregory XI)، هڪ ڪاميٽي مقرر ڪئي، ته اها ارسطوءَ جي تصنيفن کي غير ديني ڳالهين کان پاڪ ڪري. سن 1260ع ۾ هرهڪ عيسائي مدرسي ۾ ارسطوءَ جا ڪتاب لازمي طور پڙهيا ويندا هئا. جيڪو به ارسطوءَ جي خيالن جي خلاف ويندو هو، تنهن کي مذهبي مجلسون مناسب سزا ڏينديون هيون. چوڏهينءَ صدي جو مشهور شاعر چاسر (Chaucer) ان وقت جي هڪ طالب العلم بابت هيٺين لفظن ۾ بيان ڪري ٿو: ”هو ان ۾ راحت محسوس ڪندو هو، ته پنهنجي بستري جي مٿن کان، ارسطوءَ جي فلسفي جا ويهه ڪتاب، ڪارن يا ڳاڙهن ڪپڙن جي پوتڙن ۾ ويڙهيل رکي ڇڏي.“<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Philosophy/Book4/Book_page2.html}}{ڪتاب : فلسفي جي ڪھاڻي؛ ليکڪ: ول ڊيورنٽ}</ref> == سائنس ۾ خدمتون == رينن چوي ٿو ته، ”سقراط، انسان ذات کي فلسفو ڏنو ۽ ارسطوءَ سائنس. سقراط کان اڳ، فلسفو موجود هو ۽ ارسطوءَ کان اڳ سائنس موجود هئي. سقراط ۽ ارسطوءَ کان پوءِ، فلسفي ۽ سائنس نهايت تيزيءَ سان قدم وڌايا آهن. پر فلسفي ۽ سائنس جي عمارت، سقراط ۽ ارسطوءَ جي رکيل بنياد تي ٺهي.“ ارسطوءَ کان اڳ سائنس اڃا ڪچي ٻار وانگر پيٽ ۾ هئي. ارسطوءَ ان ٻار کي مڪمل ڪري. هن دنيا جي آڏو پيش ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Philosophy/Book4/Book_page2.html}}{ڪتاب : فلسفي جي ڪھاڻي؛ ليکڪ: ول ڊيورنٽ}</ref> == ارسطو جي پڇاڙي == ارسطو جي ڀائٽي ڪئلسٿينيز (Calisthenes) سڪندر اعظم کي ديوتا ڪري مڃڻ ۽ سندس پوڄا ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو. جنهن ڪري سڪندر ڏاڍو ڏمريو ۽ کيس ڦاسيءَ جي سزا ڏنائين. ارسطوءَ اهڙي فتويٰ خلاف اعتراض اٿاريو. جنهن ڪري، ان کان پوءِ سڪندر سان سندس تعلقات خوشگوار نه رهيا.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> سڪندر، انهيءَ اعتراض جي جواب ۾ اشارن ۾ چيو، ته هو قادر مطلق (Omminipotence) هئڻ جي حيثيت ۾ فلسفين کي به موت جي سزا ڏئي سگھي ٿو.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> پوئين دور ۾ جڏهن سڪندر حڪم ڏنو ته اٿينس جي وچ ۾ ارسطوءَ جو بت رکيو وڃي، تڏهن اٿينس جي رهواسين کي سخت غصو آيو. انهيءَ ڳالھه جو نتيجو اهو نڪتو، جو اڪيڊميءَ ۾ افلاطون جا جانشين، اسوڪريٽ (Isocrates) ۽ فصاحت جي اسڪول جا ڪارڪن ۽ ڊيماسٿينز (Demosthenes) جي تقريرن تي نچڻ وارا جوشيلا ميڙ، ساٽ سٽڻ لڳا ۽ گوڙ ڪرڻ لڳا، ته ارسطوءَ کي يا ملڪ نيڪالي ڏني وڃي يا موت جي سزا ڏني وڃي. <ref name = "ول ڊيورنٽ "/> اوچتو سڪندر جو موت (323 ق.م) تي ٿيو. اٿينس ۾ خوشيءَ جي لهر ڇائنجي ويئي.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> مقدونيا جي ڌر کي ٿڏيو ويو ۽ اٿينس جي خود مختياريءَ جو اعلان ڪيو ويو. سڪندر جو جانشين ۽ دوست، ائنٽيپيٽر (Antipater) فسادي شهر تي چڙهائي ڪري آيو. مقدونيا جي ڌر وارن مان گهڻا ڀڄي ويا.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> يوريميڊان (Eurymedon) نالي اعليٰ پڄاري، ارسطوءَ جي خلاف هي الزام لڳايو، ته هن اها سکيا ڏني هئي، ته پوڄا ۽ قرباني بي فائده آهن، ارسطوءَ ڏٺو ته مٿس مقدمو هلائيندڙ منصف ۽ ماڻهن جا انبوهه، انهن ماڻهن کان به وڌيڪ سخت دل هئا، جن سقراط جو خون ڪيو هو. تنهن ڪري نهايت عقلمنديءَ سان هن اٿينس جو شهر ڇڏي ڏنو. شهر ڇڏيندي هن چيو، ته هو اٿينس کي ٻيو دفعو فلسفي خلاف، گناهه ڪرڻ جو موقعو نه ڏيندو.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> ائين ڪرڻ ۾ هن ڪا بزدلي ڪانه ڏيکاري هئي. ڇاڪاڻ ته اٿينس جي ڏوهارين کي هميشه جلاوطني قبول ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو ويندو هو.<ref name = " ول ڊيورنٽ "/> ڪالسز (Chalcis) ۾ پهچڻ شرط، ارسطو بيمار ٿي پيو. ڊايوجينيس ليئرتئس (Diogenes Leartius) اسان کي ٻڌائي ٿو، ته ٻڍڙي فلسفي زماني جي ناراضگيءَ تي مايوس ٿي، زهر جو پيالو پي، خودڪشي ڪئي. اهڙيءَ ريت اٿينس ڇڏڻ کانپوءِ، چند مهينن اندر سندس المناڪ موت (322 ق.م) ٿيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/Philosophy/Book4/Book_page2.html}}{ڪتاب : فلسفي جي ڪھاڻي؛ ليکڪ: ول ڊيورنٽ}</ref> ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle| viaf= | lccn= | lcheading= | wikititle= }} * * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: ** {{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive] * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: * ; Collections of works * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle}} * At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] * [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]] {{in lang|en|el}} * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20071017211048/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] * [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] {{in lang|el|fr}} * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124034819/http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ |date=24 November 2022 }}{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) {{Navboxes|list= {{پيريپئٽئٽڪس}} {{ما بعد الطبعيات}} {{اخلاقيات}} {{فطري تاريخ}} {{ٻولي جو فلسفو}} {{قانون جي ڄاڻ}} {{سياسي فلسفو}} {{ادبي تنقيد}} {{قديم يوناني موضوع}} }} {{Portal bar|طبيعات|حياتيات|ڌرتي سائنس |نفسيات|فلسفو|ادب|سوانح عمري|قديم يونان|سائنس جي تاريخ}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] [[Category:Aristotelianism|*]] [[Category:384 BC births]] [[Category:322 BC deaths]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:فلسفو]] [[زمرو:ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:قديم يونان]] [[زمرو:شخصيتون]] [[زمرو:سياسي فلاسافي]] [[زمرو:اولهندي تهذيب]] [[زمرو:تعليم جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:خيالن جي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]] hzmn2pn5cyauwprsdojiqv1eq1c33xs ارشاد القرآن (تحقيق) 0 19044 394705 98485 2026-07-16T00:24:44Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394705 wikitext text/x-wiki محمد عثمان ڏيپلائيءَ جي ترتيب ڏنل هن ڪتاب ۾ [[قرآن|قرآن شريف]] جي چونڊ احڪامن سان واسطو رکندڙ آيتن جو سليس سنڌي ترجمو ڏنل آهي. هيءُ ڪتاب -اول- هفته وار ’عبرت‘ ۾ قسط وار آيو. سنه 1946ع اسلاميه دارالاشاعت هن کي ڪتابي شڪل ۾ شايع ڪيو. ڪتاب ۾ 64 صفحا ۽ قيمت ڏهه -آنا- اٿس.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86%20%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%201 ارشاد القرآن تحقيق 1 : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} lif8nd4xjcv8vib5qv9cjpqq9u7j0b6 ارشاد عباسي 0 19045 394706 98486 2026-07-16T00:26:58Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394706 wikitext text/x-wiki ارشاد النبي عباسي (پارس)، شاعر، اديب، پراڻو سياسي ڪارڪن آهي. هو نامياري شاعر تنوير عباسي ۽ -آبپاشي- جي ماهر اي اين جي عباسيءَ جو -ڀاءُ- آهي. سندس تخلص -پارس- آهي. هو 21 مئي 1951ع تي صوڀي ديري [[خيرپور ضلعو|ضلعي خيرپور]] ۾ خانصاحب گل حسن خان عباسيءَ جي گهر ڄائو. سنڌ يونيورسٽيءَ مان بي اي پاس ڪري سي -ايس- ايس جو امتحان پاس ڪرڻ بعد وفاقي حڪومت جي سُڌ سماءُ واري کاتي ۾ آفيسر مقرر ٿيو. هو مختلف ملڪن ۾ پاڪستاني سفارتخاني ۾ پريس اتاشي طور ڪم ڪري چڪو آهي. شاگرديءَ واري زماني ۾ کاٻي ڌر جي شاگرد تنظيم سنڌ نيشنل اسٽوڊنٽس فيڊريشن سان وابسته رهيو. هن جي شاعري، ڪهاڻيون ۽ مضمون رسالن ۾ ڇپبا رهيا آهن. ادب، سياست، -تاريخ- ۽ فلسفي تي سٺو اڀياس رکندڙ ’پارس‘ نوڪري جو وڏو عرصو -اسلام- -آباد- ۾ گذاريو آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارشاد عباسي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%20%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501070324/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%20%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} bf3o86vqztvk13w5iwfr2oj8m8hpbmr ارشادالخلفاء (تحقيق) 0 19047 394707 98487 2026-07-16T00:29:06Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394707 wikitext text/x-wiki خلفاءِ راشدين جا قول ۽ نصيحتون محمد عثمان ڏيپلائيءَ مرتب ڪري هفته وار ’عبرت‘ جي خصوصي ايڊيشن ۾ ڪتابي صورت ۾ سنه [[1946ء|1946ع]] ڌاري شايع ڪيا. پهرين ايڊيشن جي 44 صفحن تي مشتمل هن ڪتاب جي قيمت 8 -آنا- هئي. هن ڪتاب جو ٻيو ايڊيشن -آگسٽ- 2008ع ۾ مهراڻ اڪيڊمي شڪارپور طرفان شايع ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو متن 30 صفحا ۽ قيمت 24 رپيا آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارشادالخلفاءِ تحقيق : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%90%20%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409211022/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%90%20%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 5yay6ed6a540rv4hwvavmid0pzn03ie ارشد ھالائي 0 19049 394708 98488 2026-07-16T00:31:34Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394708 wikitext text/x-wiki عبدالرحيم ابڙي ”ارشد“ هالائيءَ جي ولادت 15 -آگسٽ- 1932ع تي هالا شهر ۾ ٿي. پاڻ هالا جي مشهور نعت گو شاعر جان [[اضعف ھالائي ابڙو|محمد اضعف هالائيءَ]] جو ٻيو نمبر فرزند هو ۽ کيس وقت جي سٺن شاعرن ۾ شمار ڪيو ويندو آهي. پهرين تخلص ”بيدل“ هئس، -ان- بعد ”ارشد“ اختيار ڪيائين. مضمون نگار ۽ مقرر هجڻ سان گڏ ڪامياب -استاد- ۽ تعليمي ماهر هو. سندس ايمانداريءَ، تعليمي مهارت ۽ محنت جي پيش نظر کيس حيدرآباد ضلعي جو ڊي. اي. او مقرر ڪيو ويو. -ان- کان پوءِ مخدوم غلام حيدر هاءِ اسڪول هالا ۽ گورنمينٽ هاءِ اسڪول ڪوٽڙيءَ ۾ نمايان خدمتون بجا آندائين. پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ائگرو ٽيڪنيڪل آفيسر جي عهدي -تان- رٽائر ڪيائين. شعر و شاعريءَ جي ميدان ۾ ”بزمِ رفيق“ ۽ ”سنياسي ادبي سنگت“ هالا ۾ سيڪريٽريءَ طور ڪم ڪيائين. شاعريءَ ۾ حمد ۽ نعتيه ڪلام کان علاوه گهڻو ڪري اصلاحي ڪلام چيو اٿس. ڪجهه غزل ۽ ڪافيون پڻ سندس ڪلام جو حصو آهن. سندس ڪلام ۾ سلاست ۽ سادگيءَ سان گڏ ٻوليءَ جو ميٺاج ۽ رس پڻ آهي. سندس اسلوب بيان وڻندڙ ۽ دلڪش آهي، جنهن ۾ دردمنديءَ ۽ -اصلاح- جا پهلو نمايان نظر اچن ٿا. سندس ڪلام سنڌ جي مختلف رسالن ۽ اخبارن ۾ شايع ٿيندو رهيو آهي. نثر ۾ سندس نصابي توڙي غيرنصابي ڪتاب شايع ٿيا، -جن- ۾ ”رفيق گرامر“ ۽ ”برساتي بوندون“ کي علمي ۽ ادبي دنيا ۾ وڏي شهرت حاصل آهي. سندس انتقال 23 -اپريل- 1991ع تي ٿيو.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارشد هالائي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF%20%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501042538/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF%20%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} qgss6n69mk2ziu7o31qk7teic8oj8rt ارغچ 0 19050 394710 165309 2026-07-16T00:36:00Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394710 wikitext text/x-wiki هڪ قسم جو عطر، جنهن ۾ ڪيتريون ئي سرهاڻيون مرڪب هونديون آهن (هيڊاڻ مائل عطر هوندو آهي). [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه صاحب]] پنهنجي هڪ -بيت- ۾ هن عطر جو ذڪر ڪيو آهي: ”ٻانڌوڻا ٻَنِ ڏيان، -ارغچ- ۽ عَنبير“<ref>{{Citation |title=ارغچ : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%DA%86 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2024-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241115183313/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%DA%86 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} tcpzuh2nesz3nuy7ehfqxaosjwq6xin ارغون 0 19051 394709 255733 2026-07-16T00:33:28Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394709 wikitext text/x-wiki ترڪستان جي هڪ خاندان جو نالو آهي، جنهن خاندان 1520ع کان 1555ع تائين [[سنڌ]] تي به حڪومت ڪئي. هن خاندان جو نسبي سلسلو چنگيز خان سان وڃي ملي ٿو. ذوالنون بيگ ارغون، سلطان حسين بايقرا طرفان قنڌار جو حاڪم هو. جڏهن هيءُ شاهي بيگ شيبانيءَ جي لڙائيءَ ۾ مارجي ويو، تڏهن سندس پٽ شاهه بيگ -ارغون- قنڌار جو حاڪم مقرر ٿيو. هن (شاهه بيگ ارغون) ئي سنڌ جي حڪومت سمن جي پوئين حاڪم ڄام فيروز کان کسي، سنڌ ۾ -ارغون- حڪومت جو بنياد رکيو. شاهه بيگ -جنگ- ۾ هميشه اڳيان رهندو هو. ڪجهه ڪتاب به لکيائين. 930ھ/1524ع ۾ وفات ڪيائين. هن کان پوءِ سندس پٽ مرزا شاهه حسن -ارغون- سنڌ جي -تخت- تي ويٺو. هن ملتان فتح ڪيو، -بکر- ۽ سيوهڻ جا قلعا مضبوط ڪيا. سنڌ تي -ٻٽيهه- سال حڪومت ڪرڻ کان پوءِ 962ھ/1555ع ۾ وفات ڪيائين. -ان- کان پوءِ ارغونن جي حڪومت تي -ترخان- قبضو ڪري ويا. ارغون- -ترخان- گهراڻن جو سنڌ تي قبضو نهايت مختصر عرصي لاءِ، يعني فقط 36 سالن لاءِ رهيو، پر -ان- جو اثر سنڌ جي سماجي، سياسي ۽ معاشي حالتن تي ايندڙ اڍائن -ٽن- صدين تائين رهيو، جو سنڌ غلاميءَ جي زنجيرن کي -ٽوڙي- نه سگهي. ڌارين جي ڏاڍ ڏمر واري حڪومت، غيرشريفانه سلوڪ، -اهل- سنڌ جي فڪر ۽ حوصلي کي وڏو ڇيهو رسايو. خراسان مان لاتعداد مفرور اميرن ۽ اقتدار پسند پناهگيرن جي آمد سنڌ جهڙي امن پسند ڌرتيءَ لاءِ ڄڻ ته عذاب الاهي بنجي وئي. ملڪ جا سڀئي قلعا، وسنديون، واهڻ ۽ مال ملڪيتون سڄو ارڪو -ترڪو- ڌارين جي قبضي ۾ اچي ويو هو، -جن- جي نه -ٻولي- سمجهه ۾ ٿي آئي ۽ نه سندن اٿڻ ويهڻ مناسب هو. سنڌ جي سدا حيات شاعر شاهه عبداللطيف، جيڪو -ان- دور کان هڪ صدي پوءِ پيدا ٿيو، تنهن ارغونن کان وٺي سندن جانشين مغلن جي تسلط تائين سنڌ سان جيڪي وهيو واپريو، اُن جي اپٽار هن علامتي انداز ۾ ڪئي ته: پيَيم پٺاڻن سين، -ٻولي- جي نه ٻُجهن آءٌ سنڌيءَ جو سعيو ڪريان، هو پارسيون پڇن مون پڻ مُلا تن، سرتيون سور پرائيو.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارغون : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86 |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=2020-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026164702/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} e7wy2fxu3faytwwbgt3urelxioymm3u ارل اسٽين 0 19052 394711 373213 2026-07-16T00:38:11Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{صندوق معلومات شخص}} ارل سٽين Aurel Stein: -آثار قديمه- جي هن مشهور ماهر جو پورو نالو سَر مارڪ -ارل اسٽين- هو. سندس جـنـم 26 نـومـبـر 1862ع تي بـرطـانـيـا جــي شـهر بداپـسـٽ (Budapest) ۾ ٿيو. هي [[برطانيا]] جي هنگري نسل مان هو. مذهبي حـوالي سـان تـعـلق يــهــودي گهراڻي سان هو، پر بعد ۾ پنهنجي -ڀاءُ- ارنيسٽ ايڊورڊ سـان گـڏ جـرمـن مذهـبـي مـصـلـح مـارٽـن لـوٿـر جـو پيروڪـار ٿـي لوٿرين (Lutherans) فرقي ۾ شامل ٿيو. -ارل اسٽين-، ابتدائي طور وچ -ايشيا- جي قديم آثارن تي تمام گهڻي کوجنا ڪئي. هي دنيا جي ڪيترين ئي يونيورسٽين ۽ ڪاليجن ۾ پروفيسر جي عهدي تي پڻ فائز رهيو. هن ڪجهه عرصو اورينٽيل ڪاليج لاهور جي پرنسپال طور ڪم ڪيو. -ان- کان سواءِ پنجاب يونيورسٽيءَ جو رجسٽرار رهيو. 1904ع ۾ کيس انسپيڪٽر جنرل آف ايجوڪيشن اينڊ آرڪيالاجيڪل سروي آف -بلوچستان- مقرر ڪيو ويو. 1910ع کان 1917ع تائين لارڊ ڪرزن گورنر جنرل هندستان طرفان کيس اتر- اولهه سرحدي صوبن جي آرڪيالاجيءَ جو سپرنٽينڊنٽ ۽ -پشاور- ميوزيم جو ڪيوريٽر مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن -برطانيا- حڪومت جي تعاون سان -آثار قديمه- متعلق سائنسي -تحقيق- ۽ کوجنا ڪندي تمام گهڻو مشهور ٿيو. -ارل اسٽين- تي -ان- وقت جي آثار قديمــه جـي مـاهـرن سويـن هـڊن (Sven Hedin) ۽ زانـگـيـنـگ (Xuangang) جو تمام گهڻو اثر رهيو. 1920ع کان 1930ع ۾ هن وچ -ايشيا- (ننڍي کنڊ) مان کوجنا دؤران نوادرات ڳولهي لڌائين، جيڪي -برطانيا- جي لائبريري ۾ موجود آهن، -جن- ۾ چين مان هٿ آيل قديم ٻولين تبتي (Tibetan) ۽ تانگٽ (Tangut) ٻولين جـا مسودا، جيڪي ڪاٺ جي ٽـڪـيـن تـي لـکـيـل آهـن، جـيـڪي يـوگـر (Uyghur)، سـوگدي (Sogdian) ۽ ٻين التائي ٻولين ۾ لکيل آهن، محفوظ ٿيل آهن. -ان- کان علاوه هن جي اهم کوجنا ۾ پهرين صدي عسيوي جي وچ -ايشيا- جي ماڻهن جي متروڪ هند- يورپي (-تخاري-) ٻولين کي سائنسي -تحقيق- وسيلي ڳولي لهڻ جو ڪم به شامل آهي. ارل سٽين، ننڍي کنڊ جي -ايران- ۽ -بلوچستان- جي آثارِ قديمه تي تمام گهڻي -تحقيق- کانپوءِ -آثار قديمه- جي ماڳن تي لاتعداد رپورٽون تحرير ڪيون. هن سڪندر اعظم جي اچڻ وڃڻ جي شاهراهه، جنهن ۾ پنجاب، -ايران-، مڪران، سنڌ ۽ ڏکڻ -اوڀر- -ايران- تي به ڪم ڪيو. 1907ع ۾ هن موگاؤ (Mogao Caves) نالي غارن جي کوجنا ڪئي، جيڪي چين جي دوهانگ (Dunhuang) ۾ موجود هيون. اهي غارون ٻوڌي دؤر جا قديم آثار آهن. عام طور انهن غارن کي (Caves of Thousand Buddhas ) جي نالي سان سڏيو ويندو آهي. هن جي ڪيل -تحقيق- ۾ 24 مختلف ٻولين جي قديم مسودن، آثارِ قديمه مان هٿ آيل مصوري جي فن پارن، آڳاٽي وقت ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ قديم ۽ دلچسپ شين تي -تحقيق- ۽ 1906ع کان 1908ع ڌاري مغربي چائنا ۾ موجود Kunlon Mountains جي سروي جوڪم قابل ذڪر آهن. 3 کان 4 صدي جو مليل قالين جو هڪ ڇڳل ٽڪرو پڻ ارَل اسٽين جي -تحقيق- جو نتيجو آهي اهو ٽڪرو (Frogment of Carpet Loulan Xinjiang) مان هٿ آيو، جيڪو برٽش ميوزيم ۾ رکيل آهي. سندس کوجنا دوران مليل نوادرات برٽش لائبريري، سرينگر ميوزيم، نئين دهلي جي نيشنل ميوزيم ۽ برٽش ميوزيم لنڊن ۾ رکيل آهن. سندس گڏ ڪيل شيون ۽ فن پارا وچ -ايشيا- ۽ ٻڌمذهب جي -تاريخ- -تهذيب- ۽ ادب کي سمجهڻ لاءِ مددگار ثابت ٿيا آهن. هن -بلوچستان-، بلوچي -ايران- ۽ سنڌو -تهذيب- تي به واکاڻ جوڳو ڪم ڪيو، 1977ع ۾ جينيٽ مرسڪي ۽ 1995ع ۾ اينابل والـڪر (Annabel Walker) نالي مشهور سوانح نگارن، -ارل اسٽين- جي شخصيت، زندگي ۽ -تحقيق- جي حوالي سان سندس سوانح عمري لکي، جنهن ۾ سندس ڪم کي ساراهيو آهي. 1943ع ۾ هن -انگريز- حڪومت کان -افغانستان- جي کوٽائي جي اجازت ورتي. 26 -آڪٽوبر- 1943ع تي ڪم ڪندي 80 سالن جي عمر ۾هن ڪابل ۾ وفات ڪئي، اتي ئي کيس دفنايو ويو. -ايشيا- ۾ خاص ڪري ننڍي کنڊ ۾ ڪيل کوجنا يا لاڳاپيل آثارن بابت کوجنا وارن سندس ڪجهه ڪتابن جو وچور هن ريت آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%20%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%86 |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=2024-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217160800/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%20%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%86 |url-status=dead }}</ref> #1898. Detailed Report on an Archaeological Tour with the Buner Field Force, Lahore, Punjab Government Press. #1905. Report of Archaeological Survey Work in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, Peshawar, #Government Press, N.W. Frontier Province. #The Thousand Buddhas: ancient Buddhist paintings from the cave-temples of Tung-huang on the western frontier of China. #1921 “A Chinese Expedition Across the Pamirs and Hindukush, A.D. 747.” Indian Antiquary 1923. #1929. On Alexander\\\\\\\'s Track to the Indus: Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of #India. London, Macmillan & Co. Reprint: New York, Benjamin Blom, 1972. #1940 Old Routes of Western Iran: Narrative of an Archaeological Journey Carried out and Recorded, MacMillan and #Co., limited. St. Martin\\\\\\\'s Street, London. #1944. \\\\\\\"Archaeological Notes from the Hindukush Region\\\\\\\". J.R.A.S. == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:لاهوري ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:1862ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1943ع جون فوتگيون]] aiw00fvu12we4cufdmwdoklhpkbfrvv ارمق 0 19053 394716 98497 2026-07-16T00:47:39Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394716 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''اِرَمُ يا اُرمُق''' اصل [[فارسي ٻولي|فارسي ٻوليءَ]] ۾ خاص ريشمي ڪپڙي کي چوندا آهن. شاهه لطيف جي رسالي ۾ هن ڪپڙي جو ذڪر آهي ته:'' :''”اِرَمُ هَڏِ نه اوڍيان، پٽولا پَٽَ چِيرَ“'' ''مطلب ته هڪ خاص قسم جو ريشمي يا اوني ڪپڙو.''<ref>{{Citation |title=''انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد پھريون، سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد.'' |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%20%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%82 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409132931/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%20%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%82 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == ''حوالا'' == == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ڪپڙي جا قسم]] j7vc4n9insn43o8udnwj33jg2j8tkrm ارم محبوب 0 19054 394713 237251 2026-07-16T00:41:41Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394713 wikitext text/x-wiki سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي نوجوان شاعره، محبوب شيخ ۽ برک ڪهاڻيڪار خاتون ماهتاب محبوب جي نياڻي آهي. هن 16 مارچ 1975ع تي [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]] ۾ -جنم- ورتو. -ارم محبوب- مئٽرڪ تائين -تعليم- سينٽ ميريز ڪانوينٽ گرلز هاءِ اسڪول حيدرآباد ۾ ورتي، گورنمينٽ نذرٿ ڪاليج حيدرآباد مان انٽر ۽ گورنمينٽ (زبيده) گرلس ڪاليج حيدرآباد مان بي. اي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ 1998ع ۾ سنڌ يونيورسٽي ڄام شوري جي سوشيالاجي ڊپارٽمينٽ مان ايم. اي ڪيائين. ارم محبوب، ننڍيءَ ڄمار ۾ ئي نثر ۽ شاعري لکڻ شروع ڪئي. روزاني هلال -پاڪستان- ڪراچيءَ جي ٻارڙن جي صفحي ”گلن جهڙا ٻارڙا“ ۾ سندس ٻاراڻيون ڪهاڻيون ۽ لطيفا ڇپيا. سندس -انگريزي- شاعري، ننڍيءَ عمر ۾ ئي “Children’s Dawn” ۽ “Teenager” رسالن ۾ ڇپجڻ شروع ٿي. 1990ع ۾ ’ٽين ايجر‘ رسالي جي نمائندي طور ڪم ڪيائين ۽ 1995ع کان لڳاتار ڪجهه سال -ان- جي فيچر -ايڊيٽر- رهي. -ارم محبوب- جي نثري نظمن جو مجموعو ’منهنجي ڌرتي‘ 1991ع ۾ ڇپجي پڌرو ٿيو. ارم جي 1993ع ۾ نوجوان شاعر حسن درس سان شادي ٿي. هن 1997ع کان صحافت ۾ به حصو ورتو. -ان- ڏس ۾ ”ٽين ايجر“ رسالي ۾ هن سنڌ جي وڏن اديبن شيخ اياز، علي احمد بروهيءَ، -آغا- سليم، حميد سنڌي ۽ ٻين جا يادگار انٽرويو ڇپايا. هن سنڌي اخبارن جاڳو، ڪاوش، سچ، خلق ۽ هلال -پاڪستان- ۾ ڪالم پڻ لکيا. سندس -انگريزي- شاعري، انگريزيءَ ۽ سنڌيءَ ۾ لکيل سفرنامن، ڪالمن ۽ انٽرويوز جا ٻه مجموعا ڇپائيءَ لاءِ تيار آهن. -ارم محبوب- کي منسٽري آف ڪلچر، ٽوئرزم ۽ يوٿ افيئرز پاران 1998ع ۾ ليڊر آف دي ييئر اوارڊ ملي چڪو آهي. -ان- کان سواءِ سنڌ ايگريڪلچر ڊپارٽمينٽ حڪومت سنڌ پاران پڻ کيس ڊپارٽمينٽل وڊيو مووي ”مومل جي ڪهاڻي“ ۽ -ان- جا ڊائلاگ لکڻ تي 2000ع ۾ اوارڊ ڏنو ويو آهي. هيءَ وڊيو مووي سنڌ جي 5000 ڳوٺن ۾ ڏيکاري وئي. -ارم محبوب- ٻه ڀيرا ڀارت جو سفر ڪيو آهي ۽ اتي سنڌي اديبن جي گڏجاڻين ۾ شرڪت ڪري چڪي آهي. -ان- کان سواءِ چين، فلپائين، سنگاپور، ملائيشيا، ٿائيلئنڊ ۽ هانگ ڪانگ جا سفر پڻ ڪري چڪي آهي. سنڌ جي سمورن اهم سنڌي رسالن سهڻي، مهراڻ وغيره ۽ ڀارت جي رسالن ”ڪونج“، ”رچنا“ ۽ هوند راج بلواڻيءَ جي ٻارن لاءِ نڪرندڙ رسالي ”ڦلواڙي“ ۾ سندس سنڌي شاعري ڇپجي چڪي آهي. هن ٻارڙن جي -اردو- رسالن ’نونهال‘، ’بچون ڪي دنيا‘، ’ٽوٽ بٽوٽ‘ ۽ ’جگنو‘ ۾ ٻارن لاءِ ڪهاڻيون پڻ لکيون آهن. هن ڪجهه وقت ڪي ٽي اين تي پروگرام ”منهنجو ٻالڪپڻ“ ۾ وڏن وڏن اديبن، فنڪارن، -تعليم- دانن، ڊاڪٽرن ۽ سياستدانن جا انٽرويو به ڪيا. -ارم محبوب- هڪ ئي وقت سنڌي، -اردو- ۽ -انگريزي- ٻولين جي ليکڪا آهي. هن سنڌ ٽي وي تي مختلف پروگرامن ۾ ڊائريڪشن پڻ ڏني آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارم محبوب : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%20%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A8 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501030838/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%20%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A8 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:سنڌي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي_ماڻھو]] pdrjf55sw2qfp6mmhax6szyi0z7icj7 ارمان (ڪتاب) 0 19055 394714 98495 2026-07-16T00:43:25Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394714 wikitext text/x-wiki سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي ٻهڳڻي شاعر سڳن -آهوجا- جي شاعريءَ جو هي پهريون ڪتاب آهي. سڳن -آهوجا- [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] جو ٻهڳڻو نقاد، -ترقي- پسند شاعر، ڪهاڻيڪار ۽ ناول نگار ٿي گذريو آهي، پر هو شاعر طور وڌيڪ مشهور هو. هو سنڌيءَ جي صف -اول- جي شاعرن ۽ نقادن ۾ شمار ٿيندو هو. سندس -ٻه ڪتاب- ”پياري چيز“ (شاعري ۽ نثري تخليقون) ۽ ”ڪنول جاڳي پيا“ (ناول) ڇپجي شهرت ماڻي چڪا آهن، ”ارمان“ سندس شاعريءَ جو ڪتاب آهي، جنهن مان اسان کي زندگيءَ جو ڀرپور ۽ گوناگون چتر يا عڪس ملي ٿو. هن ڪتاب ۾ سندس نظم، غزل، -آزاد نظم- ۽ قطعه شامل آهن، -جن- ۾ -جتي- ورهاڱي جو درد ۽ سنڌ، سنڌي تهذيب، شاهه ۽ سنڌي ٻوليءَ سان اٿاهه پيار آهي ته اتي محبت جا جذبا، سجاڳيءَ جا سڏ، زندگيءَ جي ڪٺنائن جو بيان به اثرائتي انداز ۾ موجود آهي. مشهور ڪهاڻيڪار موهن ڪلپنا سندس شاعري ۽ تخليقن کي سامهون رکندي کيس مفڪر شاعر سڏيو آهي. سڳن -آهوجا- جي هيٺئين غزل وڏي شهرت حاصل ڪئي زندگي، تنهنجي ادائن کان ٿيو بر آهيان، غم جا پهلو ته بدل، نيٺ به شاعر آهيان. هي شعري مجموعو، ڪرائون سائيز جي 128 صفحن تي مشتمل آهي ۽ مشهور اديب ۽ پبلشر، اي. جي اُتم، نئين دنيا پبلشرس پاران مئي 1970ع ۾ ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيو، جنهن جي قيمت صرف ٽي رپيا رکيل آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409211106/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} ev81jmul675bxnb5wmlo8v3eeote7by ارمغان حامد 0 19056 394715 157441 2026-07-16T00:45:31Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underlinked|date=نومبر 2019}} {{Orphan|date=نومبر 2019}} هيءُ ڪتاب حاجي حافظ حامد ٽکڙائيءَ جي ڪلام جو ديوان آهي، جيڪو مرحوم محمد هاشم مخلص جو ترتيب ڏنل آهي. هي مختلف حصن ۾ ڇپيو هو. حافظ حامد ٽکڙائي سنڌ جو ڪهنه مشق شاعر ٿي گذريو آهي ۽ غزل جي ڪلاسيڪي شاعرن ۾ سندس شمار ٿئي ٿو. هن ڊبل ڪرائون سائيز ڪتاب ۾ صفحا 83 آهن ۽ قيمت ڏيڍ رپيو ڄاڻايل آهي. ڇاپو پهريون، مسلمان پرنٽنگ پريس، ميرپورخاص مان 1926ع ۾ ڇپيو. هن ڪتاب جو ٻيو ڇاپو، مخلص پرنٽنگ پريس، حيدرآباد مان سال 1939ع ۾ شايع ٿيو. ارمغان حامد جو ٽيون ڇاپو، جنهن ۾ 106 صفحا آهن ۽ قيمت 2 رپيا اٿس، هاشمي پريس، [[حيدرآباد]] مان، محمد خان غنيءَ، 1949ع ۾ شايع ڪيو. هن ڪتاب جو چوٿون ڇاپو، محمد خان غنيءَ، ڊيمي سائيز ۾ هاشمي پرنٽنگ پريس، حيدرآباد مان 1959ع ۾ ڇپايو. هن ڇاپي جي قيمت 3 رپيا ڄاڻايل آهي ۽ ڪتاب جو نالو ”ارمغان حامد عرف ديوان حامد“ ڏنل آهي. هيءُ ڪتاب ”ارمغان حامد عرف ديوان حامد“ جي نالي سان ڇهون دفعو، محمد خان غنيءَ، هاشمي پرنٽنگ پريس، حيدرآباد مان سال 1964ع ۾ ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيو.<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409151745/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} {{Uncategorized|date=نومبر 2019}} l9kdzust3l1ys2uugwhacgzro40e4v2 ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ جو ترتيب ڏنل شاھ جو رسالو 0 19057 394719 229906 2026-07-16T00:53:10Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394719 wikitext text/x-wiki [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف]] جي ڪلام جو ڇاپي [[شاهه جو رسالو|رسالو]]، [[سر ڪلياڻ]] سان شروع ٿيندڙ هيءُ رسالو، جرمن -پادري- ڊاڪٽر [[ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ]]، [[جرمني]]ءَ جي شهر لپسيا (ليپزگ) مان سن 1866ع ۾ هند سرڪار جي مالي سهڪار سان ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيو. ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ جي هن ترتيب ڏنل ”شاهه جي رسالي“ جو نئون ڇاپو 2009ع ۾ -ثقافت- ۽ سياحت کاتي ڇپائي پڌرو ڪيو آهي. رسالي جو عنوان هيٺينءَ طرح ڏنل آهي: ”شاهه جو رسالو يعني ديوان عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ جو“ ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ هن کي ”رسالو“ توڙي ”ديوان“ ٻئي عنوان ڏنا آهن. رسالي جو هيءُ ڇاپو اڻپورو آهي، جنهن ۾ فقط 26 سر شامل آهن. ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ جي چوڻ موجب ضخامت ۽ قيمت وڌي وڃڻ ڪري باقي سُر شامل نه ڪيا ويا. هن ڇاپي ۾ 2529 -بيت- ۽ 159 وايون شامل آهن. ڊاڪٽر ٽرمپ، هن ڇاپي لاءِ مواد ڪنهن مقامي پڙهيل منشيءَ جي مدد سان ’ٻه سٺا قلمي نسخا‘ (سندس چوڻ مطابق) ڀيٽي، مرتب ڪيو. ٻنهي جي پڙهڻين ۾ -جتي- به اختلافي صورت پيدا ٿي ته اتي عام فهم پڙهڻيون اختيار ڪيون ويون، پر پاڻ لکي ٿو ته کيس وڌيڪ معنائن جي ڄاڻ ڪانه هئي، انهيءَ ڪري هن ٻنهي نسخن جي پڙهڻين بابت دليل پئي ٻڌا ۽ جيڪو دليل وڌيڪ وزندار سمجهيائين سو اختيار ڪيائين. حقيقت ۾ سندس مقامي مددگارن پنهنجي طرفان شاهه جي ڪلام کي سڌارڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندي، (ٻين قلمي نسخن وانگر) انهن ٻن قلمي نسخن جي ڪن داستانن جي آخر ۾ وايون ڏنل ڪين هيون ته اهي پنهنجي طرفان گڏ ڪري انهي ڪميءَ کي پورو ڪري ڇڏيائين.<ref>{{Citation |title=ارنيسٽ ٽرمپ وارو ڇاپو : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%BD%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%BE%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%20%DA%87%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88 |access-date=2016-05-24 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409082148/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%BD%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%BE%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%20%DA%87%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 4vqk6yyyer511gwjjnnlse2zhgtnzz8 ارنيسٽ مئڪي 0 19058 394717 372845 2026-07-16T00:49:23Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{صندوق معلومات شخص}} ارنيسٽ مئڪي، ڊاڪٽر (آرڪيالاجسٽ ):1926ع کان 1931ع تائين [[موهن جو دڙو|موهن جي دڙي]] جي کوٽائيءَ جي نگران رهندڙ مشهور آرڪيالاجسٽ '''ارنيسٽ مئڪي''' 5 جولاءِ 1880ع تي انگلينڊ جي شهر برسٽل (Bristol) ۾ جنم ورتو. سندس پورو نالو ارنيسٽ جان هينري مئڪي هو. هو هڪ سياح ۽ قديم آثارن جو ماهر هو. ابتدائي تعليم برسٽل گرامر اسڪول مان حاصل ڪرڻ بعد 1918ع ۾ برسٽل يونيورسٽي مان بي. اي (B.A) ۽ 1922ع ڌاري ساڳي يونيورسٽي مان ايم. اي جي ڊگري حاصل ڪيائين. جڏهن ته 1933ع ۾ ادب جي شعبي ۾ ڊاڪٽر جي سندَ (D.Litt) پڻ حاصل ڪيائين. هن ڊوروٿي ميري سائمنس نالي عورت سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا علم الانسان (Anthropology) شعبي سان تعلق رکندڙ هئي. ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ مئڪي، پنهنجي عملي زندگيءَ جو آغاز تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ دؤران ئي ڪيو. هن 1907کان 1912ع ڌاري مصر جي قديم تهذيب جي کوٽائي ۽ تحقيق ۾ حصو ورتو. جتي هن جو استاد آثارِ قديمه جو وڏو ڄاڻو ۽ ماهر سر فلنڊرز پيٽرائي (Sir Flinders Petrie ) هـــو. هن 1912ع کان 1916ع تـائـيـن، گـهـڻـو وقـت (Theban Tombs) تي تحقيق ڪري تصويري دستاويز تيار ڪيا، جيڪي ان وقت مختلف مقالن جي صورت ۾ شايع ٿيا. پهرين جنگ عظيم، دؤران، ڊاڪٽر مئڪي فوج جي سربراهه طور مشرقِ وسطيٰ ۾ پنهنجا فرائض سر انجام ڏنا. ساڳئي وقت فلسطين ۽ شام جي قديم يادگارن جي سار سنڀال لاءِ آرمي ڪميشن جي قائم ڪيل Survey of Ancient Monument جو ميمبر ٿي رهيو. ان کان علاوه 1919ع کان 1922ع جي عرصي دوران فلسطين حڪومت پاران اوائلي دؤر جي نوادرات، تاريخي عمارتن ۽ فن پارن جو محافظ/سنڀاليندڙ (Custodian) مقرر ٿيو. ڪجهه وقت ان عهدي تي فائز رهڻ کان پوءِ Penn ميوزم ۾ ڊاڪٽر ڪليرنس فشر جي اسسٽنٽ طور ڀرتي ٿيو. جيڪو دنيا جي پهرين ٻڌل ڳوٺ جيريڪو (Jericho) کان 45 ميلن جي فاصلي تي اتر طرف بيٽ شان ۾ واقع هو. Penn Museum ۾ ڊاڪٽر فشر جي بيمار رهڻ سبب هن اسسٽنٽ طور تاريخي ماڳن جي کوٽائي، نگراني، سروي، طريقيڪار، تصويرون ڪڍڻ ۽ مليل معلومات کي محفوظ ڪرڻ جو ڪم اڪيلي سر ڪيو. ڊاڪٽر مئڪي جي عملي زندگي ۾ ڪش، موهن جي دڙي ۽ چانهونءَ جي دڙي تي ڪيل تحقيقي ڪم خاص طور تي قابلِ ذڪر آهن. 19221925ع تائين ميسوپوٽيميا ۾ آڪسفورڊ يونيورسٽيءَ طرفان کيس ڪش ۽ جموت نصر (Jemdet Nasr ۽ Kish) جي کوٽائيءَ جو نگران ڊائريڪٽر مقرر ڪيو ويو. ميسوپوٽيميا ۾ ڪم دوران هن، سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي آڳاٽي تهذيب موهن جي دڙي تي کوجنا ڪندڙ سر جان مارشل ۽ سندس ساٿين سان بـحـيـثيت مـراسله نـگـار (Correspondent) طور ڪم ڪيو. 1925ع ڌاري مصر ۾ موجود برٽش اسڪول آف آرڪيالاجي ۾کيس بحرين جي جـزيـري تموليءَ (Tumuli) جي کوٽائي جو ڪم ڏنو ويو. 1926ع کان 1931ع ۾ انڊين سروي آرڪيالاجي طرفان کيس موهين جي دڙي جي کوٽائيءَ جو پهريون اسپيشل آفيسر ۽ بعد ۾ (فيلڊ ڊائريڪٽر) نگران مقرر ڪيو ويو. ڊاڪٽر ارنيسٽ مئڪي، آرڪيالاجي جي تجربي ۽ علم جي آڌار تي ڇهن سالن جي عرصي تائين پنهنجي گهر واري ڊوروٿي جي ساٿ ۽ سهڪار سان موهن جي دڙي تي ڪم ڪيو. هن جي ڪيل کوٽائي ۽ تحقيق دؤران موهن جي دڙي مان مليل نوادرات بوسٽن جي هڪ فائن آرٽ ميوزيم ۾ مستقل طور رکيل آهن. موهن جي دڙي جي کوٽائي بابت سرجان مارشل جي ايڊٽ ڪيل ڪتاب جي پهرين جُلد جا 7 باب ۽ ٽئين جُلد جا 7 باب ڊاڪٽر مئڪي جا لکيل آهن، جن ۾ هن کوٽائي جو تفصيل، جاين جي اڏاوت، ٺڪر جي ٿانون، ماڻهن ۽ جانورن جي مورتين، پٿر جي شين، رانديڪن، اوزارن، زيورن، مهرن، عاج جي شين ۽ گهر جي استعمال جي شين جو تفصيل ۽ جائزو ڏنو آهي، ان کان علاوه هن موهن جي دڙي تي تفصيلي سائٽ رپورٽ پڻ تحرير ڪئي. هن جون چانهونءَ جي دڙي (جيڪو سنڌو تهذيب جو اهم ماڳ آهي) جي کوٽائي جي حوالي سان به تحريرون شايع ٿيل آهن. هن سنڌ جي قديم تهذيب تي The Indus civilization نالي جدا ڪتاب به لکيو، جيڪو 1935ع ۾ لنڊن مان شايع ٿيو. هن 1942ع ڌاري انگلينڊ ۾ وفات ڪئي.<ref>{{Citation |title=آرڪائيو ڪاپي |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%85%D8%A6%DA%AA%D9%8A%20%20%DA%8A%D8%A7%DA%AA%D9%BD%D8%B1 |access-date=2020-07-09 |archive-date=2025-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250709121158/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD%20%D9%85%D8%A6%DA%AA%D9%8A%20%20%DA%8A%D8%A7%DA%AA%D9%BD%D8%B1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:1880ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:1943ع جون فوتگيون]] j2c9plr3m52xr1h2q8mk9jpwtl1b9cr اروڙ ونسي 0 19060 394723 229926 2026-07-16T01:03:24Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394723 wikitext text/x-wiki '''اروڙ ونسي''' ڪتاب ”سنڌ جي هندن جي تاريخ“ موجب [[سنڌ]] جي [[راء گهراڻو|راءِ گهراڻي]] ۽ [[برھمڻ گهراڻو|براهمڻ گهراڻي]] وارن راجائن جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ [[اروڙ]] (الور) هو، جو هن وقت هڪ ڳوٺڙو، [[روهڙي|روهڙيءَ]] کان اڍائي ڪوھ پري، زبون حالت ۾ آهي. [[سنڌ تي عربن جا حملا|711ع ۾ عربن جي ڪاھ]] وقت اتي ڀاڄڙ پيئي، پوءِ ٿورو آباد ٿيو، تہ زلزلي سبب اتان ماڻهو ڀڳا. سندن ونش وارن مان گهڻا اڄ تائين [[بهاولپور]] ۽ ان جي پريان [[سنڌو درياھ|سنڌو نديءَ]] جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تي ۽ [[پنجاب جو خطو|پنجاب]] جي پنجن ئي ندين جي ٻنهي ڪنارن تي، پنهنجا ماڳ جوڙي ويٺا آهن. انهيءَ مان ائين سمجهجي ٿو تہ الور ۾ جڏهن لڏ پلاڻ ٿي تڏهن اتان جا ڪيترائي رهاڪو، ٻيڙين ۾ چڙهي نڪتا، پوءِ جن کي جتي بهتر لڳو ڪنارن تي آباد ٿيا، هن وقت تائين اهي وڌي ويجهي اٽڪل پندرهن لک ٿيا آهن. منجهائن گهڻا گروءَ جا سک، ۽ ٿورا آريا سماجي، برهمو سماجي ۽ ديو سماجي آهن، پر سڀ اڄ تائين پاڻ کي ”اروڙونسي“ يعني اروڙ جي رهاڪن جو اولاد سڏائين ٿا. ڪي [[راجپوتانا]] ويا، ڪي سنڌ ڏي موٽيا ۽ [[شڪارپور]] کان [[قلات]] طرف ويا. وڌيڪ حقيقتن لاءِ ڏسو ”تواريخ اروڙنسي“، اردو ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل، شربيت لالا رامچند وڪيل، لاهور ۽ مهتہ ٽيڪچند بجاج وڪيل، چيف ڪورٽ ملتان جي اهي ٻئي صاحب پاڻ به اروڙ ونسي آهن. اروڙونسين جون ڪل 458 نکون ڄاڻايون اٿن، جن مان ڪن ٿورين جو ذڪر ڪجي ٿو. ′′′اروڙونسين جون نکون′′′: قديم سنڌ ۾ عام طرح نک جي نالي پٺيان ”جا“ لفظ گڏيندا هئا، جنهن جي [[سنسڪرت]] ۾ معنيٰ آهي ”جاتي، نسل، اولاد“ مثلا ”جاڙيجا“ معنيٰ ”جاڙي جو اولاد“ اهڙا ٻيا مثال بنيجا، تلريجا، پهوجا، جسوجا، ڪڪڙيجا، ماکيجا ۽ هندوجا آهن. ”ڌميجا (ڌميچا، ڌاميچا) ۽ ”وليجا“ (وليڇا) نالن ۾ ”ج“ جو اچار مٽجي ”چ“ ۽ ”ڇ“ ٿيو آهي. سنڌ ۾ جوڻيجا، جهيجا، چنيجا، ڏيپارجا (ڏيپارچا)، سنڌوجا، ناريجا وغيره ذاتين وارا [[مسلمان]] آهن، پر اهي اصل ۾ [[هندو]] هئا، ۽ اهي سندن نکن جا نالا هئا. ڪي هندو پنهنجن نکن جي نالن پٺيان ”آڻي“ گڏيندا هئا. مثلا اجماڻي (جماڻي) بٽاڻي، ڀيٽاڻي، ڀڳتياڻي، گرسياڻي ۽ هريراڻي. ڪي هندو پنهنجي نکن پٺيان ”پال“ لفظ گڏيندا هئا. مثلا راجپال، ڪاٺپال، کترپال ۽ ناگپال. ڪن حالتن ۾ ”پال“ مان ”پ“ اکر نڪري ويو آهي. جنهن ڪري باقي ”آل“ جو اچار بچيو آهي. جهڙوڪ ٺڪرال ۽ منجال. اروڙ ونسين جي ٻين نکن جا نالا بجاج، سچديو، ناگديو، واسديو، منچنديا وغيره آهن. مطلب ته سنڌ جي جن آڪهين بابت چئون ٿا تہ ٻاهران آيون آهن، سي اصل سنڌ جون هيون، جي موٽي سنڌ ۾ آيون آهن، ۽ ڪيتريون آڪهيون اڃا پنجاب ۽ ٻين هنڌن آهن، تہ بہ ”اروڙونسي“ سڏجن ٿيون.<ref>{{Citation |title=اروڙ ونسي : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99%20%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A |access-date=2016-05-25 |archive-date=2016-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409162744/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%99%20%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ڪتاب]] 7kyizzw14i847i0sa86rww3g5z0wlf3 ارون ڌتي راءِ 0 19061 394720 253176 2026-07-16T00:54:57Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --> | name =ارون ڌتي راءِ<br> Arundhati Roy | image = Arundhati Roy W.jpg | imagesize = | caption = 2013 ۾ نڪتل سندس ڦوٽو |birth_name=سوزانا ارون ڌتي راءِ | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|11|24|df=y}} | birth_place =[[شلانگ]], [[آسام]] (ھن وقت [[ميگھاليا]]), انڊيا) | occupation = ليکڪا، مضمون نويس ۽ سرگرم سماجي رڪن | period = 1997–کان ھاڻي تائين | notableworks = ''[[دي گاڊ آف سمال ٿنگس]] (The God of Small Things)'' | awards = {{Plainlist| *{{nowrap|[[مين بوڪر پرائيز]] (Man Booker Prize)-(1997)}} *{{nowrap|[[سڊني پيس پرائيز]] (2004)}} }} | signature = ArundhatiRoy_Autograph.jpg | module = <center>{{Listen |embed= yes |filename= Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac |title= Arundhati Roy's voice |type= speech |description= from the BBC programme ''[[Bookclub (radio)|Bookclub]]'', 2 October 2011.<ref>{{Cite episode |title= Arundhati Roy |series= Bookclub |serieslink= Bookclub (radio) |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b015brn8 |station= [[BBC Radio 4]] |date= 2 October 2011 |accessdate= 18 January 2014}}</ref>}}</center> }} '''سوزانا ارون ڌتي راءِ''' 24 نومبر 1961ع تي شيلانگ، ميگھالا ([[ڀارت]]) ۾ پيدا ٿي. == مشھوري == هوءَ انگريزيءَ ۾ لکندڙ ڀارت جي سُڄاڻ ليکڪا آهي، جيڪا هڪ سرگرم سماجي ڪارڪن به آهي، جنهن 1997ع ۾ ”بُڪر پرائيز“ (Booker Prize) حاصل ڪيو، جيڪو کيس سندس مشهور ناول ”دي گاڊ آف سمال ٿِنگس“ تي مليو. سال 2002ع ۾ کيس ”لينن ڪلچرل پرائيز“ مليو. هن ڪيترائي مضمون لکيا آهن ۽ هوءَ سماجي ۽ -اقتصادي انصاف- لاءِ پاڻ پتوڙيندڙ سرگرم ڪارڪن طور سڃاتي وڃي ٿي. == ذاتي پسمنظر == ارون ڌتي راءِ جي ماءُ عورتن جي حقن لاءِ پاڻ پتوڙيندڙ عيسائڻ هئي. جنهن جو تعلق شام ملڪ سان هو. جڏهن ته سندس بنگالي پيءُ، چانهه جي باغن ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ محنتي شخص هو. ارون ڌتي راءِ ٻه شاديون ڪيون، سندس پهريون مڙس آرڪيٽيڪٽ هو، ٻيو مڙس پرديپ ڪرشن هو، جنهن سان هوءَ 1984ع ۾ ملي ۽ سندس انعام يافته فلم ”ماسي صاحب“ (Massey Sahab) ۾ ڳوٺاڻي ڇوڪريءَ جو ڪردار ادا ڪيائين. پنهنجي مشهور ناول ”دي گاڊ آف سمال ٿِنگس“ لکڻ جي نتيجي ۾ مالي طور مستحڪم ٿيڻ تائين، هن مختلف ملازمتون ڪيون. == خدمتون == سال 1994ع ۾ کيس ان وقت شهرت ملي، جڏهن هن ڦولن ديوي جي نالي سان ٺهيل فلم ”بينڊٽ ڪُئين“ تي تنقيد ڪئي، جيڪا شيکر ڪپور ٺاهي هئي. آگسٽ 2008ع ۾ ”ٽائمس آف انڊيا“ کي ڏنل هڪ انٽرويوءَ ۾ هن ڪشمير جي ڀارت کان آزاديءَ لاءِ وڪالت ڪئي. ارون ڌتي راءِ مدا پاٺڪر سان گڏ نرمادا ڊيم خلاف مهم به هلائي ۽ واضح ڪيو ته ان جي اڏاوت سان 5 لک ماڻهو بي گھر ٿي ويندا. هن افغانستان ۾ آمريڪي بمباريءَ کي برطانوي اخبار ”گارجين“ کي انٽريو ڏيندي دهشتگردي ڪوٺيو. کيس 2006ع ۾ ”ساهتيه اڪيڊمي اوارڊ“ ڏنو ويو، جيڪو هن اهو چئي وٺڻ کان انڪار ڪيو ته حڪومت آمريڪي پاليسيءَ تي هلندي، صنعتي ورڪرن خلاف ظالماڻي پاليسين تي عمل ڪري رهي آهي. هوءَ گانڌيءَ جي ”عدم تشدد“ (اهنسا) (Non- Violence) واري خيال جي پوئلڳ آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد پھريون، سنڌي لينگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد. |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%20%DA%8C%D8%AA%D9%8A%20%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%90 |access-date=2019-12-17 |archive-date=2024-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241115183223/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%20%DA%8C%D8%AA%D9%8A%20%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%90 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:بنگالي ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:جيئرا ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:ڀارت کان انگريزي ٻولي جا اديب]] [[زمرو:ڀارتي ليکڪ]] [[زمرو:آزاد تقرير ڪارڪن]] [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] 3dz860loqr867shdnrxiq1xtzmeaybf ارونا حسين 0 19062 394721 112891 2026-07-16T00:56:45Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394721 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ارونا حسين''' پهرين [[سنڌي ماڻهو|سنڌي]] ڇوڪري آهي، جنهن کي ڪنهن ملٽي نيشنل ڪمپنيءَ ۾ تمام گهٽ عمر واري چيف ايگزيڪيوٽو آفيسر (C.E.O) هئڻ جو اعزاز حاصل آهي. هونئن ته مارڪيٽنگ شعبي ۾ ٻين عورتن کي به ڪيترائي اهم موقعا مليا آهن، پر ايتريءَ ننڍي عمر ۾ ارونا حسين، [[پاڪستان]] جي پهرين ڇوڪري ۽ سنڌياڻي آهي، جنهن مارڪيٽنگ جي ميدان ۾ اهڙي اهم ذميواري حاصل ڪئي. جنهن وقت 2007ع ۾ ارونا کي ڪَنٽري مئنيجر جو عهدو مليو، ان وقت هوءَ 30 سالن جي مس هئي. اها ڪمپني ’مَرسڪ لاجسٽڪس‘ (Maersk Logistics) جي نالي سان مشهور آهي، جڏهن ته ارونا کي پاڪستان سان گڏ افغانستان ۾ به ڪمپنيءَ جي سرگرمين جي ذميواري ڏنل آهي، جنهن کي هوءَ 100 ماڻهن تي مشتمل ٽيم جي سربراھ جي حيثيت ۾ نڀائي رهي آهي.<ref name="ah">[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%20%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86 ارونا حسين] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250119162744/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%20%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86 |date=2025-01-19 }} [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]] (جي ويب سرزمين)، جلد پھريون، [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد.</ref> == زندگيءَ جو احوال == ارونا حسين جو جنم پهرين ڊسمبر 1977ع تي سنڌ جي نامور علمي ادبي گهراڻي ۾ ٿيو. عبدالحسين سرائيءَ ۽ ڊاڪٽر فهميده حسين جي گهر ۾ جنم وٺندڙ هن نياڻيءَ شروعاتي تعليم سينٽ جوزف ڪانوينٽ اسڪول مان ورتي، 1993ع ۾ مئٽرڪ اي. ون گريڊ ۾ ۽ 1995ع ۾ انٽرميڊئيٽ سينٽ جوزف ڪاليج، ڪراچيءَ مان اي. ون گريڊ ۾ پاس ڪيائين. ان بعد ارونا حسين بزنس ائڊمنسٽريشن ۾ ماسٽرس ڪرڻ لاءِ آءِ. بي. اي ڪراچيءَ ۾ داخلا ورتي، جتان هن ايم. بي. اي جي ڊگري سال 2000ع ۾ امتيازي نمبرن سان حاصل ڪئي. شروعات ۾ ارونا ڪجهه عرصو هڪ ايڊورٽائيزنگ ڪمپنيءَ ۾ ملازمت اختيار ڪئي، بعد ۾ شپنگ (جهاز راني) جي دنيا جي وڏي ۾ وڏي ڪمپنيءَ ”AP Moller Maersk Group “ ۾ شموليت اختيار ڪيائين. جتان پوءِ هن جي چونڊ ڊينمارڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ ٻن سالن جي تربيتي ڪورس ”Maersk International Shipping Education“ لاءِ پڻ ٿي، جتي 400 کان وڌيڪ ٽرينِيز (تربيت حاصل ڪندڙن) جي گلوبل بئچ مان هوءَ ٽاپ ٽين ڪئٽيگريءَ ۾ پهتي ۽ امتيازي نمبرن سان اهو ڪورس پاس ڪرڻ کانپوءِ سندس پوسٽنگ ٻن سالن لاءِ لنڊن ۾ اسسٽنٽ مئنيجر مارڪيٽنگ طور ڪئي وئي، جتي هوءَ 2003ع کان 2005ع تائين رهي. ان کانپوءِ پاڪستان ۾ مارڪيٽنگ مئنيجر طور ٻه سال ڪم ڪرڻ دوران سندس اعليٰ ڪارڪردگيءَ ۽ قائدانه صلاحيتن کي ڏسندي 2007ع ۾ مرسڪ لاجسٽڪس (Maersk Logistics) ۾ کيس ڪنٽري مئنيجر مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان ڪمپنيءَ ۾ سندس اڻٿڪ ڪوششن جي نتيجي ۾ ايتري ترقي ٿي، جو ان کي نئين نالي سان سڃاڻپ ڏئي، 2008ع ۾ کيس ان جو چيف ايگزيڪيوٽو آفيسر مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن وقت اها ڪمپني ڊيمڪو پاڪستان (Damco) جي نالي سان پاڪستان ۽ افغانستان ۾ ڪاروبار ڪري رهي آهي، ارونا انهيءَ سان گڏوگڏ 2009ع ۾ ڪمپني جي گلوبل سيٽ اپ ۾ پڻ ڊائريڪٽر منتخب ٿي، جڏهن ته هوءَ 2008ع کان ’ڊيمڪو، بنگلاديش‘ جي بورڊ آف ڊائريڪٽرس جي ميمبر پڻ آهي. هوءَ ڪمپنيءَ جي ميٽنگن لاءِ دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ پاڪستان جي نمائندگي پڻ ڪندي رهي آهي، جن ۾ ڊينمارڪ، انگلينڊ، ڀارت، بنگلاديش، هانگ ڪانگ، سنگاپور ۽ دبئي وغيره شامل آهن. ارونا حسين جون اهي ڪاميابيون سنڌي ڇوڪرين لاءِ اتساهه جو باعث آهن ته ڪنهن به شعبي ۾ سنڌي عورت به پاڻ مڃائي سگهي ٿي.<ref name="ah"/> == ذاتي زندگي== ارونا جي شادي پاڪستان جي هڪ مڃيل ماهر لسانيات ۽ تحقيقي ڪتابن جي مصنف پروفيسر ڊاڪٽر صبيحه منصور جي فرزند علي منصور سان ٿيل آهي.<ref name="ah"/> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:1977ع جون پيدائشون]] 8xsyxnf981hm33jnidcayk56kys8e92 ازبڪ 0 19063 394729 260521 2026-07-16T01:14:15Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394729 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ازبڪ''' تاتاري ترڪن جو هڪ قبيلو، جيڪو 13 صدي عيسويءَ جي شروعاتي ڏهاڪو سالن ۾ [[چنگيز خان]] سان گڏ ترڪستان، [[افغانستان]] ۽ [[ايران]] ۾ پکڙيو، بعد ۾ [[پنجاب]] ۽ [[سنڌ]] ۾ بہ داخل ٿيو.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A8%DA%AA ازبڪ : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219111558/http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A8%DA%AA |date=2016-12-19 }}، [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]]، [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} k7jzc3ap4yjamyx6d2eeydckvmtiu59 ازبڪستان 0 19064 394730 338759 2026-07-16T01:16:00Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = ازبڪستان جي ريپبلڪ | common_name =ازبڪستان | religion = {{unbulleted list | 88.6% [[مسلمان]] | 9.4% [[عيسائي]] | 0.2% [[زرتشت مذھب]] | 2.0% لامذھب ۽ ٻيا}} | native_name = {{native name|uz|Oʻzbekiston Respublikasi}} | image_flag = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg | symbol_type = [[ازبڪستان جو رياستي نشان]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ksu.uz/en/page/index/id/7 |title=Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan |publisher=ksu.uz |accessdate=1 January 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627070709/http://www.ksu.uz/en/page/index/id/7 |archivedate=27 June 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> | national_anthem = "[[ازبڪستان جو قومي ترانو|Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Davlat Madhiyasi]]"<br/>({{Lang-en|"ازبڪستان جو قومي ترانو"}})<br/>[[فائل:Anthem-of-uzbekistan-1992.ogg|مرڪز]] | image_map = UZB orthographic.svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color= سائو}} | capital = [[تاشقند]] | coordinates = {{Coord|41|19|N|69|16|E|type:city_region:UZ}} | largest_city = تاشقند | official_languages = [[ازبڪ ٻولي|ازبڪ]]<ref name="law">{{cite web |title=Uzbekistan: Law "On Official Language" |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b4d328.html |website=Refworld}}</ref> | regional_languages = [[ڪاراڪلپاڪ ٻولي|ڪاراڪلپاڪ]] ([[ڪاراڪلپاڪستان]] ۾ )<ref name="law">{{cite web |title=Uzbekistan: Law "On Official Language" |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b4d328.html |website=Refworld}}</ref> | languages_type = بين النسلي ٻولي | languages = [[روسي ٻولي|روسي]] <ref>{{cite web |title=Uzbek Community Profile |url=https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/11_2013/community-profile-uzbek.pdf |website=Social Services}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Юрий Подпоренко|title=Бесправен, но востребован. Русский язык в Узбекистане|url=http://mytashkent.uz/2015/04/27/bespra}}</ref> | national_languages = | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 83.8% [[ازبڪ ماڻھو|ازبڪ]] | 4.8% [[تاجڪ ماڻھو|تاجڪ]] | 2.5% [[قزاق ماڻھو|قزاق]] | 2.3% [[روسي ماڻھو|روسي]] | 2.2% [[ڪاراڪلپاڪ]] | 1.5% [[تاتار]] | 4.5% ٻيا }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2017<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uz.html | title=The World Factbook: Central Asia - Uzbekistan |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |language= |accessdate=19 May 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> | demonym = ازبڪ | government_type = [[وحداني رياست|وحداني]]،[[صدارتي نظام|صدارتي]]، [[جابريت]] واري، [[ريپبلڪ|آئيني ريپبلڪ]] [[جابريت واري رياست]] <ref>{{cite web |title="Freedom in the World 2018 – Uzbekistan" |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2018/uzbekistan |website=freedomhouse.org |publisher=Freedomhouse |accessdate=7 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[ازبڪستان جا صدر|صدر]] | leader_name1 = [[شوڪت مرزيوئيوو]] | leader_title2 = [[ازبڪستان جا وزيراعظم|وزيراعظم]] | leader_name2 = [[عبدالله آريپووو]] | leader_title3 = [[ازبڪستان جي سينيٽ]] جو چيئرمين | leader_name3 = [[تنزيلا نوربائيوا]] | legislature = [[ازبڪستان جي سپريم اسيمبلي|سپريم اسيمبلي]] | upper_house = [[ازبڪستان جي سينيٽ|سينيٽ]] | lower_house = [[ازبڪستان جو ليجسليٽو چيمبر|ليجسليٽو چيمبر]] | sovereignty_type = قيام | established_event1 = [[بخارا جي امارت]] جي شروعات | established_date1 = 1785 | established_event2 = [[بخارا جي عوامي سوويت ريپبلڪ]] جو قيام | established_date2 = 30 اپريل 1920 | established_event3 = [[ازبڪ سوويت سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ]] جو قيام | established_date3 = 27 آڪٽوبر 1924 | established_event4 = [[سوويت يونين]] کان آزادي جو اعلان | established_date4 = 31 آگسٽ 1991 | established_event5 = باقاعده تسليم ڪيو ويو | established_date5 = 26 ڊسمبر 1991 | established_event6 = [[گڏيل قومن جي سيڪيورٽي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد نمبر 737|گڏيل قومن ۾ شموليت]] | established_date6 = 2 مارچ 1992 | established_event7 = [[ازبڪستان جو آئين|موجوده آئين]] | established_date7 = 8 ڊسمبر 1992 | area_km2 = 448,978 | area_rank = 56th | area_sq_mi = 172,742 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 4.9 | population_estimate = 32,768,725<ref name="Worldmeters2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/uzbekistan-population/|title=Worldmeters|website=worldmeters}}</ref> | population_census = | population_estimate_year = 2019 | population_estimate_rank = 41st | population_census_year = | population_density_km2 = 74.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 182.8 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 132nd | GDP_PPP = $238.997 billion<ref name="IMF"/> | GDP_PPP_year = 2018 | GDP_PPP_rank = 62 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,350<ref name="IMF"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 125th | GDP_nominal = $40.259 billion<ref name="IMF">[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=55&pr.y=16&sy=2018&ey=2022&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=927&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a= Uzbekistan]. International Monetary Fund</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2018 | GDP_nominal_rank = 69th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,238<ref name="IMF"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 130th | Gini = 36.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2013 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/income-gini-coefficient|title=Income Gini coefficient {{!}} Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org|access-date=2017-12-06|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|archivedate=10 June 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mecometer.com/whats/uzbekistan/gini-index/|title=GINI index – Uzbekistan|website=MECOMeter – Macro Economy Meter|access-date=2017-12-06|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404160525/http://mecometer.com/whats/uzbekistan/gini-index/|archivedate=4 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | Gini_rank = 88th | HDI = 0.710 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2017<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf |title=2016 Human Development Report |year=2015 |accessdate=15 December 2015 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322153238/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf |archivedate=22 March 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 105th | currency = [[ازبڪ سوم]] | currency_code = UZS | time_zone = [[ازبڪستان جو وقت]] | utc_offset = +5 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = ساڄو | calling_code = [[ازبڪستان جو ڊائلنگ ڪوڊ|+998]] | cctld = [[.uz]] }} '''ازبڪستان''' (Uzbekistan) [[سمرقند]] ۽ [[بخارا]] جا تاريخي شھر هن وقت ازبڪستان رياست (ريپبلڪ) ۾ شامل آهن، جيڪا 1991ع ۾ سوويت يونين (USSR) جي خاتمي بعد هڪ آزاد جمھوري ۽ خودمختيار رياست طور قائم ٿي آهي ۽ اسلامي تشخص سان سڃاپجڻ لڳي آهي. ازبڪستان جي ڪل پکيڙ 700، 172 چورس ميل (يعني 400، 7، 44 چورس ڪلوميٽر) آهي ۽ آدمشماري ڏيڍ ڪروڙ کان مٿي آهي. هاڻي ازبڪستان وارا پنهنجي ماضيءَ کي جاڳائي رهيا آهن ۽ پنهنجين وڏين ناميارين شخصيتن جون ورسيون ملهائي رهيا آهن. آڪٽوبر 1998ع حضرت امام بخاري رحه ۽ مشهور رياضي دان احمد فرغانيءَ جي ياد ۾ بين الاقوامي ڪانفرنسون سڏايون ويون، جيڪي مرڪزي ازبڪستان سائنسي اڪيڊمي تاشقند طرفان منعقد ٿيون، جن ۾ سنڌ مان مشھور اسڪالر [[نبي بخش خان بلوچ|ڊاڪٽر نبي بخش خان بلوچ]] کي سڏايو ويو. هن ڪانفرنس ۾ ڊاڪٽر صاحب هڪ تاريخي مقالو پڙهيو هو. ازبڪستان، [[پاڪستان]] جو پاڙيسري ملڪ آهي. افغانستان سان لاڳو آهي. پاڪستان مان جيڪا شاهراھ گلگت کان اڳتي وڃي ٿي. سا آخر ۾ ساڄي هٿ تي مُڙي، چين ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي، پر جيڪڏهن اتان کاٻي واٽ تي هلجي تہ ٿوري فاصلي کان پوءِ ازبڪستان اچي ويندو. ازبڪستان جي گاديءَ جو شهر [[تاشقند]] آهي، پر هن ملڪ جا مشھور تاريخي شھر چار آهن: (1) سمرقند، (2) شهر سبز، (3) بخارا ۽ (4) خيوا. انھن شهرن جي ڏسڻ کان سواءِ ازبڪستان جي تاريخي عظمت جي صحيح ڄاڻ حاصل نه ٿيندي. شھر ماضيءَ ۾ وڏن عالمن، عارفن، مشھور مدرسن، مسجدن ۽ وڏن بادشاهن جي آخري آرامگاهن مرڪز رهيا آهن. سمرقند ۾ وڏي فاتح امير تيمور جو مقبرو آهي، جيڪو عمارت سازيءَ جي اعتبار کان بي مثال يادگار آهي. امير تيمور جو پوٽو الغ بيگ، وڏو بادشاھ ٿي گذريو آهي. هيءُ وڏو عالم ۽ سائنسدان پڻ هو، جنھن تجربن لاءِ سمرقند ۾ وڏي رسدگاھ ٺھرائي، جيڪا اڄ بہ موجود آهي. ان کان سواءِ [[اسلام]] جي عملي خدمت ۽ عظمت جا ڪيئي روشن ستارا، هنن شھرن جي آس پاس آرامي آهن. امام بخاري رحه سمرقند کان ڏھ ٻارنھن ميل ٻاهر پنھنجي اباڻي ڳوٺ ۾ آرامي آهي، جتي موجوده حڪومت سندس روضو وڏن دروازن واري ايوان ۾ تعمير ڪيو آهي. نقشبندي سلسلي جو باني حضرت بھاءُ الدين نقشبند، بخارا جي شھر کان اتر طرف ڇھن ميلن جي مفاصلي تي آرامي آهي، جتي هڪ وڏي وسيع خانقاھ، مدرسو، وڏي شاهي جامع مسجد ۽ ٻاهران سادي تربت سندس عظمت جا يادگار آهن. شھر سمرقند ۾ سندس مريد مشھور ولي خواجه عبيدالله احراءِ مدفون آهي. ”فعانہ“ کان هڪ سؤ ڪلوميٽر پري ”اندجان“ جي وادي، بابر بادشاهه جو وطن آهي، جتي ”باغ بابر“ اڃا تائين موجود آهي. ڊاڪٽربلوچ صاحب ازبڪستان جي سفر ۾ هيٺيون دلچسپ احوال قلمبند ڪيو آهي: ”مون کي حياتيءَ ۾ پھرون ڀيرو ازبڪستان وڃڻ جو موقعو مليو ۽ ڪانفرنس وقت، تاشقند، سمرقند ۽ فرغانہ جا شھر بہ ڏٺم. ان بعد مون پنھنجي ذاتي انتظام ۽ اهتمام سان سمرقند (ٻيھر)، سبز شھر، شھر ڪتاب، شھر ڪرشي، بخارا، اورگنج ۽ خيوا جا شھر ڏٺا. جتان اڀرندي اتر طرفان هليس ۽ سڄي ملڪ مان سفر ڪري الھندي ڇيڙي تي خيوا ۾ پهتس. تاشقند وڏي ۾ وڏو ماڊرن شھر آهي، جنھن جھڙو صاف، ڪشادو ۽ وڏين شاهي عمارتن وارو شهر، پاڪستان ۽ هندستان ۾ ڪونھي، البت اسلام آباد وڌيڪ بھتر پلاننگ سان تاشقند سان ڪلھو هڻي سگهي ٿو. ازبڪستان ۾ جبلن جون وڏيون قطارون آهن، جن مان سون نڪري ٿو. جتان ڪجهہ سال اڳ نوي ملين ڊالرن جو سون ڪڍيو ويو ۽ وڪيو ويو. پئٽرول ۽ گئس جا بي انداز وڏا ذخيرا آهن. زراعت ۾ وڏي ۾ وڏو فصل ”پنبہ“ (ڪپھ) جو آهي. تاشقند کان وٺي خيوا تائين (سواءِ ريگستاني علائقن جي) وونئڻ نظر آيا. اڃا ڪن ڀاڱن ۾ ڦُٽيون هيون ۽ ماڻھن پئي چونڊيون. بخارا کان خوارزم صوبي تائين ٿر مثل ڳاڙهاڻ مائل واريءَ وارو وڏو ريگستان آهي، جنھن کي ”قلز ڪم“ (ڳاڙهي واري) ريگستان سڏجي ٿو. ان ۾ گئس جا وڏا ذخيرا آهن. خوارزم جي (اتر اوڀر) ٻئي طرف ڪاراڻ مائل واري آهي ۽ ان کي ’ڪار ڪم‘ (ڪاري واري) ريگستان چون. سڀ ميوا (انگور، صوف، آڙو، زردالو، ڏاڙهون وغيره) ٿين. وڏو ڪارو ڪانءُ عام آهي. اسان واري ڪٻر بہ آهي، جنھن کي ”پاڪستاني مينا“ چون. سندن خيال ۾ ڪٻرون پاڪستان مان ٿيون اچن. باغن ۽ وڻن ۾، ٻاهر توڙي شھرن ۾ شڪڪا پکيءَ جو راڄ آهي. هيءُ پکي ڪانءُ کان وڏو ۽ ڪجهہ ڊگهي پڇ سان آهي ۽ پٺيءَ تي ڪارن اڇن کنڀن جا پٽا اٿس. مون اهو پکي پھريائين ڪوئيٽا جي باغن ۾ ويٺل ڏٺو ۽ بلوچيءَ ۾ ان کي ”شڪڪ“ چون. سڀ کان وڌيڪ تہ ازبڪستان عقابن، بازن ۽ شڪرن جو ملڪ آهي ۽ اسان وٽ سنڌ ۾ اهي اتان ٿا اچن. سمرقند ۾ مانيءَ جي هوٽل تي ڪبابن وارن جي آڏو بہ اهڙا پکي ويٺا هئا. هڪ کي ٽنگ ۾ ڏور ٻڌل هئي، باقي ٻيو آزاد هو ۽ پئي گهميو. هتي قسمين قسمين ماکي ٿئي ٿي ۽ گهڻو ڪري سڀ جبلن مان اچي ٿي. امام بخاري جي يادگار تي اسان کي جيڪا دعوت کارايائون، ان ۾ ماکي بہ پيالن ۾ رکيائون. اها سفيد ماکي هئي. کائڻ سان ائين محسوس ٿيو، ڄڻ ان ۾ داڻ داڻ هئي، پر وڏي ڳالھ تہ ان ۾ عطر واري سرهاڻ هئي. بازار ۾ جتي ڪٿي ماکيءَ جا دڪان هئا، پر اهڙي خوشبودار اڇي ماکي ڪٿي بہ ملي نہ سگهي“. هن ملڪ سان پاڪستان جو هڪ تعلق اهو بہ آهي تہ هندستان ۽ پاڪستان وچ ۾ 1965ع واري جنگ جي خاتمي لاءِ مشھور ”[[تاشقند ٺاھ]]“ بہ ازبڪستان جي شهر تاشقند ۾ ٿيو هو.“<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=ازبڪستان ازبڪستان : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531105124/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A8%DA%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86 |date=2020-05-31 }} [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]] (ويبسائيٽ)، [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{OIC}} [[زمرو:ازبڪستان]] [[زمرو:ملڪ]] [[زمرو:ترڪستان]] [[زمرو:جمهوريتون]] [[زمرو:ايشيا جا ملڪ]] [[زمرو:ايشيا ۾ ملڪ]] [[زمرو:زمين بند ملڪ]] [[زمرو:وچ ايشيا جا ملڪ]] [[زمرو:1991 ايشيا ۾ ادارا]] [[زمرو:گڏيل قومن جا ڀاتي ملڪ]] [[زمرو:او آئي سي جا ڀاتي ملڪ]] [[زمرو:1991 ۾ ٺاهيل رياستون ۽ علائقا]] [[زمرو:آزاد رياستن جي ڪامن ويلٿ جون ڀاتي رياستون]] c3yevklzo7t5vzz9l8spgvm5uu1o6fx ازدھا (آسماني نکٽ) 0 19065 394731 265023 2026-07-16T01:17:53Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394731 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ازدھا''' هڪڙو [[آسماني نکٽ]] آهي، جنھن ۾ [[تارو|تارن]] جي قطار لھر وانگر ڏسبي آهي.<ref>[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7 ازدها : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124015058/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7 |date=2025-01-24 }}، [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 2dk4z3exiptonekrn44n5ty41nu6w5j اسفنديار ولي 0 19179 394732 394461 2026-07-16T01:21:50Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|پاڪستاني سياستدان (ڄائو 1949ع)}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = اسفنديار ولي خان<br/>{{nobold|{{lang|ur|{{nq|اسفندیار ولی خان}}}}}} | image = Asfandyar Wali Khan.jpg | office = ايم ايس ايس جو صدر | term_start = 2003 | term_end = 2024 | term_start1 = 1999 | term_end1 = 2002 | predecessor1 = [[اجمل خٽڪ]] | successor1 = [[احسان وائين]] | predecessor = [[احسان وائين]] | successor = [[ايمل ولي خان]] | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1949|2|19}} | birth_place = [[چارسده]]، [[اتر-اولهه سرحدي صوبو]]، [[ڊومينين آف پاڪستان|پاڪستان]]<br/>{{small|(موجوده [[خيبر پختونخوا]]، [[پاڪستان]])}} | other_party = [[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي]] (1987ع–2024ع) | spouse = | father = [[عبدالولي خان]] | mother = تاج بي بي | children = [[ايمل ولي خان]] (پٽ) | relatives = [[خان عبدالبهرام خان]] (پرداڏو)<br>[[عبدالغفار خان]] (ڏاڏو)<br>[[عبدالغني خان]] (چاچو)<br>[[عبدالعلي خان]] (چاچو)<br>[[سنگين ولي خان]] (سڳو ڀاءُ) | profession = سياستدان | footnotes = [http://senate.gov.pk/ShowMemberDetail.asp?MemberCode=105&CatCode=6&CatName=Senate+Tenure+(+2003+-+2006) پاڪستان جي پارليامينٽ] }} ''''اسفنديار ولي خان''' (ڄائو: 19 فيبروري 1949ع) پاڪستان جو سياستدان آهي، جيڪو [[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي]] (اي اين پي) جو اڳوڻو مرڪزي صدر رهيو. هو [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي مشهور سياسي خاندان سان تعلق رکي ٿو. سندس والد [[عبدالولي خان]] پاڪستان جي قومپرست ۽ ترقي پسند سياست جي اهم اڳواڻن مان هو، جڏهن⁠تہ سندس ڏاڏو [[عبدالغفار خان]] (باچا خان) برصغير جي آزاديءَ جي تحريڪ جو ناميارو اڳواڻ، [[انڊين نيشنل ڪانگريس]] جو سرگرم رڪن ۽ [[خدائي خدمتگار]] تحريڪ جو باني هو، جنهن کي عدم تشدد جي فلسفي سبب ”سرحدي گانڌي“ پڻ سڏيو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Sindhiana">[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=اسفند%20يار%20ولي اسفنديار ولي]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}، ''سنڌيانا انسائيڪلوپيڊيا''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://awaminationalparty.org/news/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=1 |title=Awami National Party website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725025344/http://awaminationalparty.org/news/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=1 |archive-date=25 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> عوامي نيشنل پارٽي هڪ کاٻي ڌر، پشتون قومپرست ۽ وفاقيت جي حامي سياسي جماعت آهي. هو پارٽيءَ جي باني صدر [[عبدالولي خان]] جو پٽ آهي. اسفنديار ولي خان [[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي]] جو موجوده صدر آهي. هو [[خيبر پختونخوا صوبائي اسيمبلي]]، [[پاڪستان جي قومي اسيمبلي]] ۽ [[پاڪستان جي سينيٽ]] جو ميمبر پڻ رهي چڪو آهي. == خانداني پسمنظر == [[File:The President, Awami National Party of Pakistan Mr. Asfandyar Wali Khan calls on the Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh in New Delhi on July 28, 2004.jpg|thumb|اسفنديار ولي خان 28 جولاءِ 2004ع تي نئين دهليءَ ۾ ڀارت جي وزيراعظم [[من موهن سنگهه]] سان ملاقات ڪندي.]] اسفنديار ولي خان [[چارسده]] ۾ ڄائو، جيڪو [[پشاور]] ڀرسان [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جو هڪ علائقو آهي. هو [[عبدالولي خان]] ۽ سندس پهرئين گهرواري تاج بي بي جو وڏو پٽ آهي. تاج بي بي جي وفات کان پوءِ عبدالولي خان 1954ع ۾ [[نسيم ولي خان]] سان شادي ڪئي. هن شاديءَ مان [[سنگين ولي خان]] پيدا ٿيو، جيڪو اسفنديار ولي خان جو سڳو ڀاءُ هو.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} هو [[عبدالغفار خان]] (باچا خان) جو پوٽو آهي، جنهن برطانوي راڄ دوران [[اتر-اولهه سرحدي صوبو|اتر-اولهه سرحدي صوبي]] ۾ عدم تشدد تي ٻڌل سياسي تحريڪ [[خدائي خدمتگار]] قائم ڪئي ۽ [[مهاتما گانڌي]] جو ويجهو ساٿي هو. اسفنديار ولي خان جو وڏي ڏاڏي جو ڀاءُ [[خان عبدالجبار خان]] برطانوي راڄ جي آخري دور ۽ پاڪستان جي قيام جي شروعاتي زماني ۾ [[انڊين نيشنل ڪانگريس]] طرفان [[اتر-اولهه سرحدي صوبو]] جو وزيراعليٰ رهيو.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} === تعليم === اسفنديار ولي خان باغ ولي، ضلعي [[چارسده]] ۾ ڄائو. هن ابتدائي تعليم [[ايچيسن ڪاليج]]، لاهور ۽ [[اسلاميه ڪاليجيئيٽ اسڪول]] مان حاصل ڪئي، جڏهن⁠تہ اعليٰ تعليم [[اسلاميه ڪاليج يونيورسٽي]]، پشاور مان بيچلر جي ڊگري حاصل ڪري مڪمل ڪئي.<ref name="Sindhiana" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://awaminationalparty.org/news/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=1 |title=Awami National Party website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725025344/http://awaminationalparty.org/news/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=1 |archive-date=25 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == سياسي زندگي == اسفنديار ولي خان پنهنجي سياسي سرگرمين جي شروعات شاگرديءَ واري دور ۾ زندگي [[پختون اسٽوڊنٽس فيڊريشن]] ذريعي ڪئي، جڏهن هن [[ايوب خان]] جي حڪومت خلاف هلندڙ شاگرد تحريڪ ۾ حصو ورتو. 1975ع ۾، سندس والد جي [[ذوالفقار علي ڀٽو]] جي حڪومت خلاف مخالفت سبب کيس گرفتار ڪيو ويو ۽ جيل ۾ سخت تشدد جو نشانو بڻايو ويو. تشدد دوران سندس وار ۽ نَنهن زبردستي پٽيا ويا ۽ کيس سي ڪلاس جيل ۾ رکيو ويو.<ref>[https://fiverupees.blogspot.com/2008/03/hayat-khan-sherpao-murder.html Hayat Sherpao Khan the murder]. Finally, nothing was proved against him. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617192004/http://fiverupees.blogspot.com/2008/03/hayat-khan-sherpao-murder.html |date=17 June 2008 }} Retrieved 28 March 2008</ref> بعد ۾ [[حيدرآباد ٽربيونل]] کيس 15 سالن جي قيد جي سزا ٻڌائي.<ref>Cowasjee, Ardeshir (21 June 1997) ''The Dawn''.</ref> 1978ع ۾ آزاديءَ کان پوءِ هو ڪجهه عرصو چونڊ سياست کان پري رهيو ۽ 1990ع ۾ ٻيهر سرگرم ٿيو 1990ع ۾ [[خيبر پختونخوا صوبائي اسيمبلي]] جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو، جڏهن⁠تہ 1993ع ۽ 1997ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ [[پاڪستان جي قومي اسيمبلي]] جو ميمبر رهيو. 2003ع ۾ [[پاڪستان جي سينيٽ]] جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو ۽ 2008ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ ٻيهر قومي اسيمبليءَ جو ميمبر منتخب ٿيو. ساڳئي سال کيس قومي اسيمبليءَ جي پرڏيهي معاملن بابت قائمه ڪميٽيءَ جو چيئرمين پڻ چونڊيو ويو.<ref name="Sindhiana" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Asfandyar Wali elected Chairman Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53020&Itemid=2}}</ref> اسفنديار ولي خان پختون قومپرستي، وفاقيت ۽ جمهوريت جي حمايت ڪندڙ سياستدان طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. سندس قيادت هيٺ [[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي]] 2008ع کان 2013ع تائين [[خيبر پختونخوا]] ۾ حڪومت قائم ڪئي، جڏهن⁠تہ وفاق ۽ [[سنڌ]] ۾ [[پاڪستان پيپلز پارٽي]] سان اتحادي حڪومت جو حصو پڻ رهي.<ref name="Sindhiana" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/302108/us-silent-on-visit-of-asfandyar |title=US silent on visit of Asfandyar |website=Dawn}}</ref> 1999ع ۾ اسفنديار ولي خان پهريون ڀيرو [[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي]] جو صدر چونڊيو ويو. 2002ع جي چونڊن ۾ مخالف ڌرين جي اتحاد سبب شڪست کاڌائين ۽ پارٽي صدارت تان استعيفيٰ ڏنائين، پر پوءِ وري بلامقابلي صدر چونڊيو ويو. 2003ع ۾ هو [[پاڪستان جي سينيٽ]] جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو، جتي ڇهن سالن تائين خدمتون سرانجام ڏنائين. 2008ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ هو ٻيهر قومي اسيمبليءَ جو ميمبر چونڊيو ويو ۽ سندس پارٽي صوبائي ۽ وفاقي سطح تي حڪومت جو حصو بڻي.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080618022701/http://www.khyber.org/articles/2005/AsfandyarFacingOppositionwithi.shtml Asfandyar facing opposition from family]}}</ref> سيپٽمبر 2008ع ۾ کيس قومي اسيمبليءَ جي پرڏيهي معاملن بابت قائمه ڪميٽيءَ جو چيئرمين چونڊيو ويو.<ref>[http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53020&Itemid=2 Asfandyar Wali elected Chairman Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928183542/http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53020&Itemid=2 |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> 2008ع ۾ اخبار ''[[ڊان]]'' موجب هن آمريڪا جو هڪ غيراعلانيل دورو ڪيو، جتي هن [[آمريڪا جي مرڪزي ڪمانڊ]] جي اعليٰ عملدارن سان ملاقاتون ڪيون.<ref>[https://www.dawn.com/news/302108/us-silent-on-visit-of-asfandyar US silent on visit of Asfandyar]</ref> == قتل جي ڪوشش == 3 آڪٽوبر 2008ع تي عيدالفطر جي موقعي تي مهمانن سان ملاقات دوران هڪ خودڪش حملي آور اسفنديار ولي خان کي نشانو بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ هو محفوظ رهيو.<ref>[https://www.dawn.com/news/323786/asfandyar-unfazed-after-suicide-attack Asfandyar unfazed after suicide attack] ''ڊان''، 4 آڪٽوبر 2008ع.</ref><ref>[https://letusbuildpakistan.blogspot.com/2008/10/lion-of-pakhtunkhwa-asfandyar-wali-khan.html Retrieved October 4, 2008]</ref> حملي کان پوءِ به هن دهشتگرديءَ خلاف پنهنجي سياسي موقف تي قائم رهندي جدوجهد جاري رکي. بعض مخالف دعوائن جي ابتڙ، هو لنڊن منتقل نه ٿيو، پر چارسده ۾ رهي پنهنجي پارٽيءَ جي قيادت ڪندو رهيو.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:1949ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:جيئرا ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] rufmy386onyahcz9dg353xayecaef1u قنديل بلوچ 0 28443 394774 367056 2026-07-16T09:14:42Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394774 wikitext text/x-wiki This page is machine translated from Google Translate , please translate it from the English Wikipedia {{Infobox person | image = | image_size = 200 | alt = | caption = Qandeel Baloch, 2016 | birth_name = Qandeel Fouzia Baloch | birth_date = 1 March 1990 | birth_place = ڪراچي | occupation = ماڊل | party = | children = | parents = | relatives = | website = http://www.qandeelbaloch.in/ | spouse = | partner = | imagesize = | yearsactive =2016 }} '''فوزيه عظيم''' (1 March 1990ع-15 جولاءِ 2016) هڪ پاڪستاني ماڊل هئي. هن سوشل ميڊيا تي '''قنديل بلوچ''' طور سندس روزانو مختلف اختلافي معاملن تي وڊيو ۽ تصويرون شيئر ڪرڻ سان مشهوري ماڻي.<ref>{{cite news|title=Self proclaimed drama queen: Qandeel Baloch|url=http://www.samaa.tv/social-buzz/2015/09/self-proclaimed-drama-queen-qandeel-baloch|author= Sarah Raza and Ayesha Rehman|work=Samaa TV|date=September 9, 2015}}</ref> بين الاقوامي ميڊيا جھڙوڪ [[فرانس پريس ايجنسي]] هن کي آمريڪي ماڊل ۽ اداڪارا [[ڪيم ڪارداشيان]] سان ڀيٽ ڏني.<ref>{{cite news|title=To post or not to post|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/life/To-post-or-not-to-post-30280316.html|work=The Nation|date=February 29, 2016|access-date=June 22, 2016|archive-date=April 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422184016/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/life/To-post-or-not-to-post-30280316.html|dead-url=yes|accessdate=June 22, 2016|archivedate=April 22, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422184016/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/life/To-post-or-not-to-post-30280316.html}}</ref> == پيدائش == قنديل بلوچ ڊيرا غازي خان جي هڪ غريب خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿي، هن جا 12 ڀائر ۽ ڀيڻون هيون.<ref name="e.jang.com.pk">[http://e.jang.com.pk/pic.asp?npic=07-24-2016/Lahore/images/07_05.gif Jang Multimedia Columns<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.siasattv.com/2854/who-is-qandeel-baloch-what-is-the-name-of-her-father-shocking-facts-unveiled Who Is Qandeel Baloch, What Is The Name of Her Father, Shocking Facts Unveiled<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == زندگي == قنديل بلوچ جي پهرين شادي 17 سالن جي عمر ۾ ٿي. اذيت پسند هئڻ جي الزام هيٺ آيل مڙس کان الڳ ٿي دارالمان ۾ پناهه ورتائين. هن کان پوءِ هن ڪيترن ئي هنڌن تي نوڪري ڪئي. شروعات ۾ هن ٽي وي تي نعت به ڳايا. پوءِ 2013ع ۾ هڪ مشهور ٽي وي شو Idol Pakistan ۾ آڊيشن به ڏنائين.<ref name="e.jang.com.pk"/> == اختلافي وڊيوز == سڀ کان تازو قنديـل سوشل ميڊيا ۽ ٽي وي تي ٻيھر بحث ھيٺ آئي جڏنھن هوءَ مفتي عبدالرحيم قوي سان هڪ هوٽل جي ڪمري ۾ سندس ايمان آڻڻ جي باري ۾ وڌيڪ سکڻ لاء وئي،جنهنڪري ٻنهي جي وچ ۾ لهه وچڙ سڀني تي طاري ٿي وئي ۽ سوشل ميڊيا جي پليٽ فارمن تي ٻنھين جا فوٽو آن لائن ويا.<ref>{{cite news|title=When Qandeel Baloch met Mufti Qavi: A guideline on how NOT to learn Islam|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1127984/qandeel-baloch-met-mufti-qavi-guideline-not-learn-islam/|accessdate=22 June 2016|agency=[[دي ايڪسپريس ٽرائبيون]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Fayyaz Hussain|title=What really happened when Mufti Abdul Qavi broke his fast with Qandeel Baloch in a hotel?|url=http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/lifestyle/real-story-of-mufti-qavis-breaks-fast-with-qandeel-balcoh/|accessdate=22 June 2016|agency=[[ڊيلي پاڪستان]]|archive-date=22 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622131820/http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/lifestyle/real-story-of-mufti-qavis-breaks-fast-with-qandeel-balcoh/|dead-url=yes|archivedate=22 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622131820/http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/lifestyle/real-story-of-mufti-qavis-breaks-fast-with-qandeel-balcoh/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Qandeel Baloch claims Mufti Qavi ‘hopelessly in love’ with her!|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2016/06/20/news/mufti-qavi-breaks-fast-with-qandeel-baloch/|accessdate=22 June 2016|agency=[[پاڪستان ٽوڊي]]}}</ref> هن مفتي صاحب جي دستخط سان هڪ ٽوپي پڻ پاتي .<ref>{{cite news|title=Qandeel Baloch stirs storm with selfies|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/129556-Qandeel-Baloch-stirs-storm-with-selfies|accessdate=22 June 2016|agency=[[دي نيوز انٽرنيشل|THE NEWS INTERNATIONAL]]}}</ref> ھي سماجي ميڊيا ۾ پکڙيل آهي ته هن قومي ڪرڪيٽ ٽيم جي کٽ لاء ناچ پٽي ڪرڻ جو واعدو ڪيو، ۽ سندس ناچ ۾ ھن وقف ڪيو ڪرڪيٽر شاهد آفريدي لاءِ جڏهن پاڪستان جي Twenty20 تي 19 ڀارت خلاف ميچ مارچ 2016. هوء به سماجي ميڊيا تي آئي پٽي ناچ جنهن جي سوز نڪري جي حوالي سان به منگتو جاري ڪيو هو، پر پاڪستان جي شاديء جي گم ٿي وئي آهي.<ref>{{cite news|title=Qandeel Baloch: Pak model to strip if team win WT20 match against India|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-t20/qandeel-baloch-pak-model-to-strip-if-team-win-wt20-match-against-india/story-n2YzcisDpdu7CMCrvQAuGI.html|work=[[هندستان ٽائمز]]|date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> ڪجهه هندستان جي ميڊيا سندس مقابلو پونم پانڊي سان ڪيو ويو <ref>{{cite news|title=Someone seems to be going the Poonam Pandey way this #WT20 season. Howzat?|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/buzz/someone-seems-to-be-going-the-poonam-pandey-way-this-wt20-season-howzat-1216958.html|author=Tanushree Pandey|work=IBN Live|date=March 16, 2016|access-date=June 22, 2016|archive-date=March 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318211628/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/buzz/someone-seems-to-be-going-the-poonam-pandey-way-this-wt20-season-howzat-1216958.html|dead-url=yes|accessdate=June 22, 2016|archivedate=March 18, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318211628/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/buzz/someone-seems-to-be-going-the-poonam-pandey-way-this-wt20-season-howzat-1216958.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan Got its own Poonam Pandey! Here's What She'll Do If Pak Wins WC '16|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/news-hf/TOP-world-cup-t20-pakistan-vs-india-model-offers-to-strip-for-shahid-afridi-5276572-PHO.html|work=Dailybhaskar.com|date=March 17, 2016|access-date=June 22, 2016|archive-date=March 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318224843/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news-hf/TOP-world-cup-t20-pakistan-vs-india-model-offers-to-strip-for-shahid-afridi-5276572-PHO.html|dead-url=yes|accessdate=June 22, 2016|archivedate=March 18, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318224843/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news-hf/TOP-world-cup-t20-pakistan-vs-india-model-offers-to-strip-for-shahid-afridi-5276572-PHO.html}}</ref> == انسپائريشنز == تڪراري اينڪر مبشر لقمان ، ھنکان هڪ انٽرويو ۾ پڇيو تھ هوءَ ڪنهن مان متاثر آهي ته ھن راکي ساونت ۽ پونم پانڊي کي سندس اتساهيندڙ طور تي ٻُڌايو.<ref>{{Citation|last=APDP - All Pakistani Dramas Page|title=Khara Sach With Mubashir Luqman 25 March 2016 - Qandeel Baloch Exclusive Interview|date=2016-03-25|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InKBCMLwsQk|accessdate=2016-03-26}}</ref> هنکي ڪيترن ئي تنظيمن، ميڊيا گروپن سندن شوز ۾ ڪم ڪرن لاءِ چيو ته جيئن هو پنهنجي چينلن جي خصوصيت کي پنهنجي TRP ۾ اضافو ڪري سگهن.<ref>{{Citation |title=Qandeel Baloch Statement in Interview |url=http://www.qandeelbaloch.in/qandeel-baloch-wiki-biography/ |accessdate=2016-06-22 |archive-date=2016-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423073534/http://www.qandeelbaloch.in/qandeel-baloch-wiki-biography/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == قتل == 26 سالن جي قنديل بلوچ کي سندس ڀاءُ ملتان ۾ 15 جولاءِ ، 2016 تي، غيرت جي نالي ۾ قتل ڪري ڇڏيو.<ref>{{cite news|title=Receiving life-threatening calls from Mufti Qawi, claims Qandeel Baloch|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1129476/receiving-life-threatening-calls-mufti-qawi-claims-qandeel-baloch/|accessdate=16 July 2016|agency=[[دي ايڪسپريس ٽرائبيون]]}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:1990ع جون پيدائشون]] [[زمرو:2016ع جون وفاتون]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني فيميل سنگرز]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني ماڊل عورتون]] [[زمرو:بلوچ ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:فيمينسٽ پاڪستاني]] pob4r7anv5j8hdfpb19uvoy8xo56cqj ارم (شداد جي جنت) 0 28644 394712 168006 2026-07-16T00:39:53Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394712 wikitext text/x-wiki باغ ارم- يمن جي -بادشاهه- ”شداد -بن- عاد“ جو ٺهرايل -باغ-، جنهن ۾ داخل ٿيڻ سان شداد گذاري ويو. (اهو استعاري طور ”-باغ ارم-“ يعني -بهشت- جو [[باغ]] سڏبو آهي). شداد ظالم -بادشاهه- هو. مخالفن کي برداشت ڪري نه سگهندو هو، جيستائين مخالف جيئرا هوندا هئا، تيستائين کين عذاب ڏيندو رهندو هو. آخري گهڙيءَ تائين به کين معاف نه ڪندو هو. انهيءَ ڪري سنڌي معاشري ۾ شداد ڪافر جي نالي سان اصطلاح ”شداد ڪافر وارو وير رکڻ“ رائج آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=باغ ارم : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%BA%20%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85 |access-date=2019-12-18 |archive-date=2025-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250922072741/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%BA%20%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:عربي علم الاساطير]] ep9jw05t9zixriexfwwwx4os1yupmpp حسين حقاني 0 29318 394741 392960 2026-07-16T05:16:53Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description |پاڪستاني صحافي، سفارتڪار، تعليمي ماهر ۽ سياسي ڪارڪن (ڄائو 1956)}} {{Infobox officeholder |name = حسين حقاني |image = Husain_Haqqani,_Ambassador_of_Pakistan_to_the_United_States_(2008-11);_Director,_South_and_Central_Asia,_Hudson_Institute_(16528040198).jpg |office = پاڪستان جو 24هون [[آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير|آمريڪا ۾ سفير]] |term_start = 13 اپريل 2008ع |term_end = 22 نومبر 2011ع |predecessor = [[محمود علي دراني]] |successor = [[شيري رحمان]] |office2 = [[سريلنڪا]] ۾ پاڪستان جو هاءِ ڪمشنر |term_start2 = 11 مئي 1992ع |term_end2 = 28 جون 1993ع |predecessor2 = طارق مير |successor2 = [[طارق الطاف]] |birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1956|7|1}} |birth_place = [[ڪراچي]]، پاڪستان |death_date = |death_place = |spouse = [[فرح ناز اصفهاني]] |profession = ڏکڻ ايشيا جو ماهر، صحافي، سفارتڪار، تعليمي ماهر ۽ سياسي ڪارڪن<ref name="Foreign Policy">{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2007/11/26/the-fp-debate-should-the-u-s-abandon-pervez-musharraf/|title=The FP Debate: Should the U.S. Abandon Pervez Musharraf?|work=Foreign Policy|date=26 November 2007}}</ref><ref name="democracy">{{cite news|url=http://democracyjournal.org/magazine/31/ignorance-meet-self-pity/|title=Ignorance, Meet Self Pity|work=Democracy: A Journal of Ideas|first=Jeffrey|last=Goldberg|date=Winter 2014}}</ref> |citizenship = پاڪستان |alma_mater = [[ڪراچي يونيورسٽي]] |website = http://www.husainhaqqani.com/ }} '''حسين حقاني''' ({{Nastaliq|حُسَین حقّانی}}؛ ڄائو: 1 جولاءِ 1956ع) پاڪستاني صحافي، تعليمي ماهر، سياسي ڪارڪن ۽ اڳوڻو سفارتڪار آهي، جيڪو [[سريلنڪا]] ۽ [[آمريڪا]] ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير رهي چڪو آهي.<ref name="Foreign Policy" /><ref name="democracy"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Haqqani presents credentials to Bush |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/306395/haqqani-presents-credentials-to-bush|work=Dawn|date=7 June 2008}}</ref> حقاني پاڪستان بابت چار ڪتاب لکيا آهن، جڏهن ته سندس تجزيا ''[[دي وال اسٽريٽ جرنل]]''، ''[[دي نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''، ''[[فارن افيئرز]]'' ۽ ''[[فارن پاليسي]]'' جهڙين عالمي اشاعتن ۾ پڻ شايع ٿيندا رهيا آهن.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/authors/husain-haqqani | title=Husain Haqqani &#124; Foreign Affairs | date=4 January 2023 }}</ref> هو هن وقت واشنگٽن ڊي. سي. ۾ قائم [[هڊسن انسٽيٽيوٽ]] ۾ ڏکڻ ۽ وچ ايشيا بابت سينيئر فيلو ۽ ڊائريڪٽر آهي، ۽ اداري جي علمي رسالي ''ڪرنٽ ٽرينڊز ان اسلامسٽ آئڊلاجي'' جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر پڻ آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hudson.org/haqqani|title=Hudson Institute Biography|work=Hudson Institute |accessdate=28 April 2023}}</ref> ان کان علاوه، هو ابوظهبي ۾ [[انوار گرگاش ڊپلوميٽڪ اڪيڊمي]] ۾ سينيئر ريسرچ فيلو ۽ ''ڊپلوميٽ-ان-ريزيڊنس'' طور پڻ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي ٿو.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Research Faculty & Staff |url=https://eda.ac.ae/research/team |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Anwar Gargash Diplomatic Academy}}</ref> حقاني 1980ع کان 1988ع تائين صحافت سان لاڳاپيل رهيو. ان کان پوءِ هو [[نواز شريف]] جو سياسي صلاحڪار ۽ بعد ۾ [[بينظير ڀٽو]] جو ترجمان بڻيو. ليکڪ [[جاويد جبار]] موجب، [[اسلامي جمهوري اتحاد]] (IJI) 1988ع جي عام چونڊن دوران [[بينظير ڀٽو]] ۽ [[نصرت ڀٽو]] خلاف بدنامي واري مهم هلائي، جنهن ۾ سندن تصويرن ۾ ردوبدل ڪري کين مغربي طرز جون عورتون ظاهر ڪيو ويو. جاويد جبار جي دعويٰ موجب، ان مهم جي منتظم ماڻهن مان هڪ حسين حقاني پڻ هو.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1652158|title=“BUT, PRIME MINISTER...”|date=17 October 2021|author=[[جاويد جبار]]|newspaper=[[ڊان (اخبار)|ڊان]]}}</ref> 1992ع کان 1993ع تائين هو پاڪستان جو [[سريلنڪا]] ۾ هاءِ ڪمشنر رهيو. 1999ع ۾ صدر [[پرويز مشرف]] جي حڪومت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ کان پوءِ کيس جلاوطن ٿيڻو پيو. 2004ع کان 2008ع تائين هن [[بوسٽن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا پڙهايا.<ref>{{cite web|title=Boston University Faculty Biography|url=http://www.bu.edu/ir/faculty/alphabetical/haqqani/|access-date=3 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820041503/http://www.bu.edu/ir/faculty/alphabetical/haqqani/|archive-date=20 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> اپريل 2008ع ۾ کيس پاڪستان جو آمريڪا ۾ سفير مقرر ڪيو ويو، پر سندس سفارتي مدي جو خاتمو نومبر 2011ع ۾ [[ميموگيٽ]] تڪرار کان پوءِ ٿيو. مٿس الزام لڳايو ويو ته هن پاڪستان جي مفادن جو مناسب تحفظ نه ڪيو. پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ سندس خلاف لڳايل الزامن جي جاچ لاءِ عدالتي ڪميشن قائم ڪئي. جون 2012ع ۾ جاري ٿيل ڪميشن جي رپورٽ موجب حقاني اهڙي يادداشت (ميمو) تيار ڪرڻ جو ذميوار هو، جنهن ۾ پاڪستان ۾ آمريڪي مداخلت جي درخواست ڪئي وئي هئي، البت پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ واضح ڪيو ته ڪميشن رڳو پنهنجي راءِ ظاهر ڪئي هئي، ڪو عدالتي فيصلو نه ڏنو هو.<ref>{{cite web |author=INP|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/islamabad/12-Jul-2012/memo-commission-didnt-declare-husain-haqqani-traitor-sc|title=Memo commission didn't declare Husain Haqqani traitor: Supreme Court|work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]]|date=2012-07-12|access-date=16 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> فيبروري 2019ع ۾ پاڪستان جي چيف جسٽس تبصرو ڪيو ته سڄو ميموگيٽ معاملو وقت جو ضايع ٿيڻ هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ”پاڪستان ايترو ڪمزور ملڪ نه هو جو هڪ ميمو لکجڻ سان لوڏي وڃي ها.“<ref name="Haseeb Bhatti">{{cite web |author=Haseeb Bhatti|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1463818/sc-wraps-up-memogate-case-says-govt-should-proceed-against-hussain-haqqani-if-it-so-wishes|title=SC wraps up Memogate case, says govt should proceed against Hussain Haqqani if it so wishes |work=[[ڊان (اخبار)|ڊان]]|date=2019-02-14|access-date=14 February 2019}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> ==ابتدائي زندگي ۽ پيشورانه سفر== حسين حقاني [[ڪراچي]] ۾ هڪ [[مهاجر (پاڪستان)|اردو ڳالهائيندڙ مهاجر]] خاندان ۾ پيدا ٿيو. سندس والد [[هندستان جي ورهاڱي]] کان پوءِ [[دهلي]] مان پاڪستان لڏي آيو هو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military, was published |date=2005 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |number=120181043209846784 |user=husainhaqqani |title=My father migrated 2 Pakistan fm Delhi. We dont believe in caste but trace R ancestry 2 Hazrat Ali. My mother-tongue is Urdu :) |first=Hussain |last=Haqqani}}</ref> هن اسڪولي زماني کان ئي صحافت ۾ دلچسپي وٺڻ شروع ڪئي. 1973ع ۾ [[ڪراچي يونيورسٽي]] ۾ داخلا ورتائين. کيس اسڪول واري زماني کان ئي سياست سان دلچسپي هئي. 1972ع ۾ جڏهن هو گورنمينٽ نئشنل ڪاليج ڪراچيءَ ۾ تعليم هيٺ هو ته هن اسلامي جمعيت طلباء جي چونڊن ۾ حصو ورتو ۽ جمعيت جو صدر بڻجي ويو. 1977ع ۾ هن ڪراچي يونيورسٽيءَ مان بي. اي ۽ بين الاقوامي تعلقات ۾ ايم. اي ڪيائين. ڪراچي يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ شاگرد يونين جو صدر به رهيو. تعليم دوران هو آمريڪي قونصل خاني جي لائبريري ۾ وڃي [[آمريڪا جي تاريخ]] بابت ڪتابن جو مطالعو ڪندو هو. بعد ۾ جڏهن ڪجهه شاگردن آمريڪا خلاف احتجاج دوران قونصل خاني تي حملي جي رٿابندي ڪئي ته حقاني ان ۾ شرڪت کان انڪار ڪيو.<ref>[[خالد حسن]]، [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008%5C10%5C25%5Cstory_25-10-2008_pg7_58 Congressional leader praises Husain Haqqani's abilities]، ''Pakistan Daily Times''، 25 آڪٽوبر 2008ع.</ref> هن 1977ع ۾ امتيازي حيثيت سان بي.اي. ۽ 1980ع ۾ [[ڪراچي يونيورسٽي]] مان بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن ۾ ايم.اي. جي ڊگري حاصل ڪئي.<ref name=CV>[http://www.bu.edu/pardeeschool/files/2013/09/CV_Husain_Haqqani.pdf Husain Haqqani, curriculum vitae]، Boston University، حاصل ڪيل: 3 جنوري 2016ع.</ref> 1980ع کان 1988ع تائين حقاني پيشور صحافي طور ڪم ڪيو. هن [[آوازِ آمريڪا]] ريڊيو لاءِ افغانستان جي جنگ بابت رپورٽنگ ڪئي، ''[[فار ايسٽرن اڪانامڪ رويو]]'' لاءِ پاڪستان ۽ افغانستان جو نامو نگار رهيو، ۽ هانگ ڪانگ ۾ رهندي لنڊن مان شايع ٿيندڙ ''عريبيه: دي اسپامڪ ورلڊ رويو'' جو اوڀر ايشيا بابت نامو نگار رهيو. ان کان علاوه هو [[جماعت اسلامي پاڪستان]] جي اخبار ''[[جسارت]]'' سان پڻ لاڳاپيل رهيو. 1985ع جي [[1985ع پاڪستاني عام چونڊون|عام چونڊن]] دوران هن [[پاڪستان ٽيليويزن]] سان پڻ ڪم ڪيو.<ref name=generals/><ref name=sehgal>{{cite news|last=Sehgal|first=Ikram|title=The 'Haqqani' network|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-108742-The-Haqqani-network|newspaper=[[The News International]]|date=17 May 2012|author-link=Ikram Sehgal}}</ref> ==سياسي زندگي== حقاني پنهنجي سياسي زندگيءَ جي شروعات [[ڪراچي يونيورسٽي]] مان ڪئي، جتي هو [[اسلامي جمعيت طلبه]] ۾ شامل ٿيو، جيڪا [[جماعت اسلامي پاڪستان]] جي شاگرد تنظيم آهي، ۽ بعد ۾ شاگرد يونين جو صدر بڻيو.<ref name=generals>{{cite news|title=Generals back new newspapers |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |date=22 March 1986 |page=482 |url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1986_21/12/from_our_correspondents_pakistan_generals_back_new_newspapers.pdf |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="sehgal"/> هن بعد ۾ هڪ مضمون ۾ لکيو ته گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران سندس سياسي اسلام بابت سوچ ڪڏهن ان ڏانهن مائل ۽ ڪڏهن ان کان بيزار ٿيندي رهي آهي.<ref name="husainhaqqani.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.husainhaqqani.com/1999/the-day-i-broke-with-the-revolution/|title=The Day I Broke With the Revolution|work=husainhaqqani.com|date=23 April 1999 }}</ref> بعد وارن سالن ۾ هو شدت پسند اسلامي تنظيمن جو نمايان ناقد بڻجي سامهون آيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dallasmorningviewsblog.dallasnews.com/2008/12/haqqani-on-musl.html/|title=Haqqani on Muslim Brotherhood's real agenda|work=dallasnews.com}}</ref><ref name="Ethics and Public Policy Center">{{Cite web|url=https://eppc.org/publication/haqqani-and-goldberg/|title=Ambassador Husain Haqqani and Jeffrey Goldberg at the April 2011 Faith Angle Forum|website=Ethics & Public Policy Center|accessdate=28 April 2023}}</ref> قومي سياست ۾ سندس شروعاتي وابستگي [[ضياءُ الحق]] جي حمايت سان رهي.<ref name="flipflop">{{cite web|last1=Hali|first1=S. M.|title=Flip-flops of Hussain Haqqani|url=http://nation.com.pk/columns/30-Oct-2013/flip-flops-of-hussain-haqqani|work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]]|access-date=19 December 2015|date=30 October 2013}}</ref> 1988ع ۾ هن [[غلام مصطفيٰ جتوئي]] جي اڳواڻيءَ واري سياسي اتحاد جي چونڊ مهم ۾ حصو ورتو. 1990ع ۾ هو [[نواز شريف]] جو خاص سياسي مددگار ۽ ترجمان مقرر ٿيو، جتي 1992ع تائين خدمتون انجام ڏنائين. ان کان پوءِ 1993ع کان 1995ع تائين [[بينظير ڀٽو]] جو سرڪاري ترجمان رهيو. بينظير ڀٽو جي ميڊيا صلاحڪار طور سندس مقرريءَ تي بينظير جي ماءُ ۽ ڀاءُ سندس اڳوڻي سياسي وابستگين سبب اعتراض ڪيو. هن تي اهو الزام پڻ لڳايو ويو ته هن ڀٽو خاندان خلاف بدنامي واري مهم ۾ حصو ورتو، جنهن ۾ بينظير ڀٽو ۽ ٻين جي تصويرن ۾ ردوبدل ڪري توهين آميز مواد شايع ڪيو ويو، پر بينظير ڀٽو انهن الزامن جي ترديد ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1993-12-14 |title=The battle of all mothers: Benazir Bhutto is at war, so is her mother |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the-battle-of-all-mothers-benazir-bhutto-is-at-war-so-is-her-mother-at-each-other-s-throats-you-re-fired-was-the-prime-minister-s-cry-matricide-was-the-reply-michael-fathers-reports-1467362.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-10-03 |title=Who is afraid of Husain Haqqani? |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/966751/who-is-afraid-of-husain-haqqani}}</ref> 1995ع کان 1996ع تائين هو ''هائوس بلڊنگ فنانس ڪارپوريشن'' جو چيئرمين پڻ رهيو.<ref name="CV" /> ===سفارتي خدمتون=== [[File:President Bush With Ambassador Husain Haqqani of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.jpg|thumb|صدر [[جارج ڊبليو. بش]] سان حسين حقاني، 6 جون 2008ع]] 1992ع ۾ حسين حقاني پاڪستان جي سڀ کان نوجوان سفيرن مان هڪ طور [[سريلنڪا]] ۾ پاڪستان جو هاءِ ڪمشنر مقرر ٿيو، جتي هن 1993ع تائين خدمتون انجام ڏنيون. 2008ع ۾ [[آصف علي زرداري]] جي حڪومت دوران کيس [[آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير]] مقرر ڪيو ويو. سندس سفارتي دور دوران کيس پاڪستان ۾ تنقيد جو منهن ڏسڻو پيو ۽ سندس مغرب نواز موقف سبب ڪجهه حلقن کيس طنزيه طور ”واشنگٽن ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير“ بدران ”پاڪستان ۾ واشنگٽن جو سفير“ سڏيندا هئا.<ref>{{cite web|first=Maria | last=Golovnina |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-books-pakistan-haqqani-idUSBRE99U01E20131031|title='Magnificent Delusions' of U.S.-Pakistan relations|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=30 October 2013}}</ref> سندس سفارتي مدي دوران پاڪستاني حڪومت جي هدايتن تحت ڪيترن ئي آمريڪي عملدارن کي پاڪستان اچڻ لاءِ ويزا جاري ڪيا ويا، جن مان ڪجهه بعد ۾ [[اسامه بن لادن جي قتل]] واري آپريشن سان لاڳاپيل قرار ڏنا ويا.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mark Mazzetti |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/magazine/raymond-davis-pakistan.html |title=How a Single Spy Helped Turn Pakistan Against the United States|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 April 2013}}</ref> 2011ع ۾ [[ميموگيٽ]] تڪرار کان پوءِ هن سفير جي عهدي تان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي. === مبينا ڳجهي يادداشت (ميمو گيٽ) ۽ استعيفا === {{Further|ميموگيٽ (پاڪستان)}} اسامه بن لادن خلاف ڪارروائيءَ کان لڳ ڀڳ هڪ هفتي پوءِ، رپورٽن موجب حسين حقانيءَ پاڪستاني-آمريڪي واپاري [[منصور اعجاز]] کي چيو ته صدر [[آصف علي زرداري]] جي درخواست تي آمريڪي عملدارن تائين اهو پيغام پهچايو وڃي ته پاڪستاني فوج مبينا طور مداخلت جو ارادو رکي ٿي. اعجاز آڪٽوبر 2011ع ۾ ''[[فنانشل ٽائيمز]]'' ۾ ڇپيل هڪ راءِ واري مضمون ۾ ان ڳالهه جو انڪشاف ڪيو ۽ ٻڌايو ته اهو پيغام تاريخ ۽ صحي کان سواءِ هڪ يادداشت وسيلي آمريڪي فوج جي جوائنٽ چيفس آف اسٽاف جي چيئرمين ايڊمرل [[مائيڪل مولن]] ڏانهن موڪليو ويو هو. بعد ۾ ميڊيا ۾ سامهون آيل ان يادداشت ۾ اهو به چيو ويو هو ته بن لادن واري معاملي ۾ فوج جي مبينا ڪردار سبب سويلين حڪومت لاءِ پنهنجو اثر وڌائڻ جو ”انوکو موقعو“ پيدا ٿيو هو.{{sfn|Ayesha Jalal|2014|p=366}} اعجاز موجب، فوج بن لادن واري ڪارروائيءَ کان پوءِ پيدا ٿيل شرمندگي گهٽائڻ لاءِ حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪرڻ ٿي چاهيو، ۽ هن اها يادداشت حقانيءَ سان صلاح مشوري بعد تيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Imtiaz Gul|2012|loc=Chapter 2 (pp.&nbsp;43–46)}} حقاني عهدي تان استعيفا ڏني، پر يادداشت لکڻ جي ترديد ڪئي. کيس پاڪستان واپس گهرايو ويو ۽ مٿس غداريءَ جو الزام لڳايو ويو. [[پاڪستان مسلم ليگ (ن)|پاڪستان مسلم ليگ (ن)]] جي درخواست تي پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ جاچ شروع ڪئي، جڏهن ته حڪومت پڻ الڳ پارلياماني جاچ شروع ڪري چڪي هئي.{{sfn|Ayesha Jalal|2014|pp=366–367}}{{sfn|Kalhan|2013|pp=83, 86}} سپريم ڪورٽ پاران مقرر ڪيل عدالتي ڪميشن جي جاچ دوران حقانيءَ کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جي اجازت نه هئي. هن انتهاپسند گروهن پاران پنهنجي جان کي خطري جون ڌمڪيون ملڻ جو حوالو ڏيندي پهرين ايوان صدر ۽ پوءِ وزيراعظم هائوس ۾ پناهه ورتي.{{sfn|Fair|2012|p=112}} جنوري 2012ع ۾ پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ حقانيءَ کي ملڪ ڇڏڻ جي اجازت ڏني.<ref>BBC News Asia، "[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16785304 Pakistan 'memogate': Husain Haqqani travel ban lifted]"، [[بي بي سي]]، 30 جنوري 2012ع، حاصل ڪيل: 16 اپريل 2014ع.</ref> عدالتي ڪميشن حقانيءَ جو موقف سڌيءَ طرح ٻڌڻ کان سواءِ، بظاهر، جاچ مڪمل ڪري جون 2012ع ۾ پنهنجي رپورٽ بند لفافن ۾ جمع ڪرائي. رپورٽ ۾ چيو ويو ته يادداشت حقيقت ۾ حقانيءَ لکي هئي ۽ ان جو مقصد آمريڪا کي اهو يقين ڏيارڻ هو ته پاڪستان جي سويلين حڪومت آمريڪا جي اتحادي آهي.{{sfn|Siddique|2015|p=181}}<ref name=report>Pakistan Judicial Commission، "[http://www.geo.tv/important_events/2011/mullenmemo/page108to121.pdf Pages 108–121, Judicial Commission Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619082347/http://www.geo.tv/important_events/2011/mullenmemo/page108to121.pdf |date=19 June 2012 }}"، [[پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ]]، 12 جون 2012ع، حاصل ڪيل: 24 مارچ 2014ع.</ref>{{rp|119}} رپورٽ ۾ اهو پڻ چيو ويو ته حقاني ملڪ جي سلامتيءَ کي نقصان پهچايو ۽ منصور اعجاز کي اهو تاثر ڏنو ته يادداشت کي صدر پاڪستان جي منظوري حاصل هئي.<ref>Ahmad, Fasih ۽ Taseer, Shehrbano، "[http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/06/13/pakistan-judges-rebuke-haqqani-in-memogate-scandal.html Pakistan: Judges Rebuke Haqqani in Memogate Scandal]"، ''[[دي ڊيلي بيسٽ]]''، 13 جون 2012ع، حاصل ڪيل: 2 اپريل 2014ع.</ref> ڪميشن جي رپورٽ ۾ وڌيڪ چيو ويو ته يادداشت تيار ڪرڻ وقت ”حسين حقاني پاڪستان سان وفادار نه رهيو.“<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Memogate commission declares Haqqani guilty|url=http://nation.com.pk/islamabad/12-Jun-2012/memogate-commission-declares-haqqani-guilty|website=The Nation|date=12 June 2012 |access-date=2015-12-22}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Ex-envoy sheds light on mystery about failure to block IAEA India-specific deal|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1227397|website=Dawn|date=2015-12-19|access-date=2015-12-22}}</ref> پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ واضح ڪيو ته ڪميشن رڳو پنهنجي راءِ ظاهر ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{cite web|author=INP|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/islamabad/12-Jul-2012/memo-commission-didnt-declare-husain-haqqani-traitor-sc|title=Memo commission didn't declare Husain Haqqani traitor: Supreme Court|work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]]|date=2012-07-12|access-date=16 April 2014}}</ref> حقاني ڪميشن جي رپورٽ کي هڪ طرفي قرار ڏنو ۽ پنهنجي حب الوطني<ref>Frum, David، "[http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/06/16/haqqani.html Haqqani: I am No Traitor]"، ''[[دي ڊيلي بيسٽ]]''، 16 جون 2012ع، حاصل ڪيل: 2 اپريل 2014ع.</ref> توڙي بيگناهيءَ جو دفاع ڪيو.<ref>Hirsh, Michael، "[https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/11/the-last-friendly-pakistani/249009/ The Last Friendly Pakistani]"، ''[[دي ائٽلانٽڪ]]''، 23 نومبر 2011ع، حاصل ڪيل: 2 اپريل 2014ع.</ref> حقاني پنهنجي جان کي خطري جو سبب ڄاڻائيندي پاڪستان واپس نه آيو.<ref>Masood, Salman، "[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/30/world/asia/husain-haqqani-cites-threats-in-pakistan.html Former Ambassador to U.S. Cites Threats in Pakistan Over Memo Case]"، ''[[دي نيو يارڪ ٽائمز]]''، 29 مارچ 2012ع، حاصل ڪيل: 16 اپريل 2014ع.</ref> 2018ع ۾ اڳوڻي وزيراعظم نواز شريف چيو ته ميموگيٽ معاملو سپريم ڪورٽ ۾ کڻي وڃڻ غلطي هئي ۽ حڪومت ٻاهرين دٻاءَ هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي هئي.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1397969|title= Seven years on, Nawaz regrets moving SC over Memogate |work=DAWN|date=28 March 2018}}</ref> 2019ع ۾ پاڪستان جي سپريم ڪورٽ ڪيس ختم ڪندي چيو ته ”سپريم ڪورٽ جو هن معاملي سان ڪو واسطو ناهي.“<ref name="Haseeb Bhatti"/> === پاڪستاني فوج سان لاڳاپا === حسين حقانيءَ جا پاڪستاني فوج سان لاڳاپا ڊگهي عرصي کان ڏکيا رهيا آهن. فوج بابت سندس تنقيد سبب پاڪستاني فوج جي ڪجهه حلقن ۾ سندس مخالف پيدا ٿيا.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/23/world/asia/pakistani-ambassador-is-forced-out-over-memo.html|title=Pakistan's Ambassador to the U.S. Is Forced Out|work=The New York Times|date=22 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/nov/23/hasain-haqqani-pakistan-political-football |title=Husain Haqqani's downfall becomes Pakistan's latest political football |work=The Guardian|date=23 November 2011}}</ref> 1999ع ۾ پاڪستاني ڳجهن ادارن جي اهلڪارن کيس اغوا ڪيو، مبينا طور تشدد جو نشانو بڻايو ۽ ٻن مهينن تائين قيد ۾ رکيو، تان جو عدالت سندس آزاديءَ جو حڪم ڏنو.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/09/world/asia/09envoy.html|title=Adroit Envoy States Case for Pakistan|work=The New York Times|date=8 May 2009}}</ref> [[انٽر سروسز انٽيليجنس]] (آءِ ايس آءِ) سندس آمريڪا ۾ سفير طور مقرري روڪڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ۽ فوج تي سندس تنقيد سبب سندس سفارتي مدي دوران باقاعدي نگراني ڪئي.<ref name="democracy"/> تنهن هوندي به، ڪجهه اشارا اهڙا مليا آهن، جن مان لڳي ٿو ته پاڪستاني فوج سان سندس لاڳاپن ۾ پوءِ ڪجهه بهتري آئي. ڊسمبر 2022ع ۾ پاڪستاني روزاني ''[[ڊان]]'' رپورٽ ڪيو ته سي آءِ اي جي اسلام آباد اسٽيشن جي اڳوڻي سربراهه [[رابرٽ گرينيئر]] حقانيءَ کي پاڪستان بابت ”تحقيق“ ڪرڻ لاءِ ذيلي ٺيڪو ڏنو هو.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Iqbal |first=Anwar |date=2022-12-21 |title=PTI lobbyist 'engaged Hussain Haqqani at someone else's behest' |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1727461 |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> گرينيئر پاڪستاني حڪومت لاءِ رجسٽرڊ لابسٽ طور ڪم ڪري رهيو هو. ''ڊان'' جي رپورٽ نومبر 2022ع ۾ [[فارين ايجنٽس رجسٽريشن ايڪٽ]] تحت گرينيئر پاران داخل ڪيل عوامي پڌرنامي جو حوالو ڏنو.<ref name="auto1">[https://efile.fara.gov/docs/6979-Amendment-20221102-7.pdf Amendment] fara.gov</ref> اڳوڻي وزيراعظم [[عمران خان]] جي [[پاڪستان تحريڪ انصاف]] جي عملدارن دعويٰ ڪئي ته حقاني ”پاڪستاني فوجي اسٽيبلشمينٽ جي هڪ سينيئر شخصيت“ جي چوڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهيو هو.<ref name=":2" /> حقاني انهن الزامن کي رد ڪيو، پر پاڪستاني حڪومت جي لابسٽ لاءِ پنهنجي ڪم جي نوعيت بابت وضاحت نه ڏني.<ref name=":2" /> سيپٽمبر ۽ آڪٽوبر 2021ع ۾ گرينيئر کان ادائيگيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ،<ref name="auto1"/> حقاني آمريڪا ۽ پاڪستان وچ ۾ ٻيهر لاڳاپا وڌائڻ جي حمايت ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Husain Haqqani|author2=Harlan Ullman |date=2021-09-10 |title=US-Pakistan relations need more candor |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/571715-us-pakistan-relations-need-more-candor/ |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref> هن اڳوڻي آرمي چيف جنرل [[قمر جاويد باجوه]] جي پڻ ساراهه ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite tweet|user=husainhaqqani|title=COAS Gen Bajwa says the right things to save Pakistan's relations with the U.S. & E.U., which @ImranKhanPTI has tried to jeopardize with inflammatory rhetoric after losing majority in parliament |number=1510280627408588808 }}</ref> آڪٽوبر 2022ع ۾ حقانيءَ جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ هڪ ”مطالعاتي گروهه“ باجوه جي واشنگٽن دوري دوران رپورٽ جاري ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻنهي ملڪن تي زور ڏنو ويو ته هو گڏيل دلچسپيءَ وارن معاملن ۾ سهڪار جو رستو ڳولين.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-04 |title=Study eyes US cooperation with Pakistan amid China rise |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221004-study-eyes-us-cooperation-with-pakistan-amid-china-rise |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> عمران خان موجب، حقانيءَ کي آمريڪا ۾ سندس حڪومت خلاف لابنگ لاءِ ڀرتي ڪيو ويو هو. خان [[سائفر نمبر آءِ-0678|سائفر ليڪ]] واري تڪرار کي پنهنجي حڪومت جي خاتمي جو ثبوت قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2393823/haqqani-was-hired-to-lobby-against-pti-govt-in-us-imran | title=Haqqani was hired to lobby against PTI govt in US: Imran | date=3 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://theintercept.com/2023/08/09/imran-khan-pakistan-cypher-ukraine-russia/ | title=Secret Pakistan Cable Documents U.S. Pressure to Remove Imran Khan | date=9 August 2023 }}</ref> === گڏيل عرب امارات سان لاڳاپا === حسين حقاني جا [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] سان ڊگهي عرصي کان لاڳاپا رهيا آهن. هو ٻن ڏهاڪن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين گڏيل عرب امارات مان شايع ٿيندڙ اخبار ''گلف نيوز'' ۾ ڪالم نويس رهيو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Husain Haqqani: History will repeat itself |url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/husain-haqqani-history-will-repeat-itself-1.347175 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=gulfnews.com |date=14 February 2003 |language=en}}</ref> 2017ع ۾ حقاني قطر تي تنقيد ڪندڙ دستاويزي فلم ''قطر: اي ڊينجرس الائنس'' ۾ شامل ٿيو، جيڪا گڏيل عرب امارات جي هڪ ڪمپني تيار ڪئي هئي.<ref>{{Citation |title=Qatar: A Dangerous Alliance - Full Documentary |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHXXan2CRZQ |language=en |access-date=2023-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Executive who oversaw "black ops" in Iraq hired for anti-Qatar attack, Bureau reveals |url=https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2018-04-23/ex-bell-pottinger-psyops-manager-made-qatar-doc |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=The Bureau of Investigative Journalism (en-GB) |language=en}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ هن لنڊن ۾ ''فائونڊيشن فار اسپورٽس انٽيگريٽي'' پاران منعقد ڪيل ڪانفرنس ۾ قطر ۾ انساني حقن بابت خطاب ڪيو. اها تنظيم قطر ۾ 2022ع جي فيفا ورلڊ ڪپ جي ميزباني جي مخالفت ڪري رهي هئي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Husain Haqqani attends The Foundation For Sports Integrity inaugural... |url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/husain-haqqani-attends-the-foundation-for-sports-integrity-news-photo/964615210 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=Getty Images |date=31 May 2018 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-16 |title=Football and fat fees: questions raised over funding of sporting conference |url=http://www.theguardian.com/football/2018/jul/16/football-and-fat-fees-questions-raised-over-funding-of-sporting-conference |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Panel Discussion {{!}} Is Sport Responsible for Safeguarding Human Rights? |date=31 May 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmMVzYV-kKw |language=en |access-date=2023-01-12}}</ref> 2023ع ۾ حقاني ابوظهبي جي [[انوار گرگاش ڊپلوميٽڪ اڪيڊمي]] ۾ سينيئر فيلو طور شامل ٿيو.<ref name=":3" /> == علمي پيشو == 2004ع کان 2008ع تائين حقاني [[بوسٽن يونيورسٽي]] ۾ بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جو ايسوسيئيٽ پروفيسر رهيو. ان کان علاوه، هو واشنگٽن ۾ [[هڊسن انسٽيٽيوٽ]] جي ''پراجيڪٽ آن اسلام اينڊ ڊيموڪريسي'' جو گڏيل چيئرمين ۽ اداري جي علمي رسالي ''ڪرنٽ ٽرينڊس ان اسلامسٽ آئڊلاجي'' جو گڏيل ايڊيٽر پڻ رهيو. سندس ڪيترين ئي علمي تحريرن ۾ [[ڪارنيگي اينڊومينٽ فار انٽرنيشنل پيس]] لاءِ ''پاڪستان بٽوين موسڪ اينڊ مليٽري''، رسالي ''[[فارن پاليسي]]'' لاءِ ''اسلامس ميڊيويئل آئوٽ پوسٽس''، ۽ ''[[واشنگٽن ڪوارٽرلي]]'' لاءِ ''في رول آف اسلام ان پاڪستانس فيوچر'' شامل آهن.<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/15/AR2008051503401.html |title=Haqqani Back in D.C., Where Everybody Knows His Name|newspaper=The Washington Post |date=15 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/|title=The News International: Latest News Breaking, Pakistan News|website=www.thenews.com.pk|accessdate=28 April 2023}}</ref> 2012ع کان 2014ع تائين حقاني بوسٽن يونيورسٽي ۾ بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جي شعبي ۾ ''پروفيسر آف دي پريڪٽس'' ۽ ''سينٽر فار انٽرنيشنل رليشنز'' جو ڊائريڪٽر رهيو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/calendar/event.php?id=131492&cid=17 |publisher=BU.edu |title=Relations between Nations: U.S. and Pakistan |date=31 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/today/2014/haqqani-probes-rocky-us-pakistan-alliance/ |publisher=BU.edu |title=BU's Haqqani Probes Rocky US-Pakistan Alliance |date=3 February 2014}}</ref> 2015ع جي سرءُ واري تعليمي سيمسٽر دوران هو [[شڪاگو يونيورسٽي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف پوليٽڪس]] ۾ ''ريزيڊنٽ فيلو'' رهيو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://politics.uchicago.edu/fellows-program/fellow/husain-haqqani|title=Husain Haqqani: Fall 2015 Resident Fellow|accessdate=28 April 2023}}</ref> === فارن پاليسي گلوبل ٿنڪر 2013 === حسين حقاني ۽ سندس گهرواري [[فرح ناز اصفهاني]] کي ''[[فارن پاليسي]]'' رسالي 2012ع جي ''ٽاپ 100 گلوبل ٿنڪرز'' ۾ شامل ڪيو ۽ کين ”پنهنجي مشڪلاتن ۾ ورتل ملڪ لاءِ سخت مگر مخلصانه جدوجهد“ ڪرڻ تي ساراهيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/11/26/the-fp-top-100-global-thinkers-2/|title=The FP Top 100 Global Thinkers|work=Foreign Policy magazine|date=26 November 2012}}</ref> رسالي لکيو ته ”حسين حقاني ۽ فرح ناز اصفهاني پنهنجي سڄي عملي زندگي پاڪستان ۾ آهستي آهستي وڌندڙ انتهاپسنديءَ خلاف جدوجهد ۾ گذاري آهي، جيتوڻيڪ وقت سان گڏ اهو وڌيڪ واضح ٿيندو ويو ته حالتون سندن خلاف هيون.“ == ڪتاب == حقاني پاڪستان بابت چار ڪتاب لکيا آهن. * پهريون ڪتاب ''پاڪستان: بٽوين موسڪ اينڊ مليٽري''، 2005ع ۾ [[ڪارنيگي اينڊومينٽ فار انٽرنيشنل پيس]] پاران شايع ٿيو. هن ڪتاب ۾ حقاني پاڪستاني فوج ۽ اسلام پسند گروهن جي لاڳاپن جو جائزو پاڪستان جي قومي سڃاڻپ ۽ سلامتيءَ جي تناظر ۾ پيش ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB112250111380397904 |work=The Wall Street Journal |first=Alyssa |last=Ayres |title=The Ambivalent Ally |date=28 July 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-span.org/video/?188353-1/book-discussion-pakistan-mosque-military |publisher=C-SPAN |title=Book Discussion on Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |date=26 July 2005}}</ref> * سندس ٻيو ڪتاب ''ميگنيفيسنٽ ڊليوژنز: پاڪستان, دي يونائيٽيڊ اسٽيٽس, اينڊ اين ايپڪ ھسٽري آف مس انڊراسٽينڊنگ''، 5 نومبر 2013ع تي ''پاڪستان افيئرز'' پاران شايع ٿيو. هن ڪتاب ۾ آمريڪا ۽ پاڪستان جي لاڳاپن جي تاريخ جو جائزو پيش ڪيو ويو آهي. ''[[دي ڊيلي بيسٽ]]'' ان کي ”دنيا بابت بهترين ڪتابن“ جي فهرست ۾ شامل ڪندي ان کي ”ڪانگريس جي ميمبرن ۽ آمريڪي پرڏيهي کاتي جي عملدارن لاءِ لازمي مطالعو“ قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/12/24/best-books-about-the-rest-of-the-world.html |work=The Daily Beast |first=Kapil |last=Komireddi |title=Best Books About the Rest of the World |date=24 December 2013}}</ref> * مئي 2016ع ۾ سندس ٽيون ڪتاب ''انڊيا vs پاڪستان'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو ''جوگرناٽ بڪس'' پاران ڇپايل هندستان ۽ پاڪستان جي لاڳاپن جي مختصر تاريخ آهي.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Plebiscite-would-never-happen-in-Kashmir-said-Ayub-Khan-in-1959/articleshow/52195541.cms|title=Plebiscite would never happen in Kashmir, said Ayub Khan in 1959|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 May 2016 }}</ref> * 2018ع ۾ سندس چوٿون ڪتاب ''ريئميجننگ پاڪستان: ٽرانسفارمنگ a ڊسفنڪشنل نيوڪليئر اسٽيٽ''، ''ھارپرڪولنس'' پاران شايع ٿيو. هن ڪتاب ۾ پاڪستان جي قيام، موجوده مسئلن ۽ قومي نظريي تي ٻيهر غور ڪرڻ بابت تجويزون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، ۽ هندستان سان رقابت کان اڳتي وڌي قومي مقصد جو نئون تصور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/on-the-bookshelf-222/ |work=The Friday Times |title=On the (book)shelf |date=20 December 2019 }}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2018/11/22/captain-pakistans-wild-ride/ |work=The New York Review of Books |title=Captain Pakistan's Wild Ride |first=Max |last=Rodenbeck |date=22 November 2019 }}</ref> == خيال == حسين حقاني [[اسلامي انتهاپسندي]] کي ”مسلمان دنيا مان اڀرندڙ سڀ کان خطرناڪ نظريو“ قرار ڏنو آهي.<ref name="Friedman, Thomas">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/opinion/thomas-friedman-our-radical-islamic-bff-saudi-arabia.html|title=Our Radical Islamic BFF, Saudi Arabia |work=New York Times |date=2 September 2015}}</ref> هن پاڪستان تي زور ڏنو آهي ته [[اسلام پسند جنگجو]] گروهن خلاف سخت ڪارروائي ڪئي وڃي، ۽ آمريڪا کي [[افغان طالبان]] سان ڳالهين کان خبردار ڪندي چيو آهي ته اهو ”انتهاپسند نظريي واري تحريڪ آهي، جيڪا پنهنجي بنيادي عقيدن تي آسانيءَ سان سمجهوتو نه ڪندي.“<ref name="Kinzer, Stephen">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/09/hussain-haqqani-reform-pakistan-military-militants|title=Pakistan should heed Husain Haqqani's urgent message of reform |work=The Guardian |date=9 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="Haqqani, Husain">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/28/opinion/dont-talk-with-the-taliban.html|title=Don't Talk With the Taliban |work=New York Times|date=28 June 2013}}</ref> 2019ع ۾ هن خبردار ڪيو ته طالبان جي واعدن تي ڀروسو نه ڪيو وڃي، ۽ 2021ع ۾ اڳڪٿي ڪئي ته پاڪستان طالبان جي ٻيهر اقتدار ۾ واپسيءَ جي حمايت تي آخرڪار پڇتائيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/02/07/dont-trust-the-talibans-promises-afghanistan-trump/|title=Don't Trust the Taliban's Promises |work=Foreign Policy |date=7 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/2021-07-22/pakistans-pyrrhic-victory-afghanistan|title=Pakistan's Pyrrhic Victory in Afghanistan |magazine=Foreign Affairs |date=22 July 2021|last1=Haqqani |first1=Husain }}</ref> ''[[دي وال اسٽريٽ جرنل]]'' پاڪستان ۾ رهائش دوران حقاني کي ”يرغمال“ قرار ڏنو ۽ وزيراعظم هائوس مان ورتل هڪ انٽرويو شايع ڪيو، جنهن ۾ هن وضاحت ڪئي ته پاڪستان جي ڳجهن ادارن ۽ جهادي گروهن جي مخالفت جو سبب ڇا هو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204257504577154730006383176|title=The Weekend Interview with Husain Haqqani: A Hostage in Pakistan|author=Mira Sethi|date=21 January 2012|work=Wall Street Journal}}</ref> [[مائيڪل هرش]] ''[[دي ائٽلانٽڪ]]'' ۾ لکندي حقاني کي آمريڪا لاءِ ”دي لاسٽ فرينڊلي پاڪستاني “ قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/11/the-last-friendly-pakistani/249009/|title=The Last Friendly Pakistani|author=Michael Hirsh|work=The Atlantic|date=23 November 2011}}</ref> جڏهن ته [[جيفري گولڊبرگ]] ''دي ائٽلانٽڪ'' ۽ ''بلومبرگ نيوز'' ۾ کيس ”واشنگٽن جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ محنتي ماڻهو“ سڏيو ۽ پاڪستاني فوج ۽ سلامتيءَ جي ادارن تي تنقيد ڪئي.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/11/the-pakistani-army-wins-a-battle-over-husain-haqqani-but-continues-to-lose-a-war/248963/|title=The Pakistani Army Wins a Battle Over Husain Haqqani, but Continues to Lose a War|author=Jeffrey Goldberg|work=The Atlantic|date=22 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/11/ambassador-haqqani-i-am-a-pakistani-i-will-die-a-pakistani/248635/ |title=Ambassador Haqqani: 'I Am a Pakistani, I Will Die a Pakistani'|author=Jeffrey Goldberg|work=The Atlantic|date=17 November 2011}}</ref> ''[[دي گارجين]]'' جي [[سائمن ٽِسڊال]] حقاني کي ”اولهه جو فطري اتحادي“ قرار ڏيندي ميموگيٽ تڪرار کي پاڪستاني ڳجهن ادارن سان سندس خراب لاڳاپن جو نتيجو قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/nov/23/hasain-haqqani-pakistan-political-football |location=London |work=The Guardian |first=Simon |last=Tisdall |title=Husain Haqqani's downfall becomes Pakistan's latest political football |date=23 November 2011}}</ref> 2017ع ۾ پاڪستان جي پرڏيهي وزير الزام لڳايو ته حقاني آمريڪي صدر ڊونلڊ ٽرمپ جي ڏکڻ ايشيا پاليسي جو مسودو تيار ڪيو هو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/29-Dec-2017/the-year-of-political-turbulence-divide|title=The Year of Political Turbulence, Divide |website=The Nation|date=29 December 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref> ساڳئي سال هن [[ليسا ڪرٽس]] سان گڏ پاڪستان بابت هڪ رپورٽ پڻ لکي، جيڪا بعد ۾ [[آمريڪا جي قومي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] ۾ ڏکڻ ۽ وچ ايشيا بابت سينيئر ڊائريڪٽر مقرر ٿي.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/29/us/politics/pakistan-american-aid-255-million.html|title=Frustrated U.S. Might Withhold $255 Million in Aid From Pakistan |website=The New York Times|date=29 December 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-28|last1=Goldman |first1=Adam }}</ref> پاڪستان ۾ سندس ناقد کيس آمريڪا ۾ هندستان نواز لابيءَ جو همدرد قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/963896/the-magnificent-delusions-of-husain-haqqani/|title=The Magnificent Delusions of Husain Haqqani |website=The Express Tribune|date=28 September 2015 |language=en-US|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref> حقاني پاڪستان کي [[ايف-16]] جنگي جهازن ۽ [[AH-1Z وائپر]] هيليڪاپٽرن جي وڪري جي مخالفت ڪندو رهيو آهي. هن ڊسمبر 2015ع ۾ آمريڪي ڪانگريس آڏو شاهدي ڏيندي چيو ته پاڪستان کي وڪرو ڪيل ايف-16 جهاز آخرڪار هندستان خلاف استعمال ٿيندا.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1006727/f-16-jets-us-plans-to-sell-to-pakistan-will-be-used-against-india-husain-haqqani/|title=F-16 jets US plans to sell to Pakistan will be used against India: Husain Haqqani|date=9 December 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://docs.house.gov/meetings/FA/FA18/20151208/104258/HHRG-114-FA18-Wstate-HaqqaniH-20151208.pdf "Civil Nuclear Cooperation with Pakistan: Prospects and Consequences"], Written testimony by Husain Haqqani, US House of Representatives, retrieved 2016-01-21.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/us-aid-to-pakistan-will-be-used-against-india-husain-haqqani/articleshow/50085789.cms|title=US aid to Pakistan will be used against India: Husain Haqqani |website=The Economic Times|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref> هندستاني حڪومت پڻ پاڪستان کي اٺ ايف-16 جهاز وڪڻڻ واري تجويز تي احتجاج ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/us-sale-of-f16s-to-pakistan-india-expresses-disappointment-says-such-arms-transfers-will-help-combat-terrorism/article8231832.ece|title=India calls U.S. envoy, protests F-16 sale to Pakistan|date=2016-02-13|newspaper=The Hindu|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|access-date=2016-03-25}}</ref> پاڪستان جي سينيٽ جي دفاعي ڪميٽي مٿس واشنگٽن ۾ هندستان نواز لابيءَ سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ جو الزام هنيو.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2016/01/20/national/senate-body-wants-govt-to-counter-pro-indian-lobby-in-washington/|title=Senate body wants govt to counter pro-Indian lobby in Washington|work=pakistantoday.com.pk|access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref> حقاني پاڪستاني عوام تي زور ڏنو آهي ته هو پاڪستاني حڪومت کان [[1971ع جي بنگلاديش نسل ڪشي]] بابت [[بنگلاديش]] کان سرڪاري معافي وٺڻ جو مطالبو ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh/news/former-pakistani-diplomat-calls-official-apology-bangladesh-1971-genocide-2069089|title=Former Pakistani diplomat calls for official apology to Bangladesh for 1971 genocide|date=2021-03-30|access-date=2021-08-24|website=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> == ذاتي زندگي == حقاني پاڪستان جو شهري آهي، ۽ هن 2019ع ۾ چيو ته وٽس پاڪستاني پاسپورٽ موجود آهي.<ref name="The Hindu LFL">{{cite web |last1=Interview |title=The Hindu Lit for Life 2019 Why can't India and Pakistan be friends |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOF19wHrFyA |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211214/VOF19wHrFyA |archive-date=2021-12-14 |url-status=live|work=The Hindu |access-date=15 March 2019 |date=7 March 2019|quote= at time 43 00 mins}}{{cbignore}}</ref> مارچ 2000ع ۾ هن [[فرح ناز اصفهاني]] سان شادي ڪئي، جيڪا [[سي اين اين]] ۽ [[ايم ايس اين بي سي]] جي اڳوڻي پروڊيوسر، [[پاڪستان جي قومي اسيمبلي]] جي اڳوڻي ميمبر، ۽ پاڪستان جي واشنگٽن ۾ پهرين سفير [[مرزا ابوالحسن اصفهاني]] جي پوٽي آهي. واشنگٽن ۾ پاڪستاني سفير جي رهائشگاهه سندس ڏاڏي خريد ڪري پاڪستان کي عطيو ڪئي هئي.<ref name="auto"/> حقاني 2002ع کان آمريڪا ۾ رهائش پذير آهي.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dhume|first=Sadanand|title=A U.S.-Pakistan Reset |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204630904577055863455910278|newspaper=[[دي وال اسٽريٽ جرنل]]|date=24 November 2011}}</ref> ==ذميواريون== هن وزير اعليٰ پنجاب نواز شريف جي خاص معاون طور 1988ع کان 1990ع تائين ذميواري نڀائي ۽ 1990ع ۾ هو پهرئين وزير اعظم غلام مصطفيٰ جتوئيءَ ۽ پوءِ وزير اعظم بڻجندڙ نوازشريف جو خاص معاون (Press Advisor) بڻيو. 1992ع کان 1993ع تائين سريلنڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير رهيو. 1993ع ۾ حسين حقاني هڪ ڀيرو وري هڪ چونڊ مهم هلائڻ ۾ حصو ورتو. هن ڀيري اها مهم نواز شريف جي مخالف ۽ (شهيد) بينظير جي قيادت ۾ ٺهندڙ سياسي اتحاد P.D.F (پي. ڊي. ايف) هئي. چونڊن ۾ (شهيد) [[بينظير ڀٽو]] جي ڪاميابيءَ کانپوءِ 1993ع کان 1995ع تائين حڪومت جو ترجمان رهيو. انهيءَ دوران کيس مملڪتي وزير جو درجو حاصل هو. جون 1995ع ۾ کيس هائوس بلڊنگ فنانس ڪارپوريشن جو چيئرمئن بنايو ويو هو. تقريباً هڪ سال تائين اُن عهدي تي فائز رهيو. نومبر 1996ع ۾ جڏهن صدر فاروق لغاريءَ بينظير ڀٽو جي حڪومت ختم ڪئي ته هن به پنهنجي عهدي تان استعيفا ڏئي ڇڏي. 1998ع ۾ نواز شريف جو ٻئي حڪومتي دور ۾ هڪ ڀيرو حسين حقاني وري سندس ساٿي نظر آيو ۽ مئي 1998ع ۾ پاڪستان پاران ائٽمي ڌماڪن جي تجربي کانپوءِ حسين حقاني آمريڪي پابندين تي آمريڪي اختيارين سان وزير اعظم جي نمائندگي ڪندي ڳالهيون ڪيون. هو 2002ع ۾ آمريڪا منتقل ٿي ويو ۽ واشنگٽن ڊي. سي جي جان هابڪن يونيورسٽيءَ ۾ 2003ع کان 2004ع تائين ليڪچر طور ۽ 2004ع ۾ آمريڪا جي بوسٽن يونيورسٽيءَ سان ائسوسيئيٽ پروفيسر طور واڳيل رهيو. ان کان سواءِ يونيورسٽيءَ جي پراجيڪٽ جو شريڪ چيئرمئن به رهيو. مشرف دور جي خاتمي ۽ 2008ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ پيپلز پارٽيءَ جي ڪاميابيءَ ۽ حڪومت سازيءَ کان پوءِ کيس آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽن سالن بعد نومبر 2011ع ۾ آمريڪي فوج کي لکيل سندس هڪ مبينا خط جي اسڪينڊل ظاهر ٿيڻ کان پوءِ کائنس استعيفا ورتي وئي ۽ سندس جاءِ تي شيري رحمان کي سفير مقرر ڪيو ويو. حسين حقاني ڪيترن ڪتابن جو مصنف به آهي ۽ هن ملڪي ۽ بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن ۽ سياسي لاهن چاڙهن تي مختلف ملڪي ۽ عالمي اخبارن ۽ رسالن ۾ مضمون به لکيا آهن.<ref>ڪتاب: انسائڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد چوٿون، ڇپيندڙ: سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي (ISBN 978-969-9098-80-2) سال: 2012</ref> == حوالا == {{Reflist}} == ڪتابيات == {{refbegin|33em}} * {{citation |title=Pakistan in 2011: Ten Years of the "War on Terror" |last=Fair |first=C. Christine |author-link=C. Christine Fair |journal=Asian Survey |volume=52 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=100–113 |jstor=10.1525/as.2012.52.1.100 |doi=10.1525/as.2012.52.1.100}} * {{citation |last=Fair |first=C. Christine |author-link=C. Christine Fair |chapter=Democracy on the Leash in Pakistan |editor1=C. Christine Fair |editor2=Sarah J. Watson |title=Pakistan's Enduring Challenges |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxtrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0812246902 |pages=131–155}} * {{citation |last=Gul |first=Imtiaz |title=Pakistan: Before and After Osama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tumBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT68 |year=2012 |publisher=Roli Books Private Limited |isbn=978-9351940289 |ref={{sfnref|Imtiaz Gul|2012}}}} * {{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87VnBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA366 |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674744998 |ref={{sfnref|Ayesha Jalal|2014}}}} * {{citation |last=Kalhan |first=Anil |title='Gray Zone' – Constitutionalism and the Dilemma of Judicial Independence in Pakistan. |journal=Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law |volume=46 |number=1 |year=2013 |ssrn=2087116}} * {{citation |last=Siddique |first=Osama |chapter=The Judicialization of Politics in Pakistan: The Supreme Court after the Lawyers' Movement |editor1=Mark Tushnet |editor2=Madhav Khosla |title=Unstable Constitutionalism: Law and Politics in South Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zutBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1316419083 |pages=159–192}} * {{citation |author1=Kumar Rupesinghe |author-link=Kumar Rupesinghe |author2=Khawar Mumtaz |title=Internal Conflicts in South Asia |year=1996 |publisher=[[يونيورسٽي آف مشيگن]] |isbn=978-0803977525 |ref={{sfnref|IPRI|1996}}}} {{refend}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{Commons category|Husain Haqqani}} * {{Official website|http://www.husainhaqqani.com/}} * {{C-SPAN|1005594}} * {{Charlie Rose view|6288}} * {{IMDb name|2569976}} {{s-start}} {{s-dip}} {{succession box | before = طارق ايم. مير | title = [[سريلنڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو هاءِ ڪمشنر]] | years = 1992–1993 | after = [[طارق الطاف]] }} {{succession box | before = [[محمود علي دراني]] | title = [[آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جو سفير]] | years = 2008–2011 | after = [[شيري رحمان]] }} {{end}} {{آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جا سفير}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:حقاني، حسين}} [[زمرو:1956ع ۾ ڄاول]] [[زمرو:زنده ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني مسلمان]] [[زمرو:سريلنڪا ۾ پاڪستان جا هاءِ ڪمشنر]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي يونيورسٽي جا اڳوڻا شاگرد]] [[زمرو:اصفهاني خاندان]] [[زمرو:آمريڪا ۾ پاڪستان جا سفير]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا سرڪاري ملازم]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني اڀياس جا پاڪستاني عالم]] [[زمرو:هڊسن انسٽيٽيوٽ]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني جمهوريت پسند ڪارڪن]] [[زمرو:آمريڪا ڏانهن لڏي ويل پاڪستاني]] [[زمرو:مهاجر ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني مسلم شخصيتون]] [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:جيئرا ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:1956ع جون پيدائشون]] 858yzyk68md67vifpyoh1v7iidsxt79 يوريشيائي ڇاپاڪو 0 29347 394809 394431 2026-07-16T10:58:05Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|يوريشيا ۽ آفريڪا ۾ ملندڙ لڏپلاڻ ڪندڙ پکي}} {{چونڊ مضمون}} {{Speciesbox | image = Şivanxapînok.jpg | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Caprimulgus europaeus'' |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |article-number=e.T22689887A86103675 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22689887A86103675.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Caprimulgus | species = europaeus | authority = [[ڪارل لينيئس|لينيئس]]، [[Systema Naturae جو ڏهون ايڊيشن|1758ع]] | synonyms = ''C. centralasicus'' | range_map = CaprimulgusEuropaeusIUCN2019 2.png | range_map_caption = ''C. europaeus'' جي ورڇ {{leftlegend|#00FF00|آکيرو ٺاهڻ|outline=gray}} {{leftlegend|#00FFFF|لڏپلاڻ جو رستو|outline=gray}} {{leftlegend|#007FFF|غير آکيري وارو علائقو|outline=gray}} | audio = European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) (W1CDR0001526 BD23).ogg | audio_caption = نر پکيءَ جا آواز، [[سرري]]، انگلينڊ }} '''يوريشيائي ڇاپاڪو''' يا '''يورپي نائيٽ جار''' ('''''Caprimulgus europaeus''''')، جنهن کي '''عام گوٽ سڪر'''، '''يوريشيائي نائيٽ جار''' يا رڳو '''نائيٽ جار''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[نائيٽ جار]] خاندان جو هڪ [[شفقي]] ۽ [[رات جو سرگرم]] پکي آهي، جيڪو يورپ جي اڪثر حصي ۽ [[پيليئرڪٽڪ]] علائقي کان [[منگوليا]] ۽ اتر اولهه [[چين]] تائين نسل وڌائيندو آهي. هن جي سائنسي جنس جو لاطيني نالو هڪ پراڻي ڏند ڪٿا ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو، جنهن موجب هي رات جو سرگرم پکي ٻڪرين جو کير چوسي وٺندو هو، جنهن سبب اهي کير ڏيڻ ڇڏي ڏينديون هيون. هن جا ڇهه [[ذيلي جنس|ذيلي قسم]] آهستي آهستي جاگرافيائي تبديليءَ سان مختلف ٿين ٿا، ۽ اوڀر طرف ويندي پکين جو قد ننڍو ۽ رنگ وڌيڪ هلڪو ٿيندو وڃي ٿو. هن جون سڀئي آباديون [[پکين جي لڏپلاڻ|لڏپلاڻ ڪندڙ]] آهن ۽ سيارو [[صحارا جي ڏکڻ وارو آفريڪا|صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۾ گذارين ٿيون. انهن جي ڀوري ۽ سرمائي رنگ جي گهڻي نمونيدار [[پر]] سبب هو ڏينهن جي وقت زمين تي يا وڻ جي ٽاريءَ تي بيحرڪ ويٺل هجڻ وقت ڏسڻ ۾ ڏکيا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته نر پکي رات جي اڏام دوران پرن ۽ پڇ ۾ سفيد چٽا ڏيکاريندو آهي. هن پکيءَ جي پسنديده [[رهائشگاهه]] خشڪ ۽ کليل علائقا آهن، جتي ڪجهه وڻ ۽ ننڍا ٻوٽا هجن، جهڙوڪ [[هيٿ]]، ٻيلن جا کليل حصا يا نوان پوکيل ٻيلا. بهار جي موسم ۾ نر پکي پنهنجو [[جانورن جي علائقائي حد|علائقو]] سنڀاليندو آهي ۽ ڪنهن اوچي جاءِ تان لڳاتار مخصوص "چرر" جهڙو آواز ڪڍي پنهنجي موجودگي ظاهر ڪندو آهي. اهو V شڪل ۾ پر رکي ۽ پڇ ڦهلائي پنهنجي علائقي جو گشت ڪندو آهي، مداخلت ڪندڙن جو پيڇو ڪندي پر ٽڪرائيندو ۽ آواز ڪڍندو آهي. نر، ماديءَ جو پيڇو ڪندي به ڦرندڙ [[نمائشي اڏام]] دوران پر ٽڪرائيندو آهي. يورپي نائيٽ جار [[آکيرو]] نٿو ٺاهي، بلڪه پنهنجا ٻه سرمائي ۽ ڀورا داغدار [[پکيءَ جو آنو|آنا]] سڌو سنئون زمين تي رکي ٿو. اهي لڳ ڀڳ 17–21 ڏينهن ۾ ڦٽن ٿا، ۽ ٻچا وڌيڪ 16–17 ڏينهن ۾ اڏامڻ جي قابل ٿي وڃن ٿا. يورپي نائيٽ جار مختلف قسمن جي [[حشرات خور|اڏامندڙ جيتن]] تي گذارو ڪري ٿو، جن کي هو اڏام دوران جهلي کائي ٿو، اڪثر ڪنهن ٽاريءَ تان اڏامي شڪار ڪندو آهي. هو رات جي آسمان جي پس منظر ۾ شڪار کي ڏسي ان تي حملو ڪندو آهي. هن جون اکيون نسبتاً وڏيون هونديون آهن ۽ هر اک ۾ [[روشني موٽائيندڙ پرت]] موجود هوندي آهي، جيڪا رات جي ڏسڻ جي صلاحيت وڌائي ٿي. اهو جيتن کي ڳولڻ لاءِ ٻڌڻ جي حس تي ڀاڙيندو ناهي ۽ نه ئي [[گونج ذريعي سڃاڻپ]] ڪندو آهي. پاڻي پيئڻ ۽ وهنجڻ به اڏام دوران ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ هن کي ڪجهه حد تائين شڪارين ۽ [[مفتخوري|مفتخورن]] کان خطرو هوندو آهي، پر هن لاءِ سڀ کان وڏا خطرا رهائشگاهن جي تباهي، انساني خلل، ۽ [[جراثيم ڪش دوائون|جراثيم ڪش دوائن]] جي استعمال سبب جيتن جي گهٽتائي آهن. آبادي ۾ ڪجهه گهٽتائي باوجود، وڏي تعداد ۽ وسيع نسل وڌائڻ واري حد سبب [[فطرت جي تحفظ بابت عالمي اتحاد]] هن نسل کي [[گهٽ ڳڻتي وارو]] درجو ڏنو آهي. ==درجابندي== يورپي نائيٽ جار کي [[ڪارل لينيئس]] پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''[[سسٽما نيچرئي]]'' جي [[Systema Naturae جو ڏهون ڇاپو|1758ع واري ڏهين ڇاپي]] ۾ پهريون ڀيرو ان جي موجوده سائنسي نالي سان بيان ڪيو هو.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1758|p=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727102 193]}} جنس جو نالو ''ڪيپريملگس'' لاطيني لفظن ''ڪيپرا'' (ٻڪري) ۽ ''ملگيري'' (کير ڏهڻ) مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو هڪ قديم عقيدي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو ته نائيٽ جار رات جو ٻڪرين جو کير پيئندو هو.{{sfn|Jobling|2010|p=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n90/mode/1up 90]}} نوعي نالو ''يوروپيئس'' لاطيني ٻوليءَ ۾ "يورپي" جي معنيٰ رکي ٿو.{{sfn|Jobling|2010|p=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n153/mode/1up 153]}} عام انگريزي نالو "نائیٽ جار"، جيڪو پهريون ڀيرو 1630ع ۾ درج ٿيو، هن پکيءَ جي رات جو سرگرم رهڻ واري عادت ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته نالي جو ٻيو حصو سندس مخصوص ''چرر'' جهڙي آواز مان نڪتل آهي.<ref name="OEDnight">{{Cite OED |Nightjar}}</ref> مختلف علائقن ۾ هن پکيءَ لاءِ پراڻا يا مقامي نالا پڻ استعمال ٿيندا رهيا آهن، جيڪي سندس آواز، رهائشگاهه يا خوراڪ سان لاڳاپيل آهن، جهڙوڪ "چرن چٻرو"، "فرن چٻرو"، "ڊور عقاب" ۽ "پتنگو عقاب".<ref name="OEDdor">{{Cite OED |Dor}}</ref> نائيٽ جار خاندان ([[ڪيپريملگڊئي]]) گهڻو ڪري رات جو سرگرم رهندڙ ۽ اڏامندڙ جيتن تي گذارو ڪندڙ پکين جو هڪ وڏو خاندان آهي. هن خاندان جي سڀ کان وڏي ۽ وسيع جنس ''[[ڪيپريملگس]]'' آهي، جنهن جي خاص سڃاڻپ وات جي چوڌاري سخت برسل نما کنڀ، ڊگها نوڪدار پر، وچئين آڱر تي ڪنگهي جهڙو نهن ۽ لڪائيندڙ نمونيدار رنگت آهي. بالغ نر، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ماديءَ جي به، پرن ۽ پڇ تي سفيد نشان هوندا آهن، جيڪي نر جي جسامت ۽ معيار جي علامت طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schnürmacher |first1=R. |last2=Vanden Eynde |first2=R. |last3=Creemers |first3=J. |last4=Ulenaers |first4=E. |last5=Eens |first5=M. |last6=Evens |first6=R. |last7=Lathouwers |first7=M. |date=2025 |title=Achromatic Markings as Male Quality Indicators in a Crepuscular Bird |journal=Biology |volume=14 |issue=3 |page=298 |doi=10.3390/biology14030298 |doi-access=free |pmc=11940135 |pmid=40136553}}</ref> هن جنس جي اندر يورپي نائيٽ جار، [[روفس-چيڪڊ نائيٽ جار]] ۽ [[سومبر نائيٽ جار]] سان گڏ هڪ ''سپر اسپيشيز'' ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪي آفريڪا جون ويجهيون مائٽ نوعون آهن ۽ سندن آواز به هڪجهڙا آهن.<ref name="hbwonlinefam">{{cite journal |editor=Del Hoyo, J. |editor2=Elliott, A. |editor3=Sargatal |editor4=Christie, D. A. |title=Caprimulgidae |journal=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive |date=2020 |url=http://www.hbw.com/family/nightjars-caprimulgidae |publisher=Lynx Edicions |doi=10.2173/bow.caprim2.01 |s2cid=216484216 |access-date=11 July 2015 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Cleere" /> ايشيا جي اوڀر وارن علائقن ۾ ان جي جاءِ [[جنگلي نائيٽ جار]] والاري ٿو، جيڪو ساڳئي قسم جي رهائشگاهه ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="hbwonline">{{cite journal |editor=Del Hoyo, J. |editor2=Elliott, A. |editor3=Sargatal |editor4=Christie, D. A. |title=European Nightjar |journal=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive |date=2021 |url=http://www.hbw.com/species/european-nightjar-caprimulgus-europaeus |publisher=Lynx Edicions |doi=10.2173/bow.eurnig1.01.1 |s2cid=241510290 |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> ===ذيلي قسم=== يورپي نائيٽ جار جا ڇهه تسليم ٿيل ذيلي قسم آهن. انهن ۾ فرق گهڻو ڪري تدريجي نوعيت جو آهي؛ اوڀر طرف ويندي پکي عام طور قد ۾ ننڍا ۽ رنگ ۾ هلڪا ٿيندا وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته نرن جي پرن تي سفيد نشان وڌيڪ وڏا هوندا آهن. جتي ٻن ذيلي قسمن جون ورڇون هڪٻئي سان ملن ٿيون، اتي وچولي خصوصيتن وارا پکي به ڏسڻ ۾ اچن ٿا.<ref name="Cleere" /><ref name="hbwonline" /> {| class="wikitable" ! ذيلي قسم ! بيان ڪندڙ ! نسل ڪشي وارو علائقو ! خصوصيتون |- | ''C. e. europaeus'' | [[ڪارل لينيئس]]، 1758ع | اتر ۽ وچ يورپ کان اتر [[وچ ايشيا]] تائين | بنيادي ذيلي قسم |- | ''C. e. meridionalis'' | [[ارنسٽ هارٽرٽ]]، 1896ع | اتر اولهه آفريڪا ۽ ڏکڻ يورپ کان [[ڪيسپين سمنڊ]] تائين | بنيادي ذيلي قسم کان ننڍو، وڌيڪ هلڪي ۽ سرمائي رنگ وارو، پرن تي وڏا سفيد نشان |- | ''C. e. sarudnyi'' | هارٽرٽ، 1912ع | [[قازقستان]] کان [[ڪرغيزستان]] تائين | ٻين ذيلي قسمن سان ملاپ سبب رنگ ۾ تبديلي، پر عام طور هلڪو ۽ وڏن سفيد نشانن وارو |- | ''C. e. unwini'' | [[ايلن آڪٽيوين هيوم]]، 1871ع | [[عراق]] ۽ [[ايران]] کان [[ازبڪستان]] تائين | "هيوم جو نائيٽ جار"؛ بنيادي ذيلي قسم کان وڌيڪ هلڪو، سرمائي ۽ سادي رنگ وارو، اڪثر ڳلي تي سفيد نشان |- | ''C. e. plumipes'' | [[نڪولائي پرژيوالسڪي]]، 1876ع | اتر اولهه [[چين]] ۽ اولهه [[منگوليا]] | هلڪي واريائي رنگت وارو، وڏن سفيد نشانن سان |- | ''C. e. dementievi'' | [[بورس ڪي. اسٽيگمين]]، 1949ع | اتر اوڀر منگوليا | گهٽ ڄاتل، وڌيڪ هلڪي ۽ سرمائي رنگ واري ذيلي قسم |} هن نوع جو فاسلي رڪارڊ تمام محدود آهي، پر امڪان آهي ته اهي ذيلي قسم گذريل لڳ ڀڳ 10,000 سالن دوران عالمي گرمي پد ۾ واڌ سان آهستي آهستي هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ ٿيا. هن نوع سان لاڳاپيل فقط هڪ ممڪن فاسل ديرين [[ايوسين]] دور مان مليو آهي.{{sfn|Holyoak|Woodcock|2001|p=37}} == شڪل ۽ سڃاڻپ == يورپي نائيٽ جار جي جسم جي ڊيگهه لڳ ڀڳ 28 سينٽي ميٽر ٿيندي آهي، جڏهن ته پرن جي پکيڙ 57 کان 64 سينٽي ميٽر ۽ پڇ جي ڊيگهه 12.5 کان 14.4 سينٽي ميٽر تائين هوندي آهي. هن جو بنيادي رنگ سرمائي-ناسي هوندو آهي، جنهن تي ڪارا ۽ ڀورا نقش هوندا آهن، جيڪي کيس وڻن جي ٽارين ۽ زمين تي لڪجڻ ۾ مدد ڏين ٿا. اک جي مٿان هلڪي اڇي پٽي ۽ ڇاتيءَ تي سرمائي ۽ ڪاريون ليڪون نمايان هونديون آهن. نر جي پرن ۽ پڇ تي نمايان اڇا چٽا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ماديءَ ۾ اهي نشان هلڪي پيلسري يا مٽيالي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن.<ref name="Sindhiana">{{cite book |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا |volume=4 |publisher=[[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-969-9098-80-2}}</ref> هن جون ڄنگهون ننڍيون ۽ نسبتاً ڪمزور هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري هو زمين تي گهڻو نه هلندو آهي. اڏام دوران ڄنگهون جسم جي پٺئين حصي ڏانهن سٽيل رهنديون آهن، جيڪي جسم جي توازن ۾ مدد ڏين ٿيون. هن جي اڏام تيز، هلڪي ۽ نهايت چست هوندي آهي، جنهن سبب هو آسانيءَ سان اڏامندڙ جيتن جو شڪار ڪري سگهندو آهي.<ref name="Sindhiana"/> === جسماني بناوٽ === [[فائل:Caprimulgus europaeus - Mior Rino 001.jpg|thumb|وات کولي ڦوڪ ڏيڻ واري دفاعي انداز ۾ نوجوان پکي<ref name="vanGrouw" />]] يورپي نائيٽ جار جي جسم جي ڊيگهه لڳ ڀڳ {{cvt|24.5|–|28|cm}} ۽ پرن جي پکيڙ {{cvt|52|–|59|cm}} ٿيندي آهي. نر جو وزن {{cvt|51|–|101|g}} ۽ ماديءَ جو {{cvt|67|–|95|g}} هوندو آهي.<ref name="hbwonline" /><ref name="Mullarney">{{harvp|Mullarney|Svensson|Zetterstrom|Grant|1999|p=234}}</ref> بنيادي ذيلي قسم (''C. e. europaeus'') جي بالغ پکيءَ جو مٿيون حصو سرمائي-ناسي رنگ جو هوندو آهي، جنهن تي گهريون ڪاريون ليڪون هونديون آهن. ڳچيءَ جي پٺئين حصي تي هلڪي ڀوري رنگ جو ڪالر ۽ اک هيٺان سفيد مُڇ جهڙي پٽي هوندي آهي. بند ٿيل پرن تي سرمائي رنگ سان هلڪا ڀورا چٽا موجود هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته هيٺيون حصو سرمائي-ناسي رنگ جو، ڀورين ليڪن ۽ هلڪن ڀورن چٽن سان ڍڪيل هوندو آهي. چونچ ڪاري مائل، اک جي پتلي گهري ناسي، ۽ ڄنگهون ۽ پير ڀوري رنگ جا هوندا آهن.<ref name="hbwonline" /> هن پکيءَ جي اڏام ڊگهن ۽ نوڪدار پرن سبب انتهائي نرم، خاموش ۽ هلڪي محسوس ٿيندي آهي.<ref name="Mullarney" /> اڏام دوران نر کي ماديءَ کان آسانيءَ سان سڃاڻي سگهجي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نر جي ٽن بنيادي پرن تي نمايان سفيد چٽا ۽ پڇ جي ٻاهرين ٻن کنڀن جي ڇيڙن تي سفيد نشان هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ماديءَ ۾ اهي نشان موجود نه هوندا آهن.<ref name="hbwonline" /> ٻچن جو ابتدائي پوشاڪ نرم ڀوري ۽ هلڪي ڀوري رنگ جي روئن تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته اڏام جي قابل نوجوان پکي شڪل ۾ بالغ ماديءَ سان گهڻي مشابهت رکن ٿا. نسل ڪشي کان پوءِ بالغ پکي جون کان جسم جا کنڀ مٽائڻ شروع ڪندا آهن، لڏپلاڻ دوران اهو عمل عارضي طور روڪي ڇڏيندا آهن ۽ سياري واري رهائشگاهه تي پڇ ۽ اڏام وارا کنڀ مٽائيندا آهن. اهو عمل عام طور جنوري کان مارچ تائين مڪمل ٿي ويندو آهي. نوجوان پکي به ساڳي نموني کنڀ مٽائيندا آهن، پر دير سان ڄاول ٻچن ۾ اهو سمورو عمل آفريڪا ۾ مڪمل ٿي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="Cleere" /> نسل ڪشي يا سياري واري ورڇ جي ڪجهه علائقن ۾ يورپي نائيٽ جار سان ٻين نائيٽ جار نسلن جي به موجودگي هوندي آهي. [[ڳاڙهي ڳچيءَ وارو نائيٽ جار]] [[آئبيريا]] ۽ اتر اولهه آفريڪا ۾ ملي ٿو، جيڪو يورپي نائيٽ جار کان قد ۾ وڏو، وڌيڪ سرمائي رنگ وارو ۽ ڊگهن پرن وارو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته سندس ڳچيءَ جو هلڪو ڀورو ڪالر ۽ پرن ۽ پڇ تي سفيد نشان به وڌيڪ نمايان هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Cleere|Nurney|1998|pp=227–229}} آفريڪا ۾ سيارو گذاريندڙ يورپي نائيٽ جار جو واسطو [[روفس-چيڪڊ نائيٽ جار]] ۽ [[سومبر نائيٽ جار]] سان به پوي ٿو، جيڪي وڌيڪ نمايان ڳچيءَ جي ڪالر ۽ پرن تي وڌيڪ چٽن سبب سڃاتا وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته سومبر نائيٽ جار مجموعي طور گهڻو اونداهو رنگ رکي ٿو.<ref name="Cleere">{{harvp|Cleere|Nurney|1998|pp=233–238}}</ref> رات جو سرگرم رهڻ، جسم جي لڪائيندڙ رنگت ۽ مشاهدي جي ڏکيائي سبب هن پکيءَ کي ڏسڻ گهڻو ڪري قسمت، تجربي ۽ صبر تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.<ref name="BWP" /> === آواز === نر يورپي نائيٽ جار جو آواز لڳاتار ''چرر'' جهڙي سُر تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي، جيڪو بنا رڪاوٽ جي ڏهن منٽن تائين جاري رهي سگهي ٿو ۽ ان دوران رفتار يا سُر ۾ ٿوري گهڻي تبديلي ايندي رهندي آهي. اهو آواز عام طور ڪنهن ٽاري يا اوچي هنڌ تان ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، ۽ نر پنهنجي علائقي اندر مختلف هنڌن تان ڳائي پنهنجي موجودگي ظاهر ڪندو آهي. صبح سوير ۽ سانجهيءَ جو هي آواز سڀ کان وڌيڪ ٻڌڻ ۾ ايندو آهي، جڏهن ته خراب موسم ۾ ان جي شدت گهٽجي ويندي آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گيت جي پڇاڙي بلبلن جهڙي آواز ۽ پرن جي ڦڙڦڙاهٽ سان ٿيندي آهي، جيڪا شايد ماديءَ جي ويجهو اچڻ جو اشارو هوندي آهي. لڏپلاڻ يا سياري دوران به ڪڏهن ڪڏهن نر ڳائيندو آهي.<ref name="Cleere" /> تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته هر نر جي آواز ۾ لهرن جي رفتار ۽ ڊيگهه مختلف هوندي آهي، جنهن جي بنياد تي انفرادي پکين جي سڃاڻپ به ممڪن آهي.<ref name="Rebbeck">{{cite journal |last=Rebbeck |first=M. |author2=Corrick, R. |author3=Eaglestone, B. |author4=Stainton, C. |year=2001 |title=Recognition of individual European Nightjars ''Caprimulgus europaeus'' from their song |journal=Ibis |volume=143 |pages=468–475 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2001.tb04948.x |issue=4}}</ref> بهرحال، ڳائيندڙ نر کي ڳولڻ آسان ناهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ گهٽ روشنيءَ ۾ اهو نظر نٿو اچي ۽ آواز اهڙو تاثر ڏئي ٿو ڄڻ مختلف هنڌن تان اچي رهيو هجي. عام حالتن ۾ اهو آواز لڳ ڀڳ {{cvt|200|m}} تائين چٽيءَ طرح ٻڌڻ ۾ اچي ٿو، جڏهن ته سازگار حالتن ۾ {{cvt|600|m}} تائين به ٻڌي سگهجي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهو آواز [[يورپي مول ڪرڪيٽ]] جي آواز سان به ملي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="BWP" /> مادي ڳائيندي ناهي، پر اڏام دوران نر ۽ مادي ٻئي مختصر ''{{not a typo|ڪئڪ, ڪئڪ}}'' جهڙو آواز ڪڍندا آهن، جيڪو شڪارين کي ڀڄائڻ يا هڪ ٻئي جو پيڇو ڪرڻ وقت به استعمال ٿيندو آهي. خطري جي حالت ۾ تيز ''چڪ'' جهڙو آواز، هٿ ۾ جهليو وڃڻ يا ٻچن جي پريشان ٿيڻ وقت ڦوڪ جهڙو آواز، ۽ آکيري تي ''{{not a typo|وڪ, وڪ, وڪ}}''، دٻيل ''اوڪ, اوڪ'' ۽ هلڪا ٻول پڻ ٻڌڻ ۾ ايندا آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /> وڏا ٻچا خطري وقت وات پوريءَ طرح کولي زور سان ڦوڪ هڻندا آهن، جيڪو سندن دفاعي انداز آهي.<ref name="vanGrouw">{{harvp|van Grouw|2012|p=260}}</ref> ماضيءَ ۾ اهو سمجهيو ويندو هو ته پر ڦڙڪائڻ وقت ٻنهي پرن جون چوٽيون هڪ ٻئي سان ٽڪرائينديون آهن، پر جديد تحقيق مطابق اهو آواز هر پر جي تيزيءَ سان هيٺ لهڻ وقت چابڪ جهڙي حرڪت سبب پيدا ٿيندو آهي.<ref name=BB114>{{cite journal |last1=Eddowes |first1=M. J. |last2=Lea |first2=A. J. |title=A review of 'wing-clapping' in European Nightjars |journal=British Birds |volume=114 |issue=10 |pages=629–632 |year=2021}}</ref> == ورڇ ۽ رهائش == هي پکي پاڪستان جي اترين علائقن، خاص طور چترال، گلگت، مرگلا ٽڪرين، باران ڊئم (بنون)، خضر گنجي پارڪ (ڪوئيٽا) ۽ [[کيرٿر جبل]] جي حدن ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. سنڌ ۾ هن جا مشاهدا ٿر، ڪراچيءَ جي ساحلي علائقي ۽ خاص طور لڪيءَ وارن جبلن ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيا ويا آهن.<ref name="Sindhiana"/> يورپي نائيٽ جار رات جو سرگرم رهندڙ پکي آهي. ڏينهن جو وڻن، ٻوٽن يا پٿرن جي اوٽ ۾ آرام ڪندو آهي، جڏهن ته سج لهڻ کان پوءِ شڪار لاءِ نڪرندو آهي. سندس خوراڪ بنيادي طور اڏامندڙ جيتن تي مشتمل هوندي آهي، جن کي هو اڏام دوران جهلي کائيندو آهي.<ref name="Sindhiana"/> [[فائل:Heathland, near Bere Regis - geograph.org.uk - 587734.jpg|thumb|[[هيٿ زمين]] يورپي نائيٽ جار جي پسنديده رهائشگاهه آهي.]] يورپي نائيٽ جار جي نسل ڪشي واري ورڇ سڄي يورپ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ [[64هين اتر ويڪرائي ڦاڪ|64° اتر ويڪرائي ڦاڪ]] تائين ۽ ايشيا ۾ [[60هين اتر ويڪرائي ڦاڪ|60° اتر ويڪرائي ڦاڪ]] تائين پکڙيل آهي. اوڀر طرف ان جي ورڇ [[بيڪال ڍنڍ]] ۽ اوڀر [[منگوليا]] تائين پهچي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ طرف ان جا حدون اتر اولهه آفريڪا، [[عراق]]، [[ايران]] ۽ اتر اولهه [[هماليه]] تائين آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /> ماضيءَ ۾ هي پکي [[شام]] ۽ [[لبنان]] ۾ به نسل ڪشي ڪندو هو.<ref name="BWP">{{harvp|Snow|Perrins|1998|pp=929–932}}</ref> هن نوع جون سڀئي آباديون [[لڏپلاڻ ڪندڙ پکي|لڏپلاڻ ڪندڙ]] آهن. گهڻا پکي سيارو [[صحارا]] کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا ۾ گذارين ٿا، جڏهن ته [[پاڪستان]]، [[مراڪش]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] مان رڳو ٿورا رڪارڊ موجود آهن. لڏپلاڻ اڪثر رات جي وقت اڪيلي سر يا ويهن پکين تائين ننڍن ٽولن ۾ ٿيندي آهي. يورپ ۾ نسل ڪشي ڪندڙ پکي [[ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا مان گذرندا آهن، جڏهن ته اوڀر واريون آباديون [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ اوڀر آفريڪا رستي سفر ڪنديون آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /><ref name="BWP" /> ڪجهه ايشيائي پکي پنهنجي لڏپلاڻ دوران 100 درجا کان وڌيڪ ڊگهائي ڦاڪ به پار ڪندا آهن.<ref name="BWP" /> گهڻا پکي مڪمل چنڊ جي ڏينهن جي آس پاس لڏپلاڻ شروع ڪندا آهن.<ref name=moon>{{cite journal|last1=Norevik |first1=G. |last2=Åkesson |first2=S. |last3=Andersson |first3=A. |last4=Bäckman |first4=J. |last5=Hedenström |first5=A. |year=2019 |title=The lunar cycle drives migration of a nocturnal bird |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000456 |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=17 |issue=10 |article-number=e3000456 |pmid=31613884 |pmc=6794068 |doi-access=free}}</ref> گهڻا يورپي نائيٽ جار اوڀر يا ڏکڻ اوڀر آفريڪا ۾ سيارو گذارين ٿا،<ref name="Cleere" /> پر تازين تحقيقن مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته بنيادي ذيلي قسم جا ڪجهه پکي [[جمهوريه ڪانگو]] ۾ به سيارو گذارين ٿا، جڏهن ته اولهه آفريڪا مان ملندڙ ٻيا رڪارڊ شايد هن ذيلي قسم يا ''C. e. meridionalis'' سان لاڳاپيل هجن. سرءُ واري لڏپلاڻ جو وڏو حصو آگسٽ کان سيپٽمبر دوران ٿئي ٿو ۽ پکي مئي تائين پنهنجي نسل ڪشي وارن علائقن ڏانهن موٽي اچن ٿا.<ref name="hbwonline" /> سيٽلائيٽ ذريعي ڪيل تازي نگراني مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته اولهه يورپ جا يورپي نائيٽ جار هڪ گول دائري (لوپ مائيگريشن) جي صورت ۾ خط استوا جي ڏکڻ آفريڪا تائين لڏپلاڻ ڪن ٿا، جنهن دوران کين [[ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ]]، [[صحارا ريگستان]] ۽ وچ آفريڪا جي استوائي برساتي ٻيلن جهڙين وڏين قدرتي رڪاوٽن کي پار ڪرڻو پوي ٿو. اهي ساڳيا آرامگاهه (stop-over sites) استعمال ڪن ٿا جيڪي ٻين يورپي لڏپلاڻ ڪندڙ پکين ۾ به عام آهن.<ref name=evans>{{cite journal |author1=Evens, R. |author2=Conway, G. J. |author3=Henderson, I. G. |author4=Cresswell, B. |author5=Jiguet, F. |author6=Moussy, C. |author7=Sénécal, D. |author8=Witters, N. |author9=Beenaerts, N. |author10=Artois, T. |year=2017 |title=Migratory pathways, stopover zones and wintering destinations of Western European Nightjars ''Caprimulgus europaeus'' |journal=Ibis |volume=159 |pages=680–686 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12469 |issue=3}}</ref> هي پکي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن پنهنجي عام ورڇ کان ٻاهر به ڏٺو ويو آهي، جن ۾ [[آئس لينڊ]]، [[فارو ٻيٽ]]، [[سيشل]]، [[آزورس]]، [[ماديئرا]] ۽ [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]] شامل آهن.<ref name=iucn/><ref name="Cleere" /> يورپي نائيٽ جار خشڪ ۽ کليل علائقن ۾ رهڻ پسند ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪجهه وڻ ۽ ننڍا ٻوٽا موجود هجن، جهڙوڪ [[هيٿ زمين]]، عام چراگاهه، [[مورلينڊ]]، ٻيلن جا کليل حصا، يا تازو وڍيل ۽ نون پوکيل ٻيلن جا علائقا. نسل ڪشي دوران اهو مڪمل بي وڻن وارن علائقن، گهڻن گهاٽن ٻيلن، شهرن، جبلن ۽ زرعي زمينن کان پاسو ڪري ٿو، پر خوراڪ جي ڳولا لاءِ آبي علائقن، پوکيل زمينن ۽ باغن ۾ به وڃي ٿو. سياري دوران اهو کليل رهائشگاهن جي وڌيڪ وسيع قسمن، جهڙوڪ [[اڪيشيا]] جي جهنگلي ميدانن، وارياسي علائقن ۽ بلندين تي به ملي ٿو. نسل ڪشي دوران ان کي {{cvt|2800|m}} جي اوچائي تائين، جڏهن ته سياري واري رهائشگاهه ۾ {{cvt|5000|m}} جي اوچائي تائين رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name="Cleere" /> ==رويو== [[فائل:Caprimulgus europaeus 1200x855.jpg|thumb|ٽاريءَ تي ڊگهي رخ سان ويهندڙ يورپي نائيٽ جار، جيڪو پنهنجي لڪائيندڙ رنگت کي وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻائي ٿو.]] يورپي نائيٽ جار [[شفقي]] ۽ [[رات جو سرگرم رهندڙ]] پکي آهي. ڏينهن جو اهو عام طور زمين تي، جزوي ڇانوَ واري هنڌ آرام ڪندو آهي يا ڪنهن کليل ٽاريءَ تي جسم جي ڊگهه سان متوازي بيحرڪ ويهندو آهي. سندس لڪائيندڙ رنگت (ڪيموفلاج) سبب ڏينهن جي وقت ان کي ڏسڻ انتهائي ڏکيو هوندو آهي. زمين تي ويٺل پکي، جيڪڏهن اڳ ۾ ئي ڇانوَ ۾ نه هجي، ته وقت بوقت سج ڏانهن منهن ڦيرائي پنهنجي پاڇي کي گهٽ ڪندو آهي.<ref name="Cleere" />{{sfn|Barthel|Dougalis|2008|p=108}} خطرو محسوس ٿيڻ تي هي پکي پنهنجي جسم کي زمين سان لڳائي، اکيون لڳ ڀڳ بند ڪري بيحرڪ ٿي ويندو آهي ۽ صرف تڏهن اڏام ڀريندو آهي جڏهن خطرو لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|2|–|5|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} جي فاصلي تي پهچي وڃي. اڏام وقت ڪڏهن آواز ڪڍندو يا پرن سان ڦڙڪا ڪندو آهي ۽ پوءِ لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|40|m|ft|abbr=on}} پري وڃي لهندو آهي. سياري جي رهائشگاهن ۾ اهو اڪثر زمين تي آرام ڪندو آهي، پر ڪڏهن {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} اوچين ٽارين تي به ويهندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن هنڌ کي تڪليف نه پهچي ته اهو نسل ڪشي ۽ سياري ٻنهي موسمن ۾ ساڳيو آرامگاهه ڪيترن هفتن تائين استعمال ڪندو رهي ٿو.<ref name="Holyoak496">{{harvp|Holyoak|Woodcock|2001|p=496}}</ref> ٻين نائيٽ جار پکين وانگر، هي رات جو رستن يا پيچرن تي به ويهي رهندو آهي ۽ هرڻ يا انسان جهڙن وڏن جانورن کي جاچڻ لاءِ هوا ۾ منڊلائيندو آهي. ڏينهن جي روشنيءَ ۾ ٻين پکين طرفان، جڏهن ته رات جو چمڙن، ٻين نائيٽ جار نسلن ۽ [[يوريشيائي ووڊڪاڪ]] طرفان هن کي هيسايو به ويندو آهي. [[گُگهه|گگهن]] ۽ [[ڳاڙهو لومڙ|ڳاڙهن لومڙن]] جهڙن شڪارين تي نر ۽ مادي ٻئي گڏجي حملو ڪري کين ڀڄائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /> هن پکيءَ جي عادت ٻين فضائي پکين، جهڙوڪ [[سوئفٽ]] ۽ [[ابابيل]] وانگر آهي؛ اهو اڏام دوران پاڻيءَ جي سطح تي تيز جهپ هڻي غسل ۽ پاڻي پيئندو آهي.<ref name="Burton">{{harvp|Burton|1985|p=45}}</ref> وچئين آڱر جي نهن تي موجود ڪنگهي جهڙي ڏنديدار بناوت کنڀن جي صفائي ۽ شايد خارجي طفيلي جاندارن کي هٽائڻ ۾ مددگار هوندي آهي.<ref name="hbwonlinefam" /> ٿڌي يا خراب موسم ۾ نائيٽ جار جي ڪجهه نسلن وانگر يورپي نائيٽ جار به پنهنجي جسماني سرگرمي ۽ ميٽابولزم کي گهٽائي عارضي بيحسي (torpor) جي حالت ۾ وڃي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="Fletcher">{{cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Quinn E |author2=Fisher, Ryan J |author3=Willis, Craig K R |author4=Brigham, R Mark |year=2004 |title=Free-ranging common nighthawks use torpor |journal=Journal of Thermal Biology |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=9–14 |url=http://uregina.ca/~fisherry/nighthawk2.pdf |doi=10.1016/j.jtherbio.2003.11.004 |bibcode=2004JTBio..29....9F |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129141623/http://uregina.ca/~fisherry/nighthawk2.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129141623/http://uregina.ca/~fisherry/nighthawk2.pdf |date=29 November 2014 }}</ref> قيد ۾ ڪيل مشاهدي موجب هي پکي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ اٺ ڏينهن تائين اهڙي حالت ۾ بغير ڪنهن نقصان جي رهي سگهي ٿو، پر جهنگلي حالتن ۾ ان جي اهميت اڃا واضح ناهي.<ref name="Holyoak496" /> ===نسل ڪشي=== [[فائل:Caprimulgus europaeus -Beldibi, Mugla, Turkey -two eggs in a nest-8 (3).jpg|thumb|زمين تي رکيل ٻن آنن جو ولر]] [[فائل:Caprimulgus europaeus MWNH 1236.JPG|thumb|آنو، [[ميوزيم وِيسباڊن]] جي مجموعي مان]] نسل ڪشي عام طور مئي جي پڇاڙيءَ کان آگسٽ تائين ٿيندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ اتر اولهه آفريڪا ۽ اولهه پاڪستان ۾ اهو موسم ڪجهه اڳ به شروع ٿي سگهي ٿو. نر، ماديءَ کان لڳ ڀڳ ٻه هفتا اڳ نسل ڪشي واري علائقي ۾ پهچي پنهنجو علائقو قائم ڪندو آهي. اهو V-شڪل ۾ پر ۽ کليل پڇ رکي اڏام ڪندو، مقابلي ڪندڙن جو پيڇو ڪندو ۽ پر ڦڙڪائي آواز ڪڍندو آهي. ڪڏهن مقابلا هوا ۾ ته ڪڏهن زمين تي به ٿيندا آهن. ماديءَ کي متوجهه ڪرڻ لاءِ نر سرپل شڪل ۾ مٿي اڏامندي مسلسل پر ڦڙڪائيندو آهي. جيڪڏهن مادي لهي اچي ته نر ڪنڌ لوڏي ۽ پر ڦڙڪائي پنهنجو ڏيک جاري رکندو آهي، جيستائين مادي پر ۽ پڇ کولي سنگم لاءِ تيار نه ٿئي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن سنگم زمين بدران ڪنهن ٽاريءَ تي به ٿيندو آهي. سازگار رهائشگاهن ۾ هڪ چورس ڪلوميٽر ۾ ويهن تائين جوڙا ملي سگهن ٿا.<ref name="Cleere" /> يورپي نائيٽ جار عام طور هڪ ساٿي وارو (مونوگيمس) پکي آهي. اهو آکيرو نٿو ٺاهي، بلڪه آنا سڌو سنئون زمين تي ٻوٽن، وڻن جي پاڙن، پنن يا صنوبر جي سوڪهڙيءَ ۾ رکي ٿو. ساڳيو هنڌ ڪيترن سالن تائين استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. عام طور هڪ يا ٻه سفيد آنا ڏنا ويندا آهن، جن تي ڀورين ۽ سرمائين داغن جو نمونو هوندو آهي.<ref name="hbwonline" /> هر آنو لڳ ڀڳ {{convert|32|x|22|mm|in|abbr=on}} ماپ ۽ {{convert|8.4|g|oz|abbr=on}} وزن رکي ٿو، جنهن جو لڳ ڀڳ 6 سيڪڙو حصو کل هوندو آهي.<ref name="bto">{{cite web |title=Nightjar '' Caprimulgus europaeus'' [Linnaeus, 1758] |work=Bird Facts |date=16 July 2010 |url=http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob7780.htm |publisher=British Trust for Ornithology |access-date=23 February 2014}}</ref> تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته ڪيترائي نائيٽ جار مڪمل چنڊ کان اڳ وارن ٻن هفتن دوران آنا ڏيڻ کي ترجيح ڏين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان وقت اڏامندڙ جيتن جو شڪار نسبتاً آسان هوندو آهي.<ref name="mills">{{cite journal |last=Mills |first=Alexander M |year=1986 |title=The influence of moonlight on the behavior of goatsuckers (Caprimulgidae) |journal=The Auk |volume=103 |pages=370–378 |jstor=4087090 |issue=2|doi=10.1093/auk/103.2.370 }}</ref> يورپي نائيٽ جار تي ڪيل مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته چنڊ جي مرحلي جو اثر خاص طور جون ۾ آنا ڏيندڙ پکين تي وڌيڪ هوندو آهي.<ref name="crick">{{cite journal |last=Perrins |first=Christopher M |author2=Crick, H Q P |year=1996 |title=Influence of lunar cycle on laying dates of European Nightjars (''Caprimulgus europaeus'') |journal=The Auk |volume=113 |pages=705–708 |jstor=4089001 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/4089001 }}</ref> [[فائل:Adultwithchicks.jpg|thumb|بالغ پکي پنهنجن ٻچن سان]] آنا لڳ ڀڳ 36 کان 48 ڪلاڪن جي وقفي سان ڏنا ويندا آهن. آرو گهڻو ڪري مادي ڪندي آهي، جيڪو پهرين آني کان ئي شروع ٿي ويندو آهي. نر به خاص ڪري صبح يا شام ٿوري دير لاءِ آرو ڪري سگهي ٿو. جيڪڏهن مادي پريشان ٿئي ته زخمي هجڻ جو ناٽڪ ڪندي زمين تي ڊوڙندي يا ڦڙڦڙائيندي شڪاري کي آکيري کان پري وٺي ويندي آهي، ۽ ڪڏهن پنهنجي چونچ سان آنا ٿورو اڳتي به کڻي ويندي آهي. آنا لڳ ڀڳ 17 کان 21 ڏينهن ۾ ڦٽندا آهن. ٻچا ڄمڻ سان ئي هلڻ ڦرڻ جي قابل هوندا آهن، پر شروعاتي ڏينهن ۾ مادي کين گرمي فراهم ڪندي آهي. اهي 16 کان 17 ڏينهن ۾ اڏامڻ جي قابل ٿيندا آهن ۽ لڳ ڀڳ 32 ڏينهن کان پوءِ مڪمل طور آزاد ٿي ويندا آهن. جلد نسل ڪشي ڪندڙ جوڙا هڪ ئي موسم ۾ ٻيو ولر به پاليندا آهن؛ اهڙي حالت ۾ مادي پهرين ولر کي نر جي حوالي ڪري ٻي ولر جي سنڀال ڪندي آهي. ٻنهي والدين پاران ٻچن کي جيتن جا ڳوٺا کارايا ويندا آهن، جيڪي يا ته وات ۾ اوڳاڇي ذريعي ڏنا ويندا آهن يا ٻچا بالغ جي چونچ مان پاڻ چونڊي کائيندا آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /> نسل ڪشي جي ناڪامي گهڻو ڪري آرو واري مرحلي ۾ ٿيندي آهي. انگلينڊ ۾ ڪيل هڪ مطالعي موجب صرف 14.5 سيڪڙو آنا ڪاميابيءَ سان ڦٽندا آهن، پر جيڪي ٻچا ڦٽي نڪرندا آهن، تن مان گهڻا ڪاميابيءَ سان اڏامڻ جي قابل ٿي ويندا آهن.<ref name="Murison">{{cite journal |last=Murison |first=Giselle |year=2002 |title=The impact of human disturbance on the breeding success of nightjar ''Caprimulgus europaeus'' on heathlands in south Dorset, England |journal=English Nature Research Reports |volume=483 |pages=1–40 }}</ref> هي پکي عام طور هڪ سال جي عمر ۾ نسل ڪشي شروع ڪندو آهي ۽ جهنگ ۾ اوسطاً چار سال جيترو جيئرو رهي ٿو. بالغ پکين جي سالياني بقا جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 70 سيڪڙو آهي، جڏهن ته نوجوان پکين بابت انگ اکر اڻپورا آهن. جهنگ ۾ هن پکيءَ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڄاتل عمر ٻارهن سالن کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="bto" /> ===غذا=== يورپي نائيٽ جار مختلف قسمن جي اڏامندڙ جيتن تي گذارو ڪندو آهي، جن ۾ [[پتنگا]]، [[ڀنورا]]، [[مانٽس]]، [[ڊريگن فلائيون]]، [[ڪاڪروچ]] ۽ [[مکيون]] شامل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Lucy J. |last2=Horsburgh |first2=Gavin J. |last3=Dawson |first3=Deborah A. |last4=Maher |first4=Kathryn H. |last5=Arnold |first5=Kathryn E. |date=January 2022 |title=Metabarcoding reveals selective dietary responses to environmental availability in the diet of a nocturnal, aerial insectivore, the European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) |journal=Ibis |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=60–73 |doi=10.1111/ibi.13010}}</ref> اهو ٻوٽن تان [[جڳنو]] به چونڊي کائيندو آهي. هاضمي ۾ مدد لاءِ ننڍڙا پٿر به ڳڙڪائيندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻوٽن جا ٽڪرا يا بي مهره جانور اتفاقي طور خوراڪ سان گڏ هضم ٿيندا آهن. ٻچا ڪڏهن ڪڏهن پنهنجو فضلو به کائيندا ڏٺا ويا آهن.<ref name="Cleere" /> هي پکي کليل علائقن، ٻيلن جي ڪنارن ۽ صاف ٿيل هنڌن تي شڪار ڪندو آهي. مصنوعي روشنين، ڍورن جي ويجهو يا بيٺل پاڻيءَ جي تلائن تي گڏ ٿيندڙ جيتن ڏانهن به متوجهه ٿيندو آهي. عام طور رات جو خوراڪ حاصل ڪندو آهي، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ابر آلود ڏينهن ۾ به شڪار ڪندو آهي. اهو يا ته هوا ۾ جيتن جو پيڇو ڪري کين پڪڙيندو آهي يا ڪنهن ٽاريءَ تان اوچتو جهپ هڻي شڪار ڪندو آهي. پاڻي پيئڻ لاءِ اڏامندي پاڻيءَ جي سطح کي ڇهندو آهي.<ref name="hbwonline" /> نسل ڪشي دوران خوراڪ جي ڳولا لاءِ سراسري طور {{convert|3.1|km|yd|abbr=on}} پري تائين ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته لڏپلاڻ دوران پنهنجي جسم ۾ ذخيرو ٿيل چرٻي تي ڀاڙيندو آهي.<ref name="alex">{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=Ian |author2=Cresswell, Brian |year=1990 |title=Foraging by Nightjars ''Caprimulgus europaeus'' away from their nesting areas |journal=Ibis |volume=132 |pages=568–574 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1990.tb00280.x |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Cleere" /> [[فائل:Zata.jpg|thumb|وات جي چوڌاري موجود برسل نما کنڀ خوراڪ پڪڙڻ ۾ مدد ڏين ٿا.]] يورپي نائيٽ جار پنهنجي شڪار کي رات جي آسمان جي پسمنظر ۾ ڏسي پڪڙيندو آهي. چنڊ واري رات ۾ اهو گهڻو ڪري ڪنهن ٽاريءَ تان جهپ هڻي شڪار ڪندو آهي، جڏهن ته اونداهي رات ۾ مسلسل اڏامندي جيتن جو پيڇو ڪندو آهي.<ref name="crick" /><ref name=moon /> ان جي چونچ ظاهري طور ننڍي هوندي آهي، پر وات تمام گهڻو کلي سگهي ٿو، جنهن سان اهو آسانيءَ سان اڏامندڙ جيت پڪڙي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="Holyoak59">{{harvp|Holyoak|Woodcock|2001|p=59}}</ref> وات جي چوڌاري ڊگها حساس برسل نما کنڀ به شڪار کي وات ڏانهن آڻڻ ۾ مددگار سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.<ref name="hbwonlinefam" /> جيتن جا هضم نه ٿيندڙ حصا، جهڙوڪ ڪائٽن وارو ٻاهريون ڍانچو، پوءِ گوليءَ (پيليٽ) جي صورت ۾ ٻاهر ڪڍيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="Holyoak496" /> هي پکي اڪثر [[ڍورن]]، خاص ڪري [[ٻڪري]]، [[رڍ]] ۽ [[ڳئون]] جي ڌڻن جي چوڌاري شڪار ڪندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي رت چوسيندڙ جيتن کي پاڻ ڏانهن ڇڪيندا آهن، جيڪي هن پکيءَ جي اهم خوراڪ آهن.<ref name=Mehlhorn>{{cite book |last=Mehlhorn |first=Heinz |chapter=Unsolved and Solved Myths: Chupacabras and 'Goat-Milking' Birds |title=Bats (Chiroptera) as Vectors of Diseases and Parasites: Facts and Myths |year=2013 |pages=173–177}}</ref> يورپي نائيٽ جار جون اکيون نسبتاً وڏيون هونديون آهن ۽ انهن جي ريٽينا جي پويان موجود عڪاسي ڪندڙ پرت (ٽيپٽم ليسيڊم) گهٽ روشنيءَ ۾ ڏسڻ جي صلاحيت وڌائيندي آهي، جنهن سبب ٽارچ جي روشنيءَ ۾ اکيون چمڪنديون نظر اچن ٿيون.<ref name="Holyoak11">{{harvp|Holyoak|Woodcock|2001|p=11}}</ref> هن جي ريٽينا ۾ رات جي نظر لاءِ مناسب راڊ خلين جو تعداد گهڻو ۽ رنگ سڃاڻيندڙ ڪون خلين جو تعداد گهٽ هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي رات جي نظر تمام سٺي هوندي آهي، پر رنگن جي سڃاڻپ نسبتاً محدود هوندي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ هن جي ٻڌڻ جي صلاحيت به سٺي آهي، پر اهو جيتن جي ڳولا لاءِ آواز تي ڀاڙيندو ناهي ۽ نه ئي [[حياتي گونج شناسي]] (ايڪولوڪيشن) استعمال ڪندو آهي.<ref name="Holyoak11" /> ==شڪاري ۽ طفيلي== زمين تي آکيرو ٺاهڻ سبب يورپي نائيٽ جار جا آنا ۽ ٻچا ڪيترن ئي شڪارين لاءِ آسانيءَ سان دستياب هوندا آهن. انهن ۾ [[ڳاڙهو لومڙ]]، [[پائن مارٽن]]، [[يورپي هيجهاگ]]، [[ليسٽ ويزل]]، گهريلو ڪتا، ۽ [[ڪانو]]، [[يورپي ميگپائي]]، [[يورپي جي]] ۽ [[گُگهه]] جهڙا پکي شامل آهن.<ref name="Holyoak12">{{harvp|Holyoak|Woodcock|2001|p=12}}</ref><ref name="hbwonline" /> [[عام افعي]] جهڙا نانگ پڻ آکيرن مان آنا يا ٻچا کائي ويندا آهن.<ref name="Holyoak12" /> بالغ پکين جو شڪار به مختلف شڪاري پکين طرفان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جن ۾ [[اترِي گاشاڪ]]، [[هين هيريئر]]، [[يورپي اسپيروهاڪ]]، [[عام بزڊ]]، [[پيريگرين شاهين]] ۽ [[سوٽي فالڪن]] شامل آهن.<ref name="Holyoak12" /><ref name="hbwonline" /> يورپي نائيٽ جار تي ڪيترن قسمن جا طفيلي جاندار پڻ رهن ٿا. انهن ۾ پرن تي رهندڙ هڪ قسم جي [[چٻاڙيندڙ جونءِ]] (بائٽنگ لائوس) شامل آهي،<ref>{{sfn|Rothschild|Clay|1957|p=222}}</ref> جڏهن ته هڪ خاص [[پرن جو مائيٽ]] (فيڌر مائيٽ) رڳو ان جي پرن تي موجود سفيد نشانن تي رهندو آهي.<ref>{{sfn|Rothschild|Clay|1957|p=225}}</ref> هن پکيءَ ۾ [[پکين جي مليريا]] (ايوئن مليريا) جا ڪيس پڻ رڪارڊ ڪيا ويا آهن.<ref>{{sfn|Rothschild|Clay|1957|p=150}}</ref> رت ۾ رهندڙ طفيلي ''[[ليوڪوسائٽوزون ڪيپريملگي]]'' پڻ هن نسل ۾ مليو آهي، پر اهو تمام ناياب آهي.<ref>{{sfn|Valkiunas|2004|p=809}}</ref> هن طفيلي جي گهٽ موجودگي ۽ نائيٽ جار خاندان ۾ ان جو واحد نمائندو هجڻ مان اهو امڪان ظاهر ڪيو ويو آهي ته اهو ارتقائي طور انهن ويجهن پکين مان منتقل ٿيو، جن ۾ هن جنس جا طفيلي عام طور موجود هوندا آهن، خاص طور [[گُگهه|گگهن]] ۾.<ref>{{sfn|Valkiunas|2004|p=809}}</ref> ==تحفظي حيثيت== سال 2020ع تائين يورپي نائيٽ جار جي عالمي آبادي جو اندازو لڳ ڀڳ 30 لک کان 60 لک پکين تائين لڳايو ويو هو.<ref name=iucn/> يورپ ۾ هن نسل جي آبادي 290,000 کان 830,000 فردن جي وچ ۾ اندازي هيٺ آئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترن علائقن ۾ ان جي تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي ڏٺي وئي آهي، پر اها ايتري تيز نه آهي جو ان کي خطري واري درجي ۾ رکيو وڃي. ان جي وسيع پکڙاءُ ۽ وڏي آبادي سبب [[آئي يو سي اين ڳاڙهي فهرست]] موجب هن نسل کي '''[[گهٽ ڳڻتي]]''' جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=iucn/> سال 2012ع تائين سڀ کان وڏيون افزائشي آباديون [[روس]] (اٽڪل 500,000 جوڙا)، [[اسپين]] (112,000 جوڙا) ۽ [[بيلاروس]] (60,000 جوڙا) ۾ موجود هيون. تنهن هوندي به، خاص طور اتر-اولهه يورپ ۾ هن نسل جي تعداد ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي آهي.<ref name="hbwonline" /> هن نسل لاءِ اهم خطرن ۾ زرعي [[جراثيم ڪُش دوائون|جراثيم ڪُش دوائن]] جي استعمال سبب اڏامندڙ جيتن جي گهٽتائي، انساني خلل، گاڏين سان ٽڪرائجڻ ۽ مناسب رهائشگاهن جي تباهي شامل آهن.<ref name="hbwonline" /> زمين تي آکيرو ٺاهڻ سبب هي پکي انساني سرگرمين کان وڌيڪ متاثر ٿئي ٿو. خاص طور تي گهريلو ڪتن جي اچ وڃ سان آکيرا تباهه ٿي سگهن ٿا يا انهن جو هنڌ [[ڪانو|ڪانن]] ۽ ٻين شڪارين کي معلوم ٿي سگهي ٿو. تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جتي عوامي رسائي محدود هجي، اتي افزائش جي ڪاميابي وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته جتي ماڻهو ۽ ڪتا گهڻي اچ وڃ ڪن ٿا، اتي ڪامياب آکيرا عام طور پيچرن ۽ آباديءَ کان پري هوندا آهن.<ref name="Murison" /><ref name="ibis">{{cite journal |last=Langston |first=R. H. W. |author2=Liley, D. |author3=Murison, G. |author4=Woodfield, E. |author5=Clarke, R. T. |year=2007 |title=What effects do walkers and dogs have on the distribution and productivity of breeding European Nightjar ''Caprimulgus europaeus''? |journal=Ibis |volume=149 |pages=27–36 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00643.x |issue=Suppl. 1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[برطانيا]] ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ملڪن ۾ واپاري ٻيله ڪاري سبب عارضي طور هن نسل لاءِ نيون رهائشگاهون پيدا ٿيون، جنهن سان ان جي تعداد ۾ واڌ آئي. پر جيئن ٻيلن جي واڌ ويجهه ٿئي ٿي، اهي علائقا نائيٽ جار لاءِ گهٽ موزون بڻجي وڃن ٿا.<ref name="ibis" /> [[برطانيه]] ۾ هن نسل کي تحفظ جي حوالي سان ''ڳاڙهي فهرست'' (ريڊ لسٽ) ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو آهي،<ref name="bto" /> جڏهن ته [[آئرلينڊ]] ۾ 2012ع تائين هي نسل تقريباً ناپيد ٿيڻ جي ويجهو پهچي چڪو هو.<ref name="perry">{{cite journal |last=Perry |first=K. W. |year=2013 |title=Annual Report of the Irish Rare Breeding Birds Panel 2012 |journal=Irish Birds |volume=9 |pages=563–576 |issue=4}}</ref> ==ثقافت ۾== [[فائل:Caprimulgus europaeus -Coloured figures of the birds of the British Islands (1885-1897).jpg|thumb|"نائيٽ جار"، "گوٽ سڪر" ۽ "فرن اول" جا پراڻا نالا؛ [[جي. جي. ڪيولمينس]] جي تصوير.]] يورپي نائيٽ جار ادب، شاعري ۽ لوڪ عقيدن ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو. شاعر اڪثر هن پکيءَ کي گرمين جي سانت ڀرين راتين جي علامت طور پيش ڪندا آهن. [[جارج ميريڊٿ]] پنهنجي نظم ''لو ان دي ولئي'' ۾ شام جي سناٽي ۾ ان جي هڪجهڙي سُر واري آواز جو ذڪر ڪيو آهي، جڏهن ته [[وليم ورڊسورٿ]] ''ڪام از دي فريگرنٽ ايئر'' ۾ هن کي رات جو اُڏامندڙ جيتن جو شڪار ڪندي بيان ڪيو آهي. [[ڊيلن ٿامس]] پنهنجي مشهور نظم ''فرن ھل'' ۾ پڻ نائيٽ جار جي رات واري اڏام جو ذڪر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[ٿامس هارڊي]] نظم ''آفٽرورڊس'' ۾ هن پکيءَ جي بي آواز شڪار ڪندڙ اڏام کي علامتي انداز ۾ پيش ڪيو آهي. جديد موسيقيءَ ۾ پڻ هن پکي جو ذڪر ملي ٿو. آمريڪي ڳائڻي [[جوئانا نيوسم]] پنهنجي البم ''ڊائيورس'' جي آخري گيت ''ٽائيم, ايز آ سمپٽم'' ۾ "نائيٽ جار" کي بار بار علامتي انداز ۾ استعمال ڪيو آهي. سائنسي نالو ''ڪيپريملگس'' ۽ پراڻو انگريزي نالو '''گوٽ سڪر''' (ٻڪريءَ جو کير چوسيندڙ) هڪ قديم يوناني عقيدي مان نڪتل آهن، جنهن موجب نائيٽ جار رات جو ٻڪرين جو کير پيئندو هو، جنهن سبب اهي کير ڏيڻ بند ڪري ڇڏينديون هيون يا انڌيون ٿي وينديون هيون.<ref name=Mehlhorn/> هي عقيدو ارسطو جي دور کان به اڳ جو آهي، پر جديد سائنس ان کي مڪمل طور رد ڪري ٿي. حقيقت ۾ هي پکي رڳو انهن جيتن جو شڪار ڪندو آهي، جيڪي ٻڪرين ۽ ٻين چوپائي مال جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿيندا آهن.<ref name=Mehlhorn/> انهيءَ قديم عقيدي جو اثر ڪيترين ئي يورپي ٻولين جي نالن ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جهڙوڪ جرمن ''زئگينميلڪر''، پولش ''ڪوزوڊو'' ۽ اطالوي ''سڪسيئڪيپر''، جن جي معنيٰ پڻ "ٻڪريءَ جو کير چوسيندڙ" آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، عربي، چيني ۽ هندو روايتن ۾ اهڙو عقيدو موجود ناهي.<ref>{{sfn|Cocker|Tipling|2013|pp=285–291}}</ref> هن پکيءَ لاءِ هڪ ٻيو پراڻو نالو '''پڪرج''' پڻ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيڪو چوپائي مال جي هڪ بيماري لاءِ به ڪم ايندو هو. بعد ۾ معلوم ٿيو ته اها بيماري اصل ۾ چمڙي هيٺ رهندڙ [[بوٽ فلائي]] (Botfly) جي لاروا سبب ٿيندي آهي، نه ڪي هن پکيءَ جي ڪري.<ref name="oedpucker">{{cite web |title=Puckeridge |work=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/154107?redirectedFrom=puckeridge#eid |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=7 February 2014 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{sfn|Blaine|1816|p=[https://archive.org/details/b24925275/page/436/mode/1up 436]}}</ref> هڪ ٻيو پراڻو نالو '''لچ فوئل''' (لاش وارو پکي) پڻ هن سان منسوب رهيو، جيڪو ان بابت موجود وهمن ۽ توهم پرستيءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.<ref name="oedlich">{{cite web |title=Lich |work=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/107962?redirectedFrom=lich+fowl#eid39419136 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=7 February 2014 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> يورپي لوڪ روايتن موجب، بپتسما کان سواءِ فوت ٿيل ٻارن جون روحون قيامت تائين نائيٽ جار جي صورت ۾ ڀٽڪنديون رهنديون هيون. اهڙي قسم جو عقيدو ''گئبل ريڇيٽ'' (لاش واري شڪاري ڪتي) بابت به موجود هو، جيڪو يورپي لوڪ ڏند ڪٿائن ۾ ''[[حيواني شڪار]]'' سان لاڳاپيل سمجهيو ويندو هو.<ref name="OConnor">{{harvp|O'Connor|2005|pp=87–90}}</ref> == سنڌ ۾ نسل واڌ == سنڌ ۾ هي پکي قبرستانن، ڪورنگي کري ۽ رهڙي ڳوٺ جي وارياسي علائقن ۾ آنا لاهيندي ڏٺو ويو آهي. نسل واڌ جو موسم عام طور مئي کان جولاءِ تائين هوندو آهي. مادي عام طور 2 کان 3 آنا زمين تي بغير آکيري جي ڏيندي آهي ۽ لڳ ڀڳ 17 کان 18 ڏينهن تائين انهن تي آرو ڪندي آهي. ٻچا آگسٽ تائين آنن مان نڪرندا آهن. سج لهڻ وقت هن پکيءَ جو مخصوص آواز، جيڪو "چُوئي! چُوئي!" جهڙو ٻڌبو آهي، سندس موجودگيءَ جي سڃاڻپ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref name="Sindhiana"/> ==وضاحتي نوٽ ۽ حوالا== {{notelist}} ===حوالا=== {{Reflist}} ==استعمال ٿيل ماخذ== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Barthel |first1=Peter H |last2=Dougalis |first2=Paschalis |year=2008 |title=New Holland Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe |publisher=New Holland |location=London |isbn=978-1-84773-110-4}} * {{cite book |last=Blaine |first=Delabere Pritchett |year=1816 |title=The Outlines of the Veterinary Art as Applied to the Horse |edition=2nd |publisher=T. Boosey |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkYVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3}} * {{cite book |last=Burton |first=Robert |title=Bird Behaviour |year=1985 |publisher=Granada Publishing |location=London |isbn=978-0-246-12440-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/birdbehaviour0000burt}} * {{cite book |last1=Cleere |first1=Nigel |last2=Nurney |first2=David |author2-link=David Nurney |title=Nightjars: A Guide to the Nightjars, Frogmouths, Potoos, Oilbird and Owlet-nightjars of the World |year=1998 |publisher=Pica / Christopher Helm |isbn=978-1-873403-48-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Cocker |first1=Mark |author1-link=Mark Cocker |last2=Mabey |first2=Richard |title=Birds Britannica |year=2005 |location=London |publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=978-0-7011-6907-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Cocker |first1=Mark |last2=Tipling |first2=David |year=2013 |title=Birds and People |publisher=Jonathan Cape |location=London |isbn=978-0-224-08174-0}} * {{cite book |last=van Grouw |first=Katrina |year=2012 |title=The Unfeathered Bird |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-15134-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Holyoak |first1=David |last2=Woodcock |first2=Martin |year=2001 |title=Nightjars and Their Allies: The Caprimulgiformes |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-854987-1}} * {{cite book |last=Jobling |first=James A |year=2010 |title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names |url=https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4}} * {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |location=Holmiae |year=1758 |language=la |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#/summary}} * {{cite book |last=Lockwood |first=William Burley |author-link=William Burley Lockwood |title=Oxford Book of British Bird Names |year=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-214155-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Mullarney |first1=Killian |last2=Svensson |first2=Lars |last3=Zetterstrom |first3=Dan |last4=Grant |first4=Peter |title=Collins Bird Guide |year=1999 |location=London |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-00-219728-1}} * {{cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Anne |year=2005 |title=The Blessed and the Damned: Sinful Women and Unbaptised Children in Irish Folklore |publisher=Peter Lang |location=Oxford |isbn=978-3-03910-541-0}} * {{cite book |last=Roots |first=Clive |year=2006 |title=Nocturnal Animals |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-0-313-33546-4}} * {{cite book |title=Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos: A Study of Bird Parasites |last1=Rothschild |first1=Miriam |author1-link=Miriam Rothschild |last2=Clay |first2=Theresa |year=1957 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/fleasflukescucko00roth}} * {{cite book |last=Sinclair |first=Sandra |title=How Animals See: Other Visions of Our World |year=1985 |publisher=Croom Helm |location=Beckenham, Kent |isbn=978-0-7099-3336-6}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Snow |editor1-first=David |editor1-link=David Snow (ornithologist) |editor2-last=Perrins |editor2-first=Christopher M |editor2-link=Chris Perrins |title=The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise Edition) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-854099-1}} * {{cite book |last=Valkiunas |first=Gediminas |year=2004 |title=Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia |publisher=CRC Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-30097-1}} {{refend}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|Caprimulgus europaeus}} ===آواز، متن ۽ تصويرون=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141202070319/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/275_NightjarCeuropaeus.pdf عمر ۽ جنس جي سڃاڻپ (Javier Blasco-Zumeta ۽ Gerd-Michael Heinze)] * [http://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Caprimulgus-europaeus Xeno-canto تي آواز] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080321114134/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Caprimulgus_europaeus/ ARKive تي تصويرون ۽ وڊيوز] * [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/404.pdf ''The Atlas of Southern African Birds'' ۾ نسل بابت متن] ===شاعري=== * "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/poetryseason/poems/afterwards.shtml Afterwards]" * "[http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww792.html Calm is the Fragrant Air]" * "[https://poets.org/poem/fern-hill Fern Hill]" * "[http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173966 Love in the Valley]" {{Taxonbar|from=Q26717}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:Caprimulgus]] [[زمرو:يوروشيا جا پکي]] [[زمرو:آفريڪا ۾ سيارو گذاريندڙ پکي]] [[زمرو:1758ع ۾ بيان ڪيل پکي]] [[زمرو:ڪارل لينيئس پاران نالي ڏنل جانوري اصناف]] [[زمرو:آئي يو سي اين خطري کان دور جنسن جي ڳاڙهي فهرست]] [[زمرو:پکي]] 9k07bzdw9aawqdoh7dicu6pn4c0ij2p شھر جو ناظم 0 31333 394766 394485 2026-07-16T08:28:25Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|شهر يا ڳوٺ جي بلدياتي حڪومت جو سربراهه}} '''ميئر''' ({{lang-en|Mayor}}) ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ [[شهر]]، [[ڳوٺ]] يا ٻين [[بلدياتي حڪومت|بلدياتي حڪومتن]] جو اعليٰ ترين چونڊيل يا مقرر ڪيل عملدار هوندو آهي. دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ميئر جا اختيار، ذميواريون ۽ چونڊ جو طريقو مقامي قانونن ۽ انتظامي نظام موجب مختلف هوندو آهي. ڪن ملڪن ۾ ميئر بلدياتي حڪومت جو مکيه انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ ٻين هنڌن تي هو صرف بلدياتي ڪائونسل جي اجلاس جي صدارت ڪندو آهي يا رڳو رسمي ۽ نمائشي حيثيت رکندو آهي. ميئر جون ذميواريون عام طور تي بلدياتي انتظاميه جي نگراني ڪرڻ، عملدارن ۽ ملازمن جي مقرري يا نگراني، شهرين کي بنيادي بلدياتي خدمتون فراهم ڪرڻ، ۽ بلدياتي ڪائونسل يا لاڳاپيل صوبائي يا قومي حڪومت طرفان منظور ڪيل قانونن ۽ ضابطن تي عمل ڪرائڻ شامل هونديون آهن. ميئر جي چونڊ سڌيءَ ريت عوام جي ووٽن سان يا بلدياتي ڪائونسل جي چونڊيل ميمبرن طرفان ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪو هر ملڪ جي انتظامي نظام تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. لفظ '''ميئر''' جي لسانياتي اصل فوجي عهدي [[ميجر]] (''Major'') سان ساڳي آهي. اهي ٻئي لفظ فرانسيسي ''majeur'' مان نڪتل آهن، جيڪو وري لاطيني لفظ ''maior'' (وڏي يا اعليٰ) مان ورتل آهي، جيڪو ''magnus'' (وڏو) جو تقابلي روپ آهي. == تاريخ == === برطانيا === {{anchor|انگلينڊ|اسڪاٽلينڊ|ويلز}} {{Main |انگلينڊ ۾ ميئر|ويلز ۾ ميئر}} جديد [[انگلينڊ]] ۽ [[ويلز]] ۾ ميئر جو عهدو جاگيرداري دور جي [[بيليف]] يا [[ريو]] جي عهدي مان ارتقا ڪري وجود ۾ آيو. [[لنڊن]] جي اعليٰ بلدياتي عملدار کي [[نارمن فتح]] کان پوءِ هڪ صديءَ کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين ''پورٽ ريو'' (Portreeve) سڏيو ويندو هو. هي عملدار عوام جي ووٽن سان چونڊيو ويندو هو، جيڪو حق [[بادشاهه جان]] طرفان عطا ڪيو ويو هو. ٻارهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين لنڊن جي مکيه عملدار لاءِ ''پورٽ ريو'' جي بدران ''ميئر'' جو لقب رائج ٿي ويو، ۽ لڳ ڀڳ 1190ع ڌاري [[ونچيسٽر]] پڻ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو. بعد ۾ ٻين شهرن پڻ ساڳيو لقب اختيار ڪيو.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} اوڻيهين صديءَ ۾ [[ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ايڪٽ 1882ع]] جي شق 15 تحت ميئر جي چونڊ جو قانوني طريقو مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان موجب هر سال 9 نومبر تي بلدياتي ڪائونسل پنهنجي ميمبرن يا اهڙن اهل ماڻهن مان هڪ سال لاءِ ميئر چونڊيندي هئي. ساڳيو شخص ٻيهر به چونڊيو وڃي سگهندو هو. بيماري يا غيرحاضريءَ جي صورت ۾ ميئر ڪنهن ڪائونسلر يا آلڊرمين کي پنهنجو نائب مقرر ڪري سگهندو هو. جيڪڏهن ميئر ٻن مهينن کان وڌيڪ پنهنجي حد کان ٻاهر رهندو هو ته سندس عهدو ختم ٿي ويندو هو. پنهنجي عهدي دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ هڪ سال تائين ميئر خودبخود [[امن جو جج]] پڻ هوندو هو. کيس اهڙو معاوضو ملندو هو، جيڪو ڪائونسل مناسب سمجهندي هئي. اهي قانون هاڻي منسوخ ٿي چڪا آهن. وچئين دور جي [[ويلز]] ۾ [[هائويل ڏا]] جي قانونن هيٺ ميئر (لاطيني: ''maior''؛ ويلش: ''maer'') شاهي عدالت جو عملدار هوندو هو، جنهن جي ذميواري بادشاهه جي زمينن تي ڪم ڪندڙ ماڻهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ هئي. شاهي اقتدار سان وفاداري برقرار رکڻ لاءِ قبيلائي سردارن کي اهو عهدو سنڀالڻ جي اجازت نه هئي.<ref name="HyDda">[[Wade-Evans, Arthur]]. ''[[Page:Welsh Medieval Law.djvu/447|Welsh Medieval Law]]''. Oxford Univ., 1909.</ref> ان کان علاوه ''ماير بسوائل'' (''Maer Biswail'') نالي هڪ ٻيو ميئر به هوندو هو، جيڪو شاهي ڍورن جي سنڀال جو ذميوار هوندو هو.<ref name="HyDda"/> اسڪاٽلينڊ ۽ آئرلينڊ ۾ به اهڙي نوعيت جا عهدا موجود هئا.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} ويهين صديءَ تائين انگلينڊ ۽ ويلز جي گهڻن شهرن ۾ ميئر جو عهدو گهڻو ڪري اعزازي حيثيت رکندڙ هو ۽ ان سان اهم انتظامي اختيار وابسته نه هوندا هئا. هي عهدو عام طور مقامي خدمتن، ڊگهي عرصي تائين ڪائونسل ۾ ڪم ڪرڻ يا شهر لاءِ نمايان خدمتون سرانجام ڏيڻ جي اعتراف طور ڏنو ويندو هو. ميئر جون اهم ذميواريون شهري تقريبن ۾ نمائندگي ڪرڻ، عوامي ڀلائيءَ لاءِ گڏجاڻين جي صدارت ڪرڻ، پارلياماني چونڊن ۾ ريٽرننگ آفيسر طور ڪم ڪرڻ ۽ ڪائونسل جي گڏجاڻين جي صدارت ڪرڻ هونديون هيون. ڪنهن [[ڳوٺ ڪائونسل]] جي ميئر کي سرڪاري طور ''ٽائون ميئر'' چيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عام ڳالهه ٻولهه ۾ ''ٽائون'' جو لفظ اڪثر حذف ڪيو ويندو آهي. ميئر جو لقب مرد ۽ عورت ٻنهي لاءِ ساڳيو استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ مرد ميئر جي زال کي روايتي طور ''ميئرس'' (Mayoress) چيو ويندو آهي. [[1972ع جو مقامي حڪومت ايڪٽ]] لاڳو ٿيڻ کان پوءِ انگلينڊ جي انهن ضلعن ۾ پڻ ميئر مقرر ٿيڻ لڳا، جن کي ''برو'' (Borough) جو درجو حاصل آهي. اهڙين حالتن ۾ هڪ ئي علائقي ۾ ضلعي ميئر ۽ ڪنهن شهر جو الڳ ميئر موجود ٿي سگهي ٿو. جن ضلعن کي برو جو درجو حاصل نه آهي، اتي ڪائونسل جو چيئرمين ساڳيون تقريباً سڀئي ذميواريون نڀائيندو آهي، جيڪي برو وارن ضلعن ۾ ميئر جون هونديون آهن. برطانيا ۽ [[دولتِ مشترڪه]] جي ڪيترن ئي وڏن شهرن ۾ ''لارڊ ميئر'' جو اعزازي لقب پڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي، جيڪو [[برطانوي بادشاهت]] طرفان عطا ڪيو ويندو آهي. گهڻن شهرن ۾ هي عهدو تقريبن رسمي هوندو آهي، پر [[بيلفاسٽ]]، [[ڪارڊف]]، [[برسبين]] ۽ [[ڊبلن]] جهڙن شهرن ۾ لارڊ ميئر وٽ انتظامي اختيار پڻ هوندا آهن. ڪجهه شهرن، جهڙوڪ [[سڊني]] ۾ لارڊ ميئر سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lord Mayor and councillors |url=https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/lord-mayor-and-councillors |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=City of Sydney |language=en}}</ref> [[اسڪاٽلينڊ]] ۾ هن عهدي لاءِ مقامي حڪومت جي نوعيت موجب ''ڪنوينر'' (Convenor)، ''پرووسٽ'' (Provost) يا ''لارڊ پرووسٽ'' (Lord Provost) جا لقب استعمال ٿيندا آهن. ==== سڌيءَ ريت چونڊيل ميئر ==== {{Main|انگلينڊ ۾ سڌيءَ ريت چونڊيل ميئر}} 2000ع جي مقامي حڪومت واري سڌارن کان پوءِ انگلينڊ جي ڪيترين ئي مقامي حڪومتن ۾ سڌي عوامي ووٽن سان ميئر چونڊڻ جو نظام متعارف ڪرايو ويو. اهڙا ميئر روايتي تقريبن واري ميئر جي حيثيت سان گڏ ڪائونسل جي اڳواڻ جا اختيار پڻ استعمال ڪن ٿا، تنهنڪري انهن وٽ اڳوڻن ميئرن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ انتظامي اختيار هوندا آهن.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn05000/|title=Directly-elected mayors|website=www.commonslibrary.parliament.uk|access-date=14 December 2020}}</ref> هن نظام جو اطلاق شهرن، ضلعي ڪائونسلن ۽ اهڙن علائقن تي ٿيو آهي، جيڪي ڪيترن ئي شهرن ۽ ٻهراڙيءَ تي مشتمل آهن. 2014ع ۾ [[گڏيل انتظامي اختيارين]] (Combined Authorities) جو قيام عمل ۾ آيو، جيڪي [[گريٽر لنڊن اٿارٽي]] وانگر ڪيترن ئي مقامي ضلعن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن. انهن جا ميئر، جيڪي ''ميٽرو ميئر'' يا ''علائقائي ميئر'' پڻ سڏجن ٿا، عام مقامي ميئرن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهڻو وسيع اختيار رکن ٿا. اهي ڪيترن ئي شهرن ۽ ضلعن تي مشتمل علائقن جي اقتصادي ترقي، آمدرفت، رٿابندي ۽ ٻين منتقل ڪيل اختيارن جا ذميوار هوندا آهن. اهي [[انگلينڊ جي ميئرن واري ڪائونسل]] ۽ [[قومن ۽ علائقن واري ڪائونسل]] جا پڻ ميمبر هوندا آهن، جتي هو برطانيا، اسڪاٽلينڊ، ويلز ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جي حڪومتن جي اڳواڻن سان گڏ ويهندا آهن. === يورپي کنڊ=== {{پڻ ڏسو |محلات جو ميئر|پوڊيستا}} فرينڪن جي دور ۾ اصل ''ميئر'' يا ''ميجرڊومو''، ويلز جي ''ماير'' وانگر، اهڙا عملدار هوندا هئا جيڪي [[ميرووينجي خاندان]] جي دور ۾ [[آسٽريشيا]]، [[برگنڊي جي بادشاھت]] ۽ [[نيوسٽريا]] ۾ بادشاهه جي جاگيرن ۽ شاهي درٻار جي انتظام جا ذميوار هوندا هئا. پيرس جي ميئر جو عهدو بعد ۾ [[پيپنيڊ خاندان]] ۾ موروثي بڻجي ويو، جنهن خاندان پوءِ [[ڪيرولينجي خاندان]] جي حڪومت قائم ڪئي. جديد [[فرانس]] ۾ [[فرانسيسي انقلاب]] کان پوءِ ميئر (maire) ۽ سندس نائب (adjoints au maire) بلدياتي ڪائونسل پنهنجي ميمبرن مان چونڊيندي آهي. انتظامي اختيارن جو وڏو حصو ميئر ۽ سندس نائبن وٽ هوندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ مڪمل ڪائونسل نسبتاً گهٽ گڏجاڻيون ڪندي آهي. هي نظام بعد ۾ يورپ جي ٻين ملڪن ۾ به اختيار ڪيو ويو، جهڙوڪ برطانيا جا ميئر، اٽلي جا [[سنڊاڪو]]، جرمني جي گهڻن رياستن جا [[برگرماسٽر]] ۽ پرتگال جي [[بلدياتي چيمبر جو صدر|بلدياتي چيمبرن جا صدر]]. وچئين دور جي [[اٽلي]] ۾ اهي [[اطالوي شهر-رياستون]] جيڪي پاڻ کي خودمختيار رياستون يا ڊچي نه سمجهنديون هيون، خاص طور تي شهنشاهيت جي حامي [[گھبلين]] ڌر سان لاڳاپيل شهر، انهن تي [[پوڊيستا]] حڪمراني ڪندا هئا. [[يونان]] ۾ ميئر جي هم منصب عهدي کي [[ديمارخوس]] (δήμαρχος) چيو ويندو آهي، جنهن جي لفظي معنيٰ ''ديم (بلدياتي علائقي) جو سربراهه'' آهي. ==== اسڪينڊي نيويا ==== [[ڊينمارڪ]] ۾ سڀني [[ڊينمارڪ جون بلديات|بلديات]] جو سربراهه ''بورگ ماسٽر'' (''borgmester'') سڏبو آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ميئر آهي. البت [[ڪوپن هيگن]] جي ميئر کي ''اووربورگ ماسٽر'' (''overborgmester'') يا ''لارڊ ميئر'' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪوپن هيگن ۾ ٻيا ميئر پڻ هوندا آهن، جيڪي مختلف شعبن جا ذميوار هوندا آهن ۽ لارڊ ميئر جي ماتحت ڪم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڊينمارڪ جي ٻين بلديات ۾ صرف هڪ ئي ميئر هوندو آهي. [[File:1389-09-04, brev Iserlohn.jpg|thumb|1389ع ۾ [[اسٽاڪ هوم جي ميئر]] جي چونڊ بابت دستاويز]] [[ناروي]] ۽ [[سوئيڊن]] ۾ ''بورگر ماسٽر'' (borgermester / borgmästare) جو لقب هاڻي ختم ٿي چڪو آهي. ناروي ۾ 1937ع کان پوءِ هي لقب ختم ڪري ان جي جاءِ تي ''رودمان'' (rådmann) جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو، جيڪو شهرن جي اعليٰ غيرسياسي انتظامي عملدار لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جڏهن⁠تہ مقامي حڪومت جو چونڊيل سربراهه ''اوردفورر'' (ordfører) سڏبو آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ چيئرمين يا صدر جي برابر آهي. سوئيڊن ۾ ''بورگ ماسٽاري'' شروعاتي طور شهرن جي عدالتن جي اعليٰ جج جو لقب هو. اهي عدالتون ''رادهوس ريت'' (rådhusrätt) سڏبيون هيون، جيڪي 1971ع ۾ ختم ڪيون ويون. 1965ع تائين اهي جج ''مئجسٽراٽ'' (magistrat) جي انتظامي ذميوارين ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا هئا. ان کان علاوه ننڍن شهرن ۾ ''ڪومونال بورگ ماسٽاري'' (kommunalborgmästare) نالي ميئر پڻ هوندا هئا، جيڪي غيرسياسي انتظامي ذميواريون نڀائيندا هئا. اهو عهدو ويهين صديءَ ۾ ان وقت متعارف ٿيو، جڏهن ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن جون پنهنجون عدالتون ۽ مئجسٽراٽ ختم ٿي ويون. [[File:Arthur-Castren.jpg|thumb|upright|[[آرٿر ڪاسٽرين]] (1866–1946ع)، 1930ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[هيلسنڪي جي ميئر]]]] سورهين صديءَ ۾ سوئيڊن جي بادشاهه [[گستاو واسا]] حڪومت کي وڌيڪ مرڪزي بڻايو ۽ ميئرن جي سڌي مقرري شروع ڪئي. 1693ع ۾ بادشاهه [[چارلس يارهون]] شهرين جي نمائندن جي مسلسل درخواستن کان پوءِ اهو طئي ڪيو ته شهر جا رهواسي مقامي گورنر جي نگرانيءَ هيٺ ميئر لاءِ اميدوار نامزد ڪندا، جنهن مان بادشاهه هڪ کي مقرر ڪندو، جيتوڻيڪ خاص حالتن ۾ بادشاهه پاڻ به سڌي مقرري ڪري سگهندو هو. اهو اصول 1720ع جي [[حڪومتي دستور]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. 8 جولاءِ 1720ع تي [[ريڪسراد]] (سلطنت جي ڪائونسل) فيصلو ڪيو ته ميئر لاءِ رڳو شهر ئي اميدوار پيش ڪري سگهي ٿو، نه بادشاهه يا ٻيو ڪو ادارو. 16 آڪٽوبر 1723ع کان پوءِ اهو قاعدو مقرر ٿيو ته شهر ٽي اميدوار پيش ڪندو، جن مان بادشاهه يا سلطنت جي ڪائونسل هڪ کي چونڊيندي.<ref name="NF">[https://runeberg.org/nfbc/0637.html The article ''Borgmästare'' (in Swedish)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605184600/http://runeberg.org/nfbc/0637.html |date=5 June 2013 }} in [[Nordisk Familjebok]].</ref> اهو رواج 1965ع تائين برقرار رهيو. [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ رڳو [[ٽيمپيري]] ۽ [[پرڪالا]] ۾ ميئر جو عهدو موجود آهي. عام طور تي بلدياتي انتظام جو اعليٰ عملدار چونڊيل نه هوندو آهي، پر شهر يا بلدياتي ڪائونسل طرفان مقرر ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي ''شهر جو منتظم'' (kaupunginjohtaja) يا ''بلدياتي منتظم'' (kunnanjohtaja) چيو ويندو آهي. فنش ٻوليءَ جو لفظ ''پورميسٽاري'' (pormestari)، جيڪو سوئيڊش ''بورگ ماسٽاري'' مان ورتل آهي، تاريخي طور رجسٽري آفيس ۽ شهر جي عدالتن جي اعليٰ عملدار لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، نه ڪي شهر جي منتظم لاءِ. ان کان سواءِ ''پورميسٽاري'' هڪ اعزازي لقب به آهي، جيڪو شهر جي منتظم کي نمايان خدمتن عيوض ڏنو وڃي ٿو. [[هيلسنڪي]] جي شهر جي منتظم کي تاريخي سببن جي ڪري ''يلي پورميسٽاري'' (ylipormestari) يا ''چيف ميئر'' چيو ويندو آهي. ==== اسپين ==== اسپين ۾ ''[[الڪالدي]]'' (Alcalde) جو عهدو [[ريڪونڪيسٽا]] جي دور ۾ وجود ۾ آيو، جڏهن [[ليون جي بادشاھت]] ۽ [[ڪاسٽيل جي بادشاھت]] نون علائقن تي قبضو ڪري اتي نيون بستيون آباد ڪيون. [[ڊورو]] ۽ [[ٽيگس]] ندين جي وچ واري علائقي ۾ جڏهن اهي بستيون شهرن ۾ تبديل ٿيون، تڏهن انهن کي جاگيردارن يا بادشاهن طرفان بلدياتي ڪائونسلون قائم ڪرڻ جو حق مليو. انهن ڪائونسلن جي اختيارن ۾ هڪ بلدياتي جج چونڊڻ پڻ شامل هو، جنهن کي لاطيني ۾ ''iudex'' ۽ هسپانوي ۾ ''juez'' چيو ويندو هو. انهن ججن جي مدد لاءِ ڪيترائي نائب جج مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا، جن کي ''الڪالدي'' سڏيو ويندو هو، ۽ انهن جو تعداد شهر جي پاڙن جي تعداد موجب هوندو هو.<ref>O'Callaghan, ''A History of Medieval Spain'', 269–271.</ref> ''الڪالدي'' جو لفظ عربي لفظ ''[[قاضي]]'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''فيصلو ڪندڙ جج'' آهي.<ref>The second L in ''alcalde'' evolved from the [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] attempts at pronouncing the [[emphatic consonant]] [[ḍād]]. The old Portuguese [[cognate]] ''alcalde'' was never applied to the presiding municipal officer and retained its original meaning of "judge". "Alcalde" in Corominas, ''Diccionario crítico'', Vol. A-CA (1), 127.</ref> شروعاتي دور ۾ ''الڪالدي'' جو لفظ صرف ججن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، جيئن [[اندلسي عربي]] ۾ پڻ رائج هو. بعد ۾ اهو بلدياتي ڪائونسل جي سربراهه لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.<ref>Corominas, "Alcalde", 127.</ref> ان جي اصل عدالتي معنيٰ ٻين عهدن ۾ به برقرار رهي، جهڙوڪ ''الڪالديز ڊيل ڪريمين'' (عدالتن جا جج)، ''الڪالديز ڊي لا ڪاسا يي ڪورتي ڊي سو ماخيستاد'' (شاهي درٻار جا اعليٰ جج)، ''الڪالدي ميئور'' (جنهن کي [[ڪوريخيدور]] پڻ چيو ويندو هو) ۽ ''الڪالدي ڊي باريو''، جيڪو تقريباً برطانوي ''پيرش ڪانسٽيبل'' جي برابر هو. انهيءَ ڪري بلدياتي ميئر کي اڪثر ''الڪالدي اورديناريو'' (عام ميئر) به سڏيو ويندو هو. == ملڪن موجب ميئر == === آرمينيا === {{ڏسو پڻ|يريون جو ميئر}} [[آرمينيا]] ۾ ميئر بلدياتي حڪومت جي انتظامي شاخ جو سربراهه هوندو آهي. ميئر اڪثر لاڳاپيل شهر يا بلدياتي ڪائونسل طرفان چونڊيو ويندو آهي ۽ پنجن سالن جي مدي لاءِ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندو آهي. ميئر بلدياتي انتظاميا جي سربراهي ڪندو آهي، مختلف عهدن لاءِ انتظاميا جي ميمبرن کي نامزد ڪندو آهي ۽ بلدياتي بجيٽ جي نگراني ڪندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eastern Partnership Country|url=https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Armenia.aspx|language=en|access-date=5 May 2023|archive-date=20 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620034036/https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Armenia.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> === آسٽريليا === آسٽريليا جي مقامي ڪائونسلن ۾ ميئر عام طور ڪائونسل جو اهو ميمبر هوندو آهي، جيڪو سرڪاري تقريبن ۾ علامتي ۽ نمائندي حيثيت سان ذميواريون نڀائيندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪائونسل جي گڏجاڻين جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ڪائونسل جا اختيار پڻ استعمال ڪندو آهي. گڏجاڻين جي وچ ۾ ميئر جا ڪيل فيصلا ڪائونسل جي منظوريءَ جا پابند هوندا آهن، ۽ ضرورت پوڻ تي انهن جي توثيق يا منسوخي ٿي سگهي ٿي. آسٽريليا ۾ ميئر يا ته مقامي حڪومت جي چونڊن دوران سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن يا وري چونڊيل ڪائونسل پنهنجي ميمبرن مان ميئر چونڊيندي آهي. مقامي حڪومتن جون رسمي نشانيون ۽ اعزاز صدين کان تقريباً ساڳيون برقرار آهن. رسمي موقعن تي ميئر مخصوص پوشاڪ، [[ميئر جي زنجير]] ۽ [[رسمي گُرز]] کڻي سگهي ٿو. پنهنجي عهدي دوران ميئر لاءِ ''هز/هر ورشپ'' (His/Her Worship) جو اعزازي لقب استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. جن ڪائونسلن ۾ [[ڪائونسلر]] سياسي پارٽين جي بنياد تي چونڊيا ويندا آهن، اتي عام طور تي ميئر اُن پارٽيءَ جو اڳواڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن ڪائونسل ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سيٽون حاصل ڪيون هجن. [[ڪوئينزلينڊ]] ۾ لارڊ ميئر ۽ ميئر سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن. === بنگلاديش === {{ڏسو پڻ|بنگلاديش جون شهري ڪارپوريشنون}} [[بنگلاديش]] ۾ ميئر هر پنجن سالن کان پوءِ چونڊيا ويندا آهن. اهي بلدياتي حڪومت ۾ انتهائي اهم اختيار رکن ٿا ۽ ميئر بلدياتي حڪومت جو اعليٰ ترين عملدار هوندو آهي. === برازيل === [[برازيل]] جي هر بلديي ۾ هڪ ميئر (پريفيٽو/پريفيٽا) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (وائس پريفيٽا/وائس پريفيٽو) چئن سالن جي مدي لاءِ چونڊيا ويندا آهن. اهي شهر جي انتظامي شاخ جا سربراهه هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ [[بلدياتي ڪائونسل]] (ڪيمرا ميونسپل) قانونسازي جا اختيار استعمال ڪندي آهي. ميئر لڳاتار ٻه مدتون به چونڊجي سگهي ٿو.<ref name="fb">{{Cite web|title=Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil|url=https://www.senado.leg.br/atividade/const/con1988/con1988_05.10.1988/art_29_.asp|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.senado.leg.br|language=pt-br|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805092446/http://www.senado.leg.br/atividade/const/con1988/CON1988_05.10.1988/art_29_.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> برازيل ۾ ميئر جون چونڊون آباديءَ جي بنياد تي ٻن مختلف طريقن سان ٿينديون آهن. جن بلديات جي آبادي 200,000 کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، اتي [[ٻن مرحلن وارو چونڊ نظام]] لاڳو هوندو آهي، جيئن صدارتي ۽ گورنري چونڊن ۾ ٿيندو آهي. جڏهن⁠تہ 200,000 کان گهٽ آبادي وارن شهرن ۾ [[اڪثريتي ووٽ]] واري هڪ مرحلي جي چونڊ ٿيندي آهي.<ref name="fb"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Eleições 2020: 95 municípios com mais de 200 mil eleitores poderão ter 2º turno em novembro|url=https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/2020/Setembro/eleicoes-2020-95-municipios-com-mais-de-200-mil-eleitores-poderao-ter-2o-turno-em-novembro|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.tse.jus.br|language=pt-br|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003003910/https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/2020/Setembro/eleicoes-2020-95-municipios-com-mais-de-200-mil-eleitores-poderao-ter-2o-turno-em-novembro}}</ref> برازيل جو بلدياتي نظام گهڻي حد تائين آمريڪا جي [[ميئر-ڪائونسل حڪومت]] واري نظام سان مشابهت رکي ٿو. === ڪينيڊا === {{پڻ ڏسو |ڪينيڊا ۾ مقامي حڪومت|ڪينيڊا ۾ بلدياتي چونڊون}} [[ڪيوبيڪ]] ۾ [[اروڊسمان]] (بورو) جي انتظامي سربراهن کي فرينچ ۾ maire/mairesse (ميئر) چيو ويندو آهي. بورو جو ميئر هڪ ئي وقت بورو ڪائونسل جو سربراهه ۽ مرڪزي شهر ڪائونسل جو باقاعده ميمبر به هوندو آهي. ڪينيڊا ۾ بلدياتي چونڊن جو شيڊيول هر صوبي ۽ علائقي جي قانونن مطابق مختلف هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هر صوبي ۽ علائقي جا مقامي حڪومت بابت پنهنجا قانون آهن. ٻين ڪيترن ئي دولتِ مشترڪه جي ملڪن وانگر، ڪينيڊا ۾ به عهدي دوران ميئر کي ''هز/هر ورشپ'' جي خطاب سان سڏيو ويندو آهي. ==== رِيو ==== [[اونٽاريو]] جي ڪجهه بلديات ۽ [[ٽائون شپ]]ن ۾ ''رِيو'' چونڊيل سربراهه هوندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ ٻئي نمبر جي چونڊيل عملدار کي ''ڊپٽي ريو'' چيو ويندو آهي. تاريخي طور ڪجهه ننڍين ٽائون شپ ۾ ''ميئر'' بدران ''ريو'' جو لقب استعمال ٿيندو هو، ۽ ڪي هنڌن تي ميئر ۽ رِيو الڳ الڳ عهدا هوندا هئا. اڄ به اونٽاريو جي ڪجهه بلديات ۾ ''رِيو'' جو عهدو برقرار آهي. [[البرٽا]] جي اڪثر [[ميونسپل ضلعا|ميونسپل ضلعن]] ۾ پڻ ''رِيو'' ئي چونڊيل سربراهه هوندو آهي. [[مانيٽوبا]] ۽ [[ساسڪاچوان]] جي ٻهراڙيءَ وارن ميونسپل ضلعن (RM) جي چونڊيل سربراهن کي پڻ عام طور ''ررِيو'' چيو ويندو آهي. === ڪُڪ ٻيٽ === {{مکيه|ڪُڪ ٻيٽن جا ميئر}} هن وقت [[ڪُڪ ٻيٽ]] ۾ ڏهه ميئر آهن. ملڪ جي سڀ کان وڏي آباديءَ واري ٻيٽ [[راروٽونگا]] ۾ مقامي حڪومت موجود نه آهي، تنهنڪري اتي ڪو ميئر به ناهي. ملڪ جي غيرآباد ٻيٽن ۾ پڻ ميئر مقرر نه هوندا آهن. === ڊومينيڪن جمهوريت === [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريت]] ۾ ڪنهن بلديي جي ميئر کي الڪليڊ يا سنڊيڪو چيو ويندو آهي. ''سنڊيڪو'' جو لفظ ان ڪري به استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته جيئن ان کي الڪليڊ (جيل جي نگران) کان الڳ سڃاتو وڃي. ميئر کي سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چئن سالن لاءِ چونڊيو ويندو آهي. ميئر جون ذميواريون مقامي انتظام تائين محدود هونديون آهن، جن ۾ ڪچري جي نيڪال، پارڪن ۽ عام هنڌن جي سنڀال، گهٽين جي سار سنڀال، ٽريفڪ سگنلن جو انتظام، نيڪال جو نظام ۽ ٻين بلدياتي خدمتن جي نگراني شامل آهي. وڏا رستا، پلون ۽ ٻيا اهم ترقياتي منصوبا مرڪزي حڪومت جي وزارتِ تعميرات جي نگراني هيٺ هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ پاڻي، بجلي ۽ عوامي ٽرانسپورٽ جا معاملا پڻ مرڪزي سرڪاري ادارن جي ذمي هوندا آهن. === فرانس === {{Main|فرانس ۾ ميئر}} [[فرانس]] ۾ ميئر (maire) ڇهن سالن جي مدي لاءِ بلدياتي ڪائونسل طرفان چونڊيو ويندو آهي. بلدياتي ڪائونسل جا ميمبر هر ڇهن سالن کان پوءِ ٿيندڙ مقامي چونڊن ۾ سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن. === جرمني === [[جرمني]] ۾ مقامي حڪومت جا قانون هر [[جرمني جون رياستون|رياست]] پاڻ طئي ڪري ٿي. اڄڪلهه رڳو ٽن شهر-رياستن ([[برلن]]، [[هامبرگ]] ۽ [[بريمن]]) جا ميئر لاڳاپيل رياستي پارليامينٽ چونڊيندي آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ ٻين سڀني رياستن ۾ ميئر سڌو سنئون ووٽر چونڊيندا آهن. ميئر مقامي حڪومت جو انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي، ۽ هي عهدو پيشاور نوعيت جو سمجهيو ويندو آهي. وڏن شهرن ۾ ميئر جو سرڪاري لقب ''اوبر برگرماسٽر'' (Oberbürgermeister) هوندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ عام ميئر ان جو نائب هوندو آهي ۽ مختلف شعبن جو ذميوار هوندو آهي. === يونان === {{پڻ ڏسو |اٿينس جو ميئر|ٿيسالونيڪي جو ميئر}} [[يونان]] ۾ ميئر ({{lang-el|δήμαρχος}}) مقامي چونڊن ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن ۽ بلدياتي حڪومت جا سربراهه هوندا آهن. 2014ع کان اڳ ميئرن جو مدو چار سال هو، پر هاڻي پنج سال آهي. يونان جي بلدياتي نظام ۾ 1997ع ۾ ''[[ڪاپوديسترياس رٿا]]'' ۽ 2010ع ۾ ''[[ڪاليڪراتس رٿا]]'' تحت وڏي پيماني تي سڌارا ڪيا ويا، جن جي نتيجي ۾ بلديات جو تعداد گھٽايو ويو ۽ انتظامي ڍانچي کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏني وئي. === ڀارت === {{Main|ڀارت ۾ ميئر}} [[ڀارت]] ۾ ميئر شهر جو پهريون شهري ۽ [[بلدياتي ڪارپوريشن]] جو سربراهه هوندو آهي. هڪ ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارن شهرن ۾ بلدياتي ڪارپوريشن مقامي حڪومت جي حيثيت رکي ٿي. ميئر جون ذميواريون رسمي ۽ انتظامي ٻنهي نوعيت جون هونديون آهن. گهڻين رياستن ۾ ميئر کي بلدياتي ڪارپوريشن جا چونڊيل [[ڪائونسلر]] پنهنجي ميمبرن مان چونڊيندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ [[بھار (رياست)|بھار]]، [[ڇتيس ڳڙھ]]، [[هريانا]]، [[جهارکنڊ]]، [[مڌيا پرديش]]، [[اوڙيسا]]، [[اتر پرديش]]، [[تلنگانا]] ۽ [[اتراکنڊ]] ۾ ميئر سڌي عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيو ويندو آهي. === انڊونيشيا === [[انڊونيشيا]] ۾ ميئر (والي ڪوٽا) ڪنهن شهر جو علائقائي سربراهه هوندو آهي. ميئر جو درجو ضلعي جي سربراهه (بوپاٽي) جي برابر هوندو آهي. ميئر شهر جي ڪائونسل (ديوان پيرواڪلان راڪيت دائرا ڪوٽا) سان گڏجي علائقي جي پاليسين تي عمل ڪرائڻ جو ذميوار هوندو آهي. ميئر ۽ نائب ميئر سڌي عوامي چونڊن ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن ۽ سياسي عهديدار هوندا آهن. ان کان استثنا [[جڪارتا]] آهي، جتي ميئر سول سروس جو عهديدار هوندو آهي، جنهن جا اختيار محدود هوندا آهن ۽ کيس [[جڪارتا جو گورنر]] مقرر ڪندو آهي. جڪارتا جي اهڙن علائقن کي ''انتظامي شهر'' (ڪوٽا ايڊمنسٽريسي) چيو ويندو آهي. 1999ع کان اڳ انڊونيشيا ۾ ''انتظامي شهر'' (ڪوٽا ايڊمنسٽريٽف) پڻ موجود هئا، جن جا سربراهه انتظامي ميئر هوندا هئا. ===آئرلينڊ=== [[آئرلينڊ جي جمهوريه]] ۾ 1840ع جي [[آئرلينڊ جو ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ايڪٽ، 1840ع]] کان وٺي 2014ع جي [[مقامي حڪومت سڌارا ايڪٽ، 2014ع]] تائين بورو (Borough) ڪارپوريشن جي سربراهه کي ''ميئر'' چيو ويندو هو. شهرن جي ڪائونسلن جي صدر کي ''ميئر'' چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[ڊبلن جو لارڊ ميئر]] ۽ [[ڪارڪ جو لارڊ ميئر]] کي ''لارڊ ميئر'' سڏيو ويندو آهي. [[مقامي حڪومت ايڪٽ، 2001ع]] تحت ڪجهه [[آئرلينڊ جون ڪائونٽيون|ڪائونٽي]] ڪائونسلن کي پڻ پنهنجي چيئرمين لاءِ ''ميئر'' جو لقب اختيار ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي، ۽ ڪجهه ڪائونسلون ائين ڪن ٿيون. 2000ع کان وٺي [[ڊبلن ميٽروپوليٽن علائقي جي سڌي چونڊيل ميئر بابت تجويز]]ون پيش ٿينديون رهيون آهن. 2019ع جي [[آئرلينڊ جون مقامي چونڊون، 2019ع|مقامي چونڊن]] دوران ٽن علائقن ۾ سڌي چونڊيل ميئر بابت عوامي راءِ شماري ٿي، جنهن مان [[ليمرڪ جو ميئر]] بابت تجويز منظور ٿي، ۽ ان لاءِ پهرين سڌي چونڊ [[آئرلينڊ جون مقامي چونڊون، 2024ع|2024ع جي مقامي چونڊن]] سان گڏ ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Martyn |first1=Petula |title=Limerick prepares to vote for directly elected mayor |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/munster/2024/0206/1430705-limerick-prepares-to-vote-for-directly-elected-mayor/ |access-date=8 March 2024 |work=RTÉ News |date=6 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> ===ايران=== [[ايران]] ۾ ميئر شهر جي انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي، جنهن کي اسلامي شهر ڪائونسل چونڊيندي آهي. ميئر جو مدو چار سال هوندو آهي. ===اٽلي=== {{مکيه|ميٽروپوليٽن ميئر}} [[اٽلي]] ۾ ميئر کي ''سنڊاڪو'' (''Sindaco'') يا غير رسمي طور ''پهريون شهري'' (''پرائمو سٽاڊنو'') چيو ويندو آهي. هر [[ڪوميوني]] (ميونسپلٽي) جو هڪ ميئر هوندو آهي، جيڪو مقامي حڪومت جي نمائندگي ڪندو آهي. ميئر کي ميونسپلٽي جا رهواسي هر پنجن سالن لاءِ سڌي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيندا آهن. عام طور تي ڪو به ميئر ٻن لڳاتار مدتن کان وڌيڪ عهدو نٿو سنڀالي سگهي، سواءِ انهن ميونسپلٽين جي جن جي آبادي 5,000 کان گهٽ هجي، جتي ٽن لڳاتار مدتن جي اجازت هوندي آهي.<ref>{{in lang|it}} [https://www.academia.edu/11358245/Del_terzo_mandato_dei_sindaci {{lang|it|No ai tre mandati dei sindaci. Principio di legalità batte disobbedienti}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204222029/http://www.academia.edu/11358245/Del_terzo_mandato_dei_sindaci |date=4 February 2019 }}.</ref> ميئر شهر جي ڪائونسل جو پڻ ميمبر هوندو آهي، جيڪا قانونساز اداري طور سندس پاليسين جي نگراني ڪندي آهي ۽ بي اعتماديءَ جي رٿ وسيلي کيس هٽائي به سگهي ٿي. ميئر کي انتظامي اداري (''گيئونٽا'') جي ميمبرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ ۽ هٽائڻ جو اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندو آهي. ===جاپان=== [[جاپان]] جي [[جاپان جو مقامي خودمختياري قانون|مقامي خودمختياري قانون]] (1947ع) ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مقامي حڪومتن جي ڍانچي کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏنو ۽ ميئر کي مضبوط انتظامي اختيار ڏنا. ''ميئر'' جو لقب شهرن (''Shichō'')، قصبن (''Chōchō'')، ڳوٺن (''Sonchō'') ۽ [[ٽوڪيو]] جي خاص ضلعن (''Kuchō'') جي سربراهن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٽوڪيو صوبي جو سربراهه ''گورنر'' (''Chiji'') هوندو آهي. ميئر هر چار سالن لاءِ سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيو ويندو آهي. عوامي شروعات ذريعي کيس واپس به گهرايو وڃي سگهي ٿو، پر قومي يا صوبائي حڪومت کيس سڌو سنئون عهدي تان نٿي هٽائي سگهي. ميئر بجيٽ پيش ڪندو آهي، مقامي قانون تجويز ڪندو آهي، ڪائونسل طرفان منظور ڪيل قانونن تي ويٽو ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪو ٻه ٽهائي اڪثريت سان ختم ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ بي اعتماديءَ جي رٿ يا اعتماد جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ ڪائونسل ٽوڙي به سگهي ٿو. ===قازقستان=== {{مکيه|اڪيم}} [[قازقستان]] ۾ ميئر کي ''اڪيم'' چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ''اڪيمات'' (ميونسپل، ضلعي يا صوبي جي حڪومت) جو سربراهه ۽ صدر جو مقامي نمائندو هوندو آهي. صوبن ۽ وڏن شهرن جا اڪيم صدر، وزيراعظم جي صلاح سان مقرر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين انتظامي علائقن جا اڪيم صدر جي مقرر ڪيل طريقي موجب مقرر يا چونڊيا ويندا آهن. صدر کين عهدي تان هٽائڻ جو اختيار پڻ رکي ٿو. نئين صدر جي حلف کڻڻ سان موجوده اڪيمن جا اختيار ختم ٿي وڃن ٿا، پر نئون اڪيم مقرر ٿيڻ تائين اهي پنهنجون ذميواريون جاري رکندا آهن. ===ملائيشيا=== {{ڏسو پڻ|ڪوالالمپور جو ميئر|پينانگ ٻيٽ جو ميئر}} [[ملائيشيا]] ۾ ميئر شهر جي مقامي حڪومت جو سربراهه هوندو آهي. هن وقت ملڪ ۾ 14 سرڪاري طور تسليم ٿيل شهر آهن. 13 رياستن جي دائري ۾ ايندڙ شهرن جا ميئر لاڳاپيل رياستي حڪومتون مقرر ڪنديون آهن.<ref name="el">{{Cite web |title=Elect local leaders |url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2017/10/24/elect-local-leaders |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165044/http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2017/10/24/elect-local-leaders |archive-date=17 June 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=www.thesundaily.my |language=en}}</ref> [[ڪوالالمپور]]، جيڪو وفاقي علائقو آهي، ان جو ميئر وفاقي حڪومت جي [[وفاقي علائقن واري وزارت (ملائيشيا)|وفاقي علائقن واري وزارت]] مقرر ڪندي آهي ۽ اهو ان وزارت جي ماتحت هوندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 June 2018 |title=Teresa Kok: Federal Territories Ministry should be abolished |work=The Edge Markets |url=https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/teresa-kok-federal-territories-ministry-should-be-abolished |archive-date=17 June 2018 |access-date=15 July 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165117/https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/teresa-kok-federal-territories-ministry-should-be-abolished |url-status=dead }}</ref> 2018ع جي عام چونڊن کان پوءِ مقامي حڪومتن جون چونڊون ٻيهر بحال ڪرڻ بابت مطالبا وڌيا، جيڪي 1965ع تائين [[ڪوالالمپور]]، [[جارج ٽائون (پينانگ)|جارج ٽائون]]، [[ايپو]] ۽ [[ملاڪا شهر]] جهڙن شهرن ۾ ٿينديون هيون. جيڪڏهن اهي چونڊون ٻيهر بحال ٿين، ته ميئر مقرر ٿيڻ بدران سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيو ويندو.<ref name="el"/> ===مالٽا=== [[مالٽا]] ۾ ميئر (''Sindku'') مقامي ڪائونسل ۾ اڪثريت واري پارٽيءَ جو اڳواڻ هوندو آهي. مقامي ڪائونسل جا ميمبر سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيا ويندا آهن ۽ گڏيل طور تي مقامي حڪومت هلائيندا آهن. ===مالدووا=== [[مالدووا]] ۾ ميونسپلٽي جو ميئر چار سالن لاءِ چونڊيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-REF(2016)031-e |title=Electoral Code of the Republic of Moldova |publisher=Central Electoral Commission |year=2015 |location=Chisinau}}</ref> [[ڪيشيناو]] ۾ گهٽ ووٽنگ سبب ميئر جون چونڊون ٽي ڀيرا ورجايون ويون هيون. ===نيپال=== {{ڏسو وڌيڪ|نيپال جي ميونسپلٽين جا ميئر}} [[نيپال]] ۾ ميئر هر پنجن سالن کان پوءِ مقامي چونڊن ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن. اهي ميونسپل حڪومت جا اعليٰ ترين انتظامي عملدار هوندا آهن ۽ کين وسيع انتظامي اختيار حاصل هوندا آهن. ===نيدرلينڊ=== {{مکيه|برگر ماسٽر}} [[نيدرلينڊ]] ۾ ميئر (''برگماسٽر'') ميئر ۽ ايلڊرمينن جي انتظامي ڪاليج جو سربراهه هوندو آهي. قانوني طور ميئر کي بادشاهه مقرر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن ته عملي طور قومي ڪابينا طرفان مقرري ٿيندي آهي. مقرري کان اڳ ميونسپل ڪائونسل ۽ صوبي جي بادشاهه جي ڪمشنر جي سفارش ورتي ويندي آهي. ميئر انتظامي اداري ۽ ميونسپل ڪائونسل ٻنهي جي صدارت ڪندو آهي، پر ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق رڳو انتظامي اداري ۾ هوندو آهي. ميئر جي مقرري واري طريقي تي 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ ڪافي بحث ٿيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪجهه سياسي پارٽين ان کي غير جمهوري سمجهيو. 2018ع کان پوءِ غير جماعتي ميئرن جو تعداد پڻ وڌيو آهي.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2021/04/16/partijloze-burgemeester-in-opmars-korpschef-schouten-voorgedragen-in-alkmaar-a4040113|title=Partijloze burgemeester in opmars: Korpschef Schouten voorgedragen in Alkmaar|newspaper=NRC |date=16 April 2021}}</ref> ===نيوزيلينڊ=== {{مکيه|نيوزيلينڊ جا ميئر}} [[نيوزيلينڊ]] ۾ ميئر مقامي حڪومتن جا سڌي چونڊيل سربراهه هوندا آهن. هو ڪائونسل جي گڏجاڻين جي صدارت ڪندا آهن، نائب ميئر مقرر ڪري سگهندا آهن، ڪميٽيون قائم ڪندا آهن ۽ انهن جا چيئرمين چونڊيندا آهن. [[نيوزيلينڊ جو مقامي حڪومت ايڪٽ، 2002ع]] موجب ميئر جو بنيادي ڪردار مقامي نمائندن ۽ رهواسين جي اڳواڻي ڪرڻ ۽ ڪائونسل جي پاليسين جي رهنمائي ڪرڻ آهي. ميئر ''فرسٽ پاسٽ دي پوسٽ'' يا ''سنگل ٽرانسفريبل ووٽ'' نظام تحت چونڊيا ويندا آهن. ===پاڪستان=== {{ڏسو وڌيڪ|ناظم}} [[پاڪستان]] ۾ مقامي حڪومت جي اڳوڻي نظام تحت شهر يا ضلعي جو سربراهه ''ناظم'' سڏبو هو، جنهن جي مدد ''نائب ناظم'' ڪندو هو، جيڪو ضلعي ڪائونسل جو اسپيڪر پڻ هوندو هو. ضلعي ناظم کي يونين ڪائونسلن جي ناظمن، يونين ڪائونسلرن ۽ تحصيل ناظمن طرفان چونڊيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته اهي سڀئي نمائندا سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيا ويندا هئا. مقامي چونڊون هر چار سالن کان پوءِ ٿينديون هيون. ===فلپائن=== [[فلپائن]] ۾ ميئر (''پنانگ باين''، ''پنانگ لنگسوڊ'' يا ''الڪليڊ'') شهر يا ميونسپلٽي جو انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته نائب ميئر ٻئي نمبر جو عهديدار هوندو آهي. ميئر هر ٽن سالن کان پوءِ ٿيندڙ قومي ۽ وچ مدتي چونڊن ۾ چونڊيو ويندو آهي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ٽي لڳاتار مدتون سنڀالي سگهي ٿو. عورت ميئر کي ''مايورا'' (Mayora) چيو ويندو آهي. 2012ع تائين فلپائن ۾ 1,635 ميئر هئا.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Jazul | first1=Leanne | url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/city-mayor-vice-councilor-philippines-powers-duties/ | title=Powers and Duties: City Mayor, Vice Mayor, Councilor in the Philippines | work=RAPPLER | date=May 2021 | access-date=8 August 2022 | archive-date=8 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808010418/https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/city-mayor-vice-councilor-philippines-powers-duties/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> ===پولينڊ=== {{پڻ ڏسو |پولينڊ جا شهر ۽ قصبا}} 30 اپريل 2022ع تائين [[پولينڊ]] ۾ ڪل 2,477 ميونسپلٽيون (''گمينا'') هيون، جن مان 1,513 ٻهراڙيءَ واريون گمينا هيون، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر يا قصبا شامل هئا. انهن مان 666 شهر شهري-ٻهراڙي گمينا جو حصو هئا، جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا آزاد شهري گمينا طور منظم هئا. انهن مان 107 شهر ''پريزيڊينٽ مياستا'' (شهر جو صدر) جي انتظام هيٺ آهن، جن مان 66 کي [[پوويات حقن وارو شهر]] جو درجو حاصل آهي. انهن مان 37 شهرن جي آبادي هڪ لک کان وڌيڪ آهي، جڏهن ته 18 شهر [[وويووڊ]] يا [[وويووڊشپ سيمڪ]] جا مرڪز آهن، جن کي غير رسمي طور وويووڊشپ شهر چيو ويندو آهي. پولينڊ جون سڀئي ميونسپلٽيون، شهر ۽ قصبا لازمي طور [[ميئر-ڪائونسل حڪومت]] جي نظام تحت هلن ٿا. انتظامي اختيار هيٺين عهدن مان ڪنهن هڪ وٽ هوندو آهي: * شهر جو ميئر (''Prezydent miasta'') * قصبي جو ميئر (''Burmistrz'') * ''[[ووجٽ]]'' (''Wójt'')، جيڪو ٻهراڙيءَ واري ميونسپلٽي (''گمينا ويئسڪا'') جو سربراهه هوندو آهي. اهي عهديدار پنجن سالن لاءِ [[ٻن مرحلن واري چونڊ]] ذريعي سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيا ويندا آهن. اهي ساڳئي وقت ميونسپل ڪائونسل، [[ڪائونٽي]] ڪائونسل، [[وويووڊشپ سيمڪ]]، [[پولينڊ جي پارليامينٽ]] يا [[يورپي پارليامينٽ]] جا ميمبر نٿا ٿي سگهن. ميئر پنهنجي نائب کي مقرر ڪرڻ جو پابند هوندو آهي. ميونسپل ڪائونسل قانونساز، بجيٽ ٺاهيندڙ ۽ نگراني ڪندڙ ادارو هوندي آهي. ڪائونسل ميئر جي منصوبن جي جاچ ڪري سگهي ٿي يا مالي سهائتا روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر ميئر کي ڪائونسل جي اعتماد جي قانوني ضرورت نه هوندي آهي. مناسب شرطن هيٺ عوامي راءِ شماري ذريعي ميئر کي عهدي تان هٽائڻ پڻ ممڪن آهي، جڏهن ته قانون جي مسلسل ڀڃڪڙيءَ جي صورت ۾ [[پولينڊ جو وزيراعظم]] به ميئر کي برطرف ڪري سگهي ٿو. ميئر ميونسپل ملڪيت جو انتظام، انتظامي حڪمن ۽ ضابطن جو اجرا، بجيٽ جي تياري ۽ ان تي عملدرآمد، ۽ ميونسپل آفيسن جي نگراني ڪندو آهي. هو [[ڪنڊرگارٽن]]، [[ابتدائي اسڪول]]ن، [[هنگامي انتظام]]، [[شهري دفاع]]، [[عوامي ٽرانسپورٽ]]، [[پاڻي جي فراهمي]]، [[پاڻي جي صفائي]] ۽ [[فضلي جي انتظام]] سميت ڪيترين ئي ميونسپل خدمتن جو ذميوار هوندو آهي. ميئر شهر يا قصبي جي عملي جي مقرري ۽ انتظام جا وسيع اختيار رکي ٿو، سواءِ [[شهري خزانچي]] جي، جنهن کي ميونسپل ڪائونسل مقرر ڪندي آهي. [[پوويات حقن وارو شهر|پوويات حقن وارن شهرن]] ۾ ميئر کي پوويات جي انتظامي اداري ۽ [[اسٽاروسٽا]] جا اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندا آهن. [[وارسا]] جي انتظامي ضلعن ۾ ''ضلعي ميئر'' (''بُرمِشٽش جِيلنيتسي'') جو عهدو پڻ موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ اهي ضلعا وارسا شهر جو حصو آهن، پر کين قانوني طور ڪجهه مقامي خودمختياري حاصل آهي. هر ضلعي جي پنهنجي ڪائونسل ۽ انتظامي بورڊ هوندو آهي، جنهن جي سربراهي ضلعي ميئر ڪندو آهي. ضلعي ميئر کي شهر جي ميئر طرفان نامزد ڪيل اميدوارن مان ضلعي ڪائونسل چونڊيندي آهي. ===پرتگال=== [[پرتگال]] ۽ ٻين ڪيترن پرتگالي ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ ملڪن ۾ ميونسپلٽي جي ميئر کي ''ميونسپل چيمبر جو صدر'' (''پريزيڊنٽي ڊا ڪئمرا ميونسيپل'') چيو ويندو آهي. ===رومانيا=== [[رومانيا]] ۾ ڪميون، قصبي يا شهر جي ميئر کي ''پرائيمار'' (''Primar'') چيو ويندو آهي. ميئر جو مدو چار سال هوندو آهي ۽ کيس هڪ چونڊيل مقامي ڪائونسل (''ڪائونسليو لوڪل'') جي مدد حاصل هوندي آهي. [[بخاريسٽ]] ۾ هڪ ''جنرل ميئر'' ۽ ڇهن انتظامي ضلعن مان هر هڪ لاءِ الڳ ''ضلعي ميئر'' هوندو آهي. ميئر ۽ مقامي ڪائونسل جون ذميواريون رومانيا جي پارليامينٽ جي قانون نمبر 215/2001ع تحت مقرر ٿيل آهن.<ref>{{Cite web |last=APD-Timișoara |title=Legea nr. 215/2001 |url=http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/legea/215-2001.php}}</ref> ===روس=== [[روس]] ۾ ''مير'' (''Мэр'') شهر يا ميونسپلٽي جي انتظامي سربراهه لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ لقبن مان هڪ آهي. [[ماسڪو]]، [[سينٽ پيٽرسبرگ]] ۽ [[سيواسٽوپول]] جا ميئر روس جي ٻين وفاقي رياستن جي گورنرن جي برابر حيثيت رکن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٽيئي شهر وفاقي رياستون آهن. انهن ٽن شهرن کان سواءِ ٻين ميونسپلٽين ۾ مقامي حڪومت نمائندي ڪائونسل جي ماتحت هوندي آهي. ميئر يا ته سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيو ويندو آهي يا وري ميونسپل ڪائونسل جا ميمبر کيس چونڊيندا آهن. ميئر جو عام مدو چار سال هوندو آهي ۽ هو ميونسپل خدمتن، سرڪاري ملڪيت، باهه وسائڻ، پوليس ۽ ٻين سرڪاري ادارن جي نگراني ڪندو آهي، گڏوگڏ مقامي ۽ رياستي قانونن تي عمل ڪرائيندو آهي. ===سربيا=== [[سربيا]] ۾ ميئر شهر يا قصبي جو انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي ۽ شهر جي نمائندگي ڪندي انتظامي اختيار استعمال ڪندو آهي. [[بلغراد]] جو ميئر ملڪ جي اهم ترين عهدن مان هڪ سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ بلغراد سربيا جو سياسي، اقتصادي، ثقافتي ۽ علمي مرڪز آهي. 2007ع جي ''مقامي انتظامي قانون'' موجب شهرن ۾ ميئر-ڪائونسل نظام لاڳو ڪيو ويو. شهرن جا ميئر (''گراڊوناچيلنڪ'') ۽ ميونسپلٽين جا سربراهه (''پريڊسيڊنڪ اوپشٽيني'') اڻ سڌيءَ طرح شهر يا ميونسپل ڪائونسل طرفان چئن سالن لاءِ چونڊيا ويندا آهن، ۽ انهن لاءِ مدتن جي ڪا حد مقرر نه آهي. ===اسپين ۽ هسپانوي آمريڪا=== {{Main|الڪالدي}} ''الڪالدي'' (''Alcalde'') اسپيني ٻوليءَ ۾ شهر يا قصبي جي ميئر لاءِ سڀ کان عام اصطلاح آهي. هي لفظ عربي ''القاضي'' (''al-qāḍī'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''قاضي'' يا ''جج'' آهي. اسلامي اندلس ۾ قاضي عدالتي ۽ انتظامي ٻئي ذميواريون نڀائيندو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر عيسائي اسپين جي شروعاتي انتظامي نظام تي به پيو. اڄڪلهه اسپين ۽ گهڻن هسپانوي ڳالهائيندڙ ملڪن ۾ ''الڪالدي'' مقامي حڪومت جي انتظامي سربراهه لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جنهن وٽ عام طور عدالتي اختيار نه هوندا آهن. [[ارجنٽائن]] ۽ [[پيراگوئي]] ۾ ساڳئي منصب لاءِ ''انٽيندينتي'' (''Intendente'') جو اصطلاح استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[ميڪسيڪو]] ۾ شهر يا ميونسپلٽي جي انتظامي سربراهه کي ''الڪالدي'' يا وڌيڪ عام طور ''ميونسپل صدر'' (''Presidente Municipal'') چيو ويندو آهي. ===سوئيڊن=== [[سوئيڊن]] ۾ ''بورگميستاري'' (''Borgmästare'') جو لقب 1971ع جي عدالتي سڌارن دوران ختم ڪيو ويو، جڏهن سوئيڊن جا شهر به سرڪاري طور ختم ڪيا ويا. ===سوئٽزرلينڊ=== [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ميئر جا اختيار ۽ لقب هر [[سوئٽزرلينڊ جا ڪينٽن|ڪينٽن]] ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور ميئر ڪيترن ئي ميمبرن تي ٻڌل انتظامي ڪائونسل جي صدارت ڪندو آهي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي هلائيندي آهي. استعمال ٿيندڙ لقب هي آهن: * اطالوي: ''سنڊاڪو'' ([[ٽچينو]])، ''ہوڊيسٽا'' ([[گريزونس]]) * فرينچ: ''Maire'' ([[جنيوا]]، [[جورا]]، [[برن]])، ''Syndic'' ([[واڊ]]، [[فريبورگ]])، ''پريزيڊنٽ ڊيو ڪنسيئل ميونسپل'' ([[واليه]])، ''پريزيڊنٽ ڊيو ڪنسيئل ڪميونل'' ([[نيوشاٽيل]]) * جرمن: ''اسٽيڊپرہزيڊنٽ''، ''اسٽيڊٽامان''، ''جيمي'' يا ''گيمائنڊي آمان'' ===تائيوان=== [[تائيوان]] (رسمي نالو: [[چين جي جمهوريه]]) ۾ ميئر شهر جي حڪومت جو سربراهه هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته شهر جي ڪائونسل قانونسازيءَ جي ذميوار هوندي آهي. ميئر ۽ شهر ڪائونسل جا ميمبر الڳ الڳ عوامي ووٽ ذريعي چونڊيا ويندا آهن. ===ترڪي=== [[ترڪي]] ۾ ميئر (''بيلديئي باشڪاني'') ميونسپل ڪائونسل سان گڏ هر پنجن سالن لاءِ سڌي عوامي ووٽ سان چونڊيو ويندو آهي. هر صوبي ۽ ضلعي جي مرڪز ۾ ميونسپلٽي هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته 2,000 کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارن ڪيترن ئي قصبن (''Belde'') ۾ پڻ ميونسپلٽيون قائم آهن. 1983ع کان وڏن شهرن لاءِ ''ميٽروپوليٽن ميونسپلٽي'' جو نظام رائج ڪيو ويو، جتي هڪ ئي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقي ۾ ڪيترائي ضلعي ميئر پڻ هوندا آهن. ===يوڪرين=== [[يوڪرين]] ۾ ''شهر جو سربراهه'' (''مسڪي ھولووا'') جو عهدو 1999ع ۾ متعارف ٿيو. ان کان پوءِ ميئر کي شهر جا رهواسي سڌي ووٽ سان چونڊين ٿا. ان کان اڳ شهر جي ڪائونسل جا ميمبر کيس چونڊيندا هئا. خاص حيثيت رکندڙ شهرن، جهڙوڪ [[ڪيف]] ۽ [[سيواسٽوپول]]، بابت قانون الڳ آهن. 2015ع کان هيٺين انتظامي سطح تي ''اسٽاروسٽا'' (''Starosta'') جو عهدو پڻ قائم ڪيو ويو، جنهن جا اميدوار مقامي برادري (''ھروماڊا.'') جي ميمبرن طرفان چونڊيا ويندا آهن. ===آمريڪا گڏيل رياستون=== {{مکيه|آمريڪا ۾ ميئر جو عهدو}} [[آمريڪا گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ميئر شهر يا ٻي ميونسپلٽي جو اعليٰ ترين سول انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي. مقامي حڪومت جي نظام موجب ميئر جا اختيار مختلف هوندا آهن. ٻه بنيادي نظام رائج آهن: [[ڪائونسل-مينيجر حڪومت]] ۽ [[ميئر-ڪائونسل حڪومت]]. ڪائونسل-مينيجر نظام ۾ ميئر شهر ڪائونسل جو ''برابرن ۾ پهريون'' هوندو آهي. ڪائونسل قانونساز اداري طور ڪم ڪندي آهي، جڏهن ته روزمره جو انتظام مقرر ڪيل سٽي مينيجر سنڀاليندو آهي. هن نظام ۾ ميئر جا اختيار گهڻو ڪري رسمي هوندا آهن. ميئر-ڪائونسل نظام ۾ ميئر ۽ شهر ڪائونسل الڳ ادارا هوندا آهن. ''مضبوط ميئر'' واري نظام ۾ ميئر مڪمل انتظامي سربراهه هوندو آهي ۽ مختلف کاتن جي نگراني لاءِ اعليٰ عملدار مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته ڪائونسل قانونسازي ڪندي آهي. ''ڪمزور يا رسمي ميئر'' واري نظام ۾ ميئر جا اختيار محدود هوندا آهن ۽ هو ڪائونسل سان گڏيل طور انتظامي ڪم سرانجام ڏيندو آهي. وڏن شهرن ۾ مضبوط ميئر وارو نظام وڌيڪ عام آهي. آمريڪا ۾ ڪيترن ئي ميئرن کي عهدي دوران ''هز آنر'' يا ''هر آنر' جي خطاب سان سڏيو ويندو آهي. ===يوراگوئي=== [[يوراگوئي]] ۾ پهرين درجي جي انتظامي ورهاست 19 [[يوراگوئي جا کاتا|کاتن]] تي ٻڌل آهي، جن جي سربراهي 1908ع کان ''انٽيندينتي ميونسپل'' ڪندو هو، جيڪو کاتي ۽ ميونسپل حڪومت ٻنهي جون ذميواريون نڀائيندو هو. 13 سيپٽمبر 2009ع تي قانون نمبر 18567 تحت ٻئي درجي جي انتظامي ورهاست، يعني ''ميونسپيو''، قائم ڪئي وئي، جنهن جي سربراهي ''الڪالدي'' ڪندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ley N° 18567 |url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes-originales/18567-2009}}</ref> بعد ۾ قانون نمبر 19272 (2014ع) موجب 2,000 کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارن آبادين ۾، مخصوص شرطن هيٺ، ميونسپلٽي قائم ڪرڻ جو قانوني طريقو مقرر ڪيو ويو.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ley N° 19272 |url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/19272-2014}}</ref> ان سان گڏ پهرين درجي جي انتظامي سربراهه جو لقب ''انٽيندينتي ڊپارٽامينٽل'' رکيو ويو. موجوده ميونسپل نظام بابت يوراگوئي ۾ بحث جاري آهي، جتي ڪجهه ناقدن موجب هن نظام سبب خرچ وڌيو، خدمتن جي معيار ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، شهري شرڪت جا اختيار غير واضح رهيا ۽ بيوروڪريسي وڌيڪ پيچيده ٿي وئي آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freigedo |first1=Martín |last2=Milanesi |first2=Alejandro |last3=Rodríguez |first3=José Raúl |title=Decentralizing Under Uncertainty: Informal Relations and Results-Based Management in the Municipalization Process in Uruguay |journal=Public Organiz Rev |volume=23 |year=2023 |pages=927–944}}</ref> ==گهڻ سطحي مقامي حڪومت== ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾، جتي مقامي [[خودمختياري]] موجود نه هوندي آهي، اتي ميئرن کي قومي يا علائقائي حڪومت جي ڪنهن اداري طرفان مقرر ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه شهرن ۾ انتظامي ذيلي ورهاستون، جهڙوڪ [[برو]]، پنهنجا الڳ ميئر پڻ رکنديون آهن. اهڙو نظام [[پيرس]] جي [[ارونڊسمان]]ن، [[مونٽريل]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو سٽي]] ۾ موجود آهي. [[بيلجيم]] ۾ [[برسلز]] وفاق جي ٽن علائقن مان هڪ آهي ۽ ٻين علائقن جي ابتڙ ان ۾ صوبائي سطح موجود نه آهي، پر اهو 19 ننڍين ميونسپلٽين ۾ ورهايل آهي. انهن مان هڪ [[برسلز جو شهر]]، جيڪو ملڪ جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ آهي، پنهنجي چونڊيل (رسمي طور مقرر ٿيل) ''[[برگوماسٽر]]'' (ميئر) جي سربراهي هيٺ هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي چونڊيل ميونسپل ڪائونسل آڏو جوابده هوندو آهي. ساڳئي وقت [[انٽورپ]]، جيڪو ٻيو وڏو ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو آهي، هڪ وڏي شهر تي مشتمل آهي، جنهن ۾ شامل اڳوڻيون ميونسپلٽيون هاڻي برو بڻيل آهن ۽ محدود اختيارن سان پنهنجا مقامي نمائندا چونڊين ٿيون، جڏهن ته ڀرپاسي جون ننڍيون ميونسپلٽيون برسلز وانگر پنهنجي پنهنجي برگوماسٽر جي سربراهي هيٺ هونديون آهن. [[چين جي عوامي جمهوريه]] ۾ ميئر ({{Lang|zh|市长}}) ڪنهن به ميونسپلٽي، صوبي جي سطح واري شهر، پريفيڪچر سطح واري شهر يا ڪائونٽي سطح واري شهر جو انتظامي سربراهه ٿي سگهي ٿو. ميئر عام طور شهر جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ سڃاتل سرڪاري عملدار هوندو آهي، پر مقامي [[چين جي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي]] جي سيڪريٽري کان پوءِ سندس عهدو ٻئي نمبر تي هوندو آهي. اصولي طور ميئر، جيڪو شهر جي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو ڊپٽي سيڪريٽري پڻ هوندو آهي، شهر جي انتظامي معاملن جو ذميوار هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جو سيڪريٽري عام پاليسين ۽ پارٽي جي بيوروڪريسي جي نگراني ڪندو آهي. عملي طور ٻنهي جي اختيارن ۾ گهڻو تداخل هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب ڪڏهن ڪڏهن تڪرار به پيدا ٿيندا آهن. ==قائم مقام ميئر== '''قائم مقام ميئر''' (''Acting mayor'') ڪجهه [[ميونسپلٽي|ميونسپل]] حڪومتن جي بنيادي قانون يا چارٽر تحت قائم ڪيل هڪ عارضي عهدو هوندو آهي. گهڻن شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ جيڪڏهن موجوده ميئر وفات ڪري وڃي، بيمار ٿي پوي، استعيفا ڏئي، يا عهدي تان هٽايو وڃي، ته چارٽر يا ان جهڙي بنيادي قانون موجب ٻيو ڪو سرڪاري عملدار عارضي طور ميونسپلٽي جي سربراهي سنڀاليندو آهي. مختلف ملڪن ۽ علائقن ۾ اهو مدو مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو؛ ڪٿي اهو ڪجهه ڏينهن يا مهينن لاءِ هوندو آهي، ته ڪٿي [[خصوصي چونڊ]] ٿيڻ تائين يا اڳوڻي ميئر جي مدو پورو ٿيڻ تائين جاري رهندو آهي. ڪجهه شهرن ۾ جيڪڏهن موجوده ميئر عارضي طور پنهنجي ذميوارين کان محروم هجي، جهڙوڪ بيماري يا شهر کان ٻاهر هجڻ سبب، پر اڃا تائين عهدي تي برقرار هجي، ته [[ڊپٽي ميئر]] کي عارضي طور ''قائم مقام ميئر'' مقرر ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي حالت ۾ قائم مقام ميئر جو بنيادي ڪم شهر جي حڪومت جا روزمره انتظام جاري رکڻ هوندو آهي، ۽ هن کي قانوني طور مستقل ميئر نه سمجهيو ويندو آهي. بهرحال، ڪجهه ملڪن يا علائقن ۾ جيڪڏهن ميئر استعيفا ڏئي يا عهدي دوران وفات ڪري وڃي، ته سندس جانشين کي قائم مقام نه، پر مڪمل اختيارن وارو نئون ميئر تصور ڪيو ويندو آهي. [[ميئر-ڪائونسل حڪومت]] واري نظام ۾ قائم مقام ميئر جو عهدو خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي نظام ۾ ميئر شهر جي روزاني انتظامي قيادت ڪندو آهي. ان جي ابتڙ [[ڪائونسل-مينيجر حڪومت]] يا [[ڪميٽي نظام]] ۾، جتي روزاني انتظام [[شهر جو منتظم]] يا مقامي ڪائونسل جون ڪميٽيون هلائينديون آهن ۽ ميئر جو عهدو گهڻو ڪري رسمي هوندو آهي، اتي قائم مقام ميئر جي عملي اهميت نسبتاً گهٽ هوندي آهي. == پڻ ڏسو == * [[ملڪن موجب ميئرن جون فهرستون]] * [[ڊپٽي ميئر]] * [[گورنر]] === لاڳاپيل تصور === * [[قانون ۾ قائم مقام]] * [[برگوماسٽر]] * [[سرپنچ]] * [[ورلڊ ميئر]] === مقامي حڪومت === * [[حڪومت جو مرڪز]] * [[ڪائونسل-مينيجر حڪومت]] * [[ميئر-ڪائونسل حڪومت]] === تاريخي عهدا === * ''[[شولٿائيس]]'' * ''[[پريفيڪٽس اُربي]]'' == حوالا == {{Reflist}} * {{cite book |last1=Fairlie |first1=John Archibald |author-link=John Archibald Fairlie |title=Municipal Administration |date=1910 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924014071116}} * {{cite book |last1=Lowell |first1=A. Lawrence |author-link=A. Lawrence Lowell |title=The government of England |date=1908 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000349002}} * {{cite book |last1=Redlich |first1=Josef |last2=Hirst |first2=Francis Wrigley |author1-link=:de:Josef Redlich |author2-link=Francis Wrigley Hirst |title=Local government in England |date=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London }} [https://archive.org/details/localgovernmenti01redluoft/page/n7 جلد پهريون]؛ [https://archive.org/details/localgovernmenti02redluoft/page/n7 جلد ٻيون] * {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Albert |author-link=Albert Shaw (journalist) |title=Municipal Government in Continental Europe |date=1895 |publisher=Century |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205105 |language=en}} * {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Sidney |last2=Webb |first2=Beatrice |author1-link=Sidney Webb |author2-link=Beatrice Webb |title=English Local Government from the Revolution to the Municipal Corporations Act: The Manor and the Borough |date=1908 |publisher=Longmans, Green |location=London |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/510257.html }} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{wiktionary}} {{commons category|Mayors}} * [http://www.citymayors.com/government/europe_mayors.html يورپي ميئرن جو تقابلي ڊيٽابيس] {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:ميئر]] [[زمرو:سرڪاري عهدا]] [[زمرو:آمريڪا ۾ مقامي حڪومت]] [[زمرو:انتظامي پيشا]] [[زمرو:اختيار وارا عهدا]] [[زمرو:لقب]] [[زمرو:مقامي حڪومت جا سربراهه]] ow5uh145gc5l83ineecpm1dtujjg3n0 داخلي شاعري 0 36900 394577 369241 2026-07-15T12:17:28Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|شاعري جنهن ۾ شاعر جا ذاتي احساس، جذبا ۽ تجربا مرڪزي حيثيت رکن ٿا}} '''داخلي شاعري''' ({{lang-en|Subjective poetry}}) شاعريءَ جي اها قسم آهي، جنهن ۾ شاعر پنهنجي ذاتي احساسن، جذبن، تجربن، خيالن ۽ اندروني ڪيفيتن کي اظهار جو مرڪز بڻائي ٿو. اهڙي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر جي شخصيت، نفسياتي ڪيفيت ۽ داخلي دنيا نمايان هوندي آهي، ۽ موضوعن کي ذاتي نظرئي ۽ احساس جي روشنيءَ ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. هر اديب يا [[شاعر]] وٽ ٻن قسمن جي دنيا هوندي آهي. هڪ دنيا سندس ذاتي هوندي آهي. يعني “داخلي” هوندي آهي. ٻي دنيا سندس ذات کان ٻاهر هوندي آهي. ان کي “خارجي” دنيا چئبو آهي. جڏهن هو ذاتي زندگيءَ بابت شاعري ڪندو آهي يا لکندو آهي ۽ ان ۾ ذاتي تجربا، مشاهدا ۽ احساس شامل ڪندو آهي ته اها داخلي شاعري (Subjective Poetry) سڏي ويندي آهي<ref>.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي</ref>.<ref>[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%8A.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد</ref> داخلي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر پنهنجي محبت، وڇوڙي، خوشي، غم، اميد، نااميدي، روحاني وارداتن يا ٻين ذاتي تجربن کي شاعراڻي انداز ۾ بيان ڪري ٿو. ان ڪري اهڙي شاعري پڙهندڙ کي شاعر جي اندروني دنيا سان سڌي ريت آشنا ڪري ٿي. داخلي شاعري، [[خارجي شاعري]] جي ابتڙ آهي. خارجي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر پنهنجي ذات بدران ٻاهرين دنيا، سماجي حالتن، تاريخي واقعن، فطرت يا ٻين موضوعن کي وڌيڪ معروضي انداز ۾ بيان ڪري ٿو. == خاصيتون == * شاعر جي ذاتي احساسن ۽ جذبن جو اظهار * داخلي تجربن ۽ نفسياتي ڪيفيتن جي عڪاسي * شخصي مشاهدي ۽ انفرادي تاثر تي زور * جذبن، تخيل ۽ وجداني ڪيفيتن جي اهميت * پهرين شخص (''مان'') جي استعمال جو امڪان وڌيڪ == موضوع == داخلي شاعريءَ جا عام موضوع هي آهن: * محبت * وڇوڙو * خوشي ۽ غم * اڪيلائي * اميد ۽ نااميدي * روحاني تجربا * زندگيءَ بابت ذاتي سوچون == ادبي اهميت == رومانويت (Romanticism) جي تحريڪ دوران داخلي شاعريءَ کي خاص اهميت حاصل ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور جا شاعر فرد جي احساسن، تخيل ۽ داخلي آزاديءَ کي بنيادي حيثيت ڏيندا هئا. جديد شاعريءَ ۾ پڻ داخلي شاعري اهم مقام رکي ٿي ۽ ڪيترن شاعرن پنهنجي ذاتي تجربن کي عالمي انساني احساسن سان ڳنڍي پيش ڪيو آهي. == پڻ ڏسو == * [[خارجي شاعري]] * [[غنائي شاعري]] * [[رومانويت]] * [[شاعري]] == حوالا == {{Reflist}} [[زمرو:شاعري]] [[زمرو:ادبي اصطلاح]] [[زمرو:ادبي تنقيد]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:شاعري]] [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] b7nlnqpdpyqs81ned1ev1ehbdu4fbi4 394579 394577 2026-07-15T12:18:37Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394579 wikitext text/x-wiki '''داخلي شاعري''' ({{lang-en|Subjective poetry}}) شاعريءَ جي اها قسم آهي، جنهن ۾ شاعر پنهنجي ذاتي احساسن، جذبن، تجربن، خيالن ۽ اندروني ڪيفيتن کي اظهار جو مرڪز بڻائي ٿو. اهڙي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر جي شخصيت، نفسياتي ڪيفيت ۽ داخلي دنيا نمايان هوندي آهي، ۽ موضوعن کي ذاتي نظرئي ۽ احساس جي روشنيءَ ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. هر اديب يا [[شاعر]] وٽ ٻن قسمن جي دنيا هوندي آهي. هڪ دنيا سندس ذاتي هوندي آهي. يعني “داخلي” هوندي آهي. ٻي دنيا سندس ذات کان ٻاهر هوندي آهي. ان کي “خارجي” دنيا چئبو آهي. جڏهن هو ذاتي زندگيءَ بابت شاعري ڪندو آهي يا لکندو آهي ۽ ان ۾ ذاتي تجربا، مشاهدا ۽ احساس شامل ڪندو آهي ته اها داخلي شاعري (سبجيڪٽو پوئٽري) سڏي ويندي آهي<ref>.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي</ref>.<ref>[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%8A.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد</ref> داخلي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر پنهنجي محبت، وڇوڙي، خوشي، غم، اميد، نااميدي، روحاني وارداتن يا ٻين ذاتي تجربن کي شاعراڻي انداز ۾ بيان ڪري ٿو. ان ڪري اهڙي شاعري پڙهندڙ کي شاعر جي اندروني دنيا سان سڌي ريت آشنا ڪري ٿي. داخلي شاعري، [[خارجي شاعري]] جي ابتڙ آهي. خارجي شاعريءَ ۾ شاعر پنهنجي ذات بدران ٻاهرين دنيا، سماجي حالتن، تاريخي واقعن، فطرت يا ٻين موضوعن کي وڌيڪ معروضي انداز ۾ بيان ڪري ٿو. == خاصيتون == * شاعر جي ذاتي احساسن ۽ جذبن جو اظهار * داخلي تجربن ۽ نفسياتي ڪيفيتن جي عڪاسي * شخصي مشاهدي ۽ انفرادي تاثر تي زور * جذبن، تخيل ۽ وجداني ڪيفيتن جي اهميت * پهرين شخص (''مان'') جي استعمال جو امڪان وڌيڪ == موضوع == داخلي شاعريءَ جا عام موضوع هي آهن: * محبت * وڇوڙو * خوشي ۽ غم * اڪيلائي * اميد ۽ نااميدي * روحاني تجربا * زندگيءَ بابت ذاتي سوچون == ادبي اهميت == رومانويت (Romanticism) جي تحريڪ دوران داخلي شاعريءَ کي خاص اهميت حاصل ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور جا شاعر فرد جي احساسن، تخيل ۽ داخلي آزاديءَ کي بنيادي حيثيت ڏيندا هئا. جديد شاعريءَ ۾ پڻ داخلي شاعري اهم مقام رکي ٿي ۽ ڪيترن شاعرن پنهنجي ذاتي تجربن کي عالمي انساني احساسن سان ڳنڍي پيش ڪيو آهي. == پڻ ڏسو == * [[خارجي شاعري]] * [[غنائي شاعري]] * [[رومانويت]] * [[شاعري]] == حوالا == {{Reflist}} [[زمرو:شاعري]] [[زمرو:ادبي اصطلاح]] [[زمرو:ادبي تنقيد]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:شاعري]] [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] 5cyaw2x7c99yj4pzpfvrz6c39sbxtfp تخيل 0 37588 394740 394519 2026-07-16T03:51:11Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|ذهني تخليقي صلاحيت}} [[File:Joseph Noel Paton (1821-1901) - Dante Meditating the Episode of Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta - 0089-1901 - Bury Art Museum.jpg|thumb|[[جوزف نول پيٽن]]، ''فرانسيسڪا دا ريميني ۽ پائولو مالاتيستا جي واقعي تي ڊانٽي جو غور وفڪر'']] '''تخيل''' (Imagination) حواسن کان ڪنهن به فوري داخلا کان سواءِ [[ذهن]] ۾ [[حس|حسي احساسن]] يا مادي شين جي نمائندگي يا تصوير ٺاهڻ جي ذهني صلاحيت آهي.<ref>{{Cite The Britannica Dictionary|imagination}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|imagination}}</ref> ان کي اڪثر ذهن ۾ تصويرون ٺاهڻ سان بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،<ref>{{Cite Cambridge Dictionaries|imagination}}</ref> تنهن هوندي به اهو صرف بصري تصويرن تائين محدود ناهي، بلڪه ان ۾ ٻين حواسن سان لاڳاپيل تجربا، خيال ۽ احساس پڻ شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |chapter=Mental Imagery |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/search/r?entry=/entries/mental-imagery/&page=1&total_hits=573&pagesize=10&archive=None&rank=4&query=Imagination}}</ref> تخيل ماضيءَ جي تجربن جي ٻيهر ذهني تشڪيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن تبديليءَ سان يا بغير تبديليءَ جي زنده يادون، يا وري مڪمل طور تي نوان ۽ ممڪن طور خيالي منظر به ٿي سگهن ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Szczelkun |first=Stefan |title=Sense Think Act: a collection of exercises to experience total human ability |date=2018-03-03 |publisher=Stefan Szczelkun |isbn=978-1-870736-10-7}}</ref> تخيل علم کي مسئلن جي حل لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو ۽ تجربن کي سکيا جي عمل سان ڳنڍڻ ۾ بنيادي ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref name="Norman2000">{{cite journal |last=Norman |first=Ron |year=2000 |title=Cultivating Imagination in Adult Education |journal=Proceedings of the 41st Annual Adult Education Research |pages=1–2}}</ref><ref name="Sutton-Smith88">{{cite book |last=Sutton-Smith |first=Brian |title=Imagination and Education |publisher=Teachers College Press |year=1988 |editor-last1=Egan |editor-first1=K. |location=New York |page=22 |chapter=In Search of the Imagination |editor-last2=Nadaner |editor-first2=D.}}</ref><ref name="Egan92">{{cite book |last=Egan |first=Kieran |title=Imagination in Teaching and Learning |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |location=Chicago |page=50}}</ref> تخيل اهو ذهني عمل آهي، جنهن ذريعي ذهن جي تخليقي ڪارڪردگي جي بنياد تي نوان نظريا ۽ خيال پيدا ٿيندا آهن. اهو حقيقي ادراڪن مان فائدو وٺندي [[معنوي يادگيري]] ۽ [[واقعاتي يادگيري]] کي گڏ استعمال ڪري نوان يا وڌيڪ سڌريل خيال تخليق ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Devitt |first1=Aleea L. |last2=Addis |first2=Donna Rose |last3=Schacter |first3=Daniel L. |date=2017-10-01 |title=Episodic and semantic content of memory and imagination: A multilevel analysis |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=1078–1094 |doi=10.3758/s13421-017-0716-1 |pmc=5702280 |pmid=28547677}}</ref> اهڙي ذهني صلاحيت انسان کي پراڻن يا نون ڪمن کي وڌيڪ مؤثر ۽ آسان طريقي سان انجام ڏيڻ ۾ مدد ڪري ٿي. تخيل کي وڌائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر طريقو [[آکاڻي ٻڌائڻ]] ۽ [[بيانيو|بيانيي]] جي مشق آهي.<ref name="Norman2000" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Frye |first=Northrop |title=The Educated Imagination |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |year=1963 |location=Toronto |page=49}}</ref> آکاڻين، [[پري ڪهاڻي]]ن، [[خيالي ادب]] ۽ [[سائنسي افساني]] ذريعي تخيل جو اظهار ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} ٻار پنهنجي تخيل جي واڌ ويجهه دوران گهڻو ڪري [[خيالي راند]] (Pretend play) ۾ حصو وٺندا آهن. اهي [[ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ]] ذريعي پنهنجي تصور ڪيل حالتن کي پيش ڪندا آهن ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت اهڙو رويو اختيار ڪندا آهن ڄڻ انهن جا ٺاهيل خيالي منظر حقيقت هجن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Laurence |title=Child's play: myth, mimesis and make-believe |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-85973-918-1 |location=Oxford New York}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> [[فائل:Imagination-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg|thumb|120px| واشنگٽن جو ڪانگريس جي لائبريري۾ تخيل جو مجسمو]] ==اشتقاق== '''”تخيل“''' [[عربي]] لفظ آهي، جنهن جي لفظي معنا آهي،”تصور، خيال، سوچ، ويچارڻ.“ اصطلاحي معنا اَٿس، اها قوت، جا خيالي صورت ٺاهي ذهن جي اڳيان آڻي بيهاري. اصل ۾ ”تخيل“ ايجاد جي قوت جو ئي نالو آهي..<ref>.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي</ref> انگريزي لفظ '''اميجينيشن''' لاطيني لفظ ''اميجنيٽئو'' مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو قديم يوناني اصطلاح ''φᾰντᾰσῐ́ᾱ'' (''فنٽاسيا'') جو معياري لاطيني ترجمو آهي. لاطيني ۾ ''اميجينيٽو'' جي معنيٰ ''[[ذهني تصوير]]'' يا ''خيالي تصور'' پڻ آهي. انگريزي ٻوليءَ ۾ ''اميجينيشن'' لفظ جو استعمال چوڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري شروع ٿيو، جتي ان مان مراد ذهن جي اها صلاحيت ورتي ويندي هئي، جيڪا ذهني تصويرون ٺاهڻ ۽ انهن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ جي قابل هجي.<ref>{{Cite web |title=imagination {{!}} Etymology of imagination by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/imagination |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref> ==وصف== جديد فلسفي سمجهاڻيءَ موجب، '''تخيل''' کي عام طور ذهن جي اهڙي صلاحيت سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا [[ذهني تصوير]]ون تخليق ڪري ٿي ۽ انهن تصويرن جي وچ ۾ غير منطقي، پر باهمي لاڳاپن تي ٻڌل ذهني منتقليون قائم ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cottrell |first=Jonathan |title=Imagination, in modern philosophy |date=2016 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/imagination-in-modern-philosophy/v-1 |access-date=2024-07-31 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-da083-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6|url-access=subscription }}</ref> تخيل بابت هڪ نظرئي موجب، اهو [[ادراڪ]] (cognition) سان ويجهڙائي رکي ٿو، ۽ ذهني عملن ۾ هڪ [[ادراڪي عمل]] طور ڪم ڪري ٿو.<ref name=":28">{{multiref2|{{cite book |last1=Dierckxsens |first1=Geoffrey |editor-last1=Davidson |editor-first1=Scott |date=2019-10-10 |chapter='Making Sense of (Moral) Things': ''Fallible Man'' in Relation to Enactivism |title=A Companion to Ricoeur's Fallible Man |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfqwDwAAQBAJ |series=Studies in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=104 |isbn=978-1-4985-8712-9 }}|{{cite book |last1=Perlovsky |first1=Leonid |last2=Deming |first2=Ross |last3=Ilin |first3=Roman |date=2011-08-28 |title=Emotional Cognitive Neural Algorithms with Engineering Applications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_74PBwAAQBAJ |publisher=Springer |page=86 |isbn=978-3-642-22830-8 }}}}</ref> تخيل جو تعلق [[عقلي سوچ]] سان پڻ ڳنڍيو وڃي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تخيلي ۽ منطقي سوچ، ٻنهي جو بنياد ممڪن حالتن بابت سوچڻ واري ساڳئي ادراڪي عمل تي هوندو آهي.<ref name=":30">{{cite book |last1=Byrne |first1=Ruth M. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHDCzU6UzgEC |title=The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality |publisher=MIT Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-262-26184-5 |page=38}}</ref> بهرحال، تخيل کي رڳو ذهني يا ادراڪي سرگرمي نٿو سمجهيو وڃي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو جسم، ماحول، مادي شين ۽ ماڻهن سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۾ پڻ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو.<ref name=":31">{{Cite book |last=Vergunst |first=Jo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awRR9dWdF9MC |title=Imagining Landscapes: Past, Present and Future |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4094-6144-9}}</ref> نفسيات ۾، تخيل کي گهڻو ڪري [[ذهني تصوير]] (''مينٽل اميجري'') سان لاڳاپيل سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جنهن مان مراد ذهن ۾ انهن شين يا واقعن جون تصويرون ٻيهر زنده ڪرڻ آهي، جيڪي اڳ حواسن وسيلي محسوس ڪيون ويون هجن. ڪجهه نفسيات دان هن عمل کي ''تصويرڪشي'' (''اميجري'' يا ''اميجنگ'') سڏڻ کي ترجيح ڏين ٿا ۽ ان کي '''ورجائتي تخيل''' (''ريپراڊڪٽو اميجينيشن'') ۽ '''تخليقي تخيل''' (''ڪنسٽرڪٽو اميجينيشن'') ۾ ورهائين ٿا. تخليقي تخيل وري '''ارادي تخيل''' (''والنٽري اميجينيشن'')، جهڙوڪ [[ذهني گردش]]، ۽ '''غير ارادي تخيل''' (''انوالنٽري اميجينيشن'')، جهڙوڪ [[خواب]]، [[ڏينهن جا خواب]]، [[وهم]] ۽ اوچتي [[بصيرت]] ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي.<ref name=":32">{{cite journal |last1=Vyshedskiy |first1=Andrey |year=2020 |title=Voluntary and Involuntary Imagination: Neurological Mechanisms, Developmental Path, Clinical Implications, and Evolutionary Trajectory |journal=Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.26613/esic.4.2.186}}</ref> اڄڪلهه ڪلينڪي نفسيات ۾ [[بصري تصور]] (''وژيوئل اميجري'') کي [[پريشاني جون بيماريون|پريشاني]]، [[ڊپريشن]]، [[شيزوفرينيا]] ۽ [[پارڪنسن جي بيماري]] جهڙين نفسياتي ۽ عصبي بيمارين جي علاج ۾ پڻ وڌندڙ حد تائين استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name=":29">{{cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3o7fDwAAQBAJ |title=The Cambridge Handbook of the Imagination |date=2020-06-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42924-5 |editor-last1=Abraham |editor-first1=Anna |page=175 |chapter=The Visual Imagination}}</ref> ==شاعري== ”تخيل“ شعر جو هڪ عنصر آهي. تخيل جي قوت سان هڪ شاعر جي آڏو ڪائنات جون شيون عجيب ۽ غريب نموني ۾ اچن ٿيون، جن کي ڏسي هو اهي حقيقتون بيان ڪري ٿو، جيڪي هڪ فلاسافر يا سائنسدان به ڪڏهن ڪڏهن پيش نه ڪري سگهندو آهي. مطلب ته ’تخيل‘ صرف خيالي تصورن جو نالو آهي.<ref>[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%84.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد</ref> ==تصوري تاريخ== ===قديم دور=== قديم يوناني فيلسوفن تخيل، جنهن کي هو ''فانتاسيا'' (''phantasia'') چوندا هئا، کي [[ذهني تصوير]]ن سان ڪم ڪندڙ ذهني صلاحيت طور بيان ڪيو.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Pätzold |first=Deltev |title=Imagination in the later Middle Ages and Early Modern times |date=2004 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-1535-0 |editor-last=Nauta |editor-first=Lodi |series=Groningen studies in cultural change |location=Leuven, Dudley, MA |pages=153–159, 172–173 |chapter=Imagination in Descartes' Meditations |editor-last2=Pätzold |editor-first2=Detlev}}</ref> [[ارسطو]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''[[ڊي اينيما]]'' ۾ تخيل کي اهڙي قوت قرار ڏنو، جيڪا ذهن ۾ [[تصوير]] پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} On the Soul by Aristotle |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.3.iii.html |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=classics.mit.edu}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Aristotle's Psychology > Imagination (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/suppl4.html |access-date=2024-06-10 |website=plato.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref> هن وصف موجب تخيل جو تعلق سوچ، [[خواب]]ن ۽ [[يادگيري]] سميت ڪيترين ئي ذهني سرگرمين سان هو.<ref name=":5" /> [[افلاطون]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''[[فائليبس]]'' ۾ ڏينهن جي خوابن تي بحث ڪندي مستقبل بابت تخيل کي روح جي اندر موجود هڪ مصور جي ڪم سان تشبيهه ڏني.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Philebus by Plato |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/philebus.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=classics.mit.edu}}</ref> پر افلاطون هن مصور کي تخليقڪار نه، پر رڳو تصويرون ٺاهيندڙ سمجهيو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته سندس نظر ۾ تخيل تخليقي نه، پر نمائندگي ڪندڙ صلاحيت هئي.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Cocking |first=John |editor-first1=Penelope |editor-last1=Murray |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203980811/imagination-john-cocking-penelope-murray-penelope-murray |title=Imagination: A Study in the History of Ideas |date=1991-12-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-98081-1 |location=London |pages=1, 8, 105–106 |doi=10.4324/9780203980811}}</ref> يوناني فيلسوف عام طور تخيل کي [[ادراڪ]] ۽ عقلي سوچ کان الڳ سمجهندا هئا. ارسطو جي خيال موجب تخيل [[حواس]] ۽ [[عقل]] جي وچ ۾ واسطي جو ڪم ڪندو آهي.<ref name=":5" /> سندس خيال ۾ ذهني تصويرون، جيڪي خوابن، ڏسڻ يا حسي ادراڪ مان پيدا ٿينديون آهن، روح جي هيٺين حصن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري اهي جذبات ۽ بنيادي خواهشن کان متاثر ٿي عقل جي فيصلي کي به متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿيون.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> ===وچون دور=== [[وچون دور|وچئين دور]] ۾ تخيل جو تصور [[مذهب]]، [[ادب]]، [[فن]] ۽ خاص طور [[شاعري]] سان ويجهڙائي رکندڙ هو.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Le Goff |first=Jacques |title=The medieval imagination |date=1988 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-47084-9 |location=Chicago}}</ref> ان دور جا ڪيترائي عالم شاعرن کي ”تخيلي“ سمجهندا هئا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندن خيال ۾ تخيل اها ذهني صلاحيت هئي، جيڪا شاعري تخليق ڪرڻ کي ممڪن بڻائيندي هئي.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Sumillera |first=Rocío G. |date=2016 |title=From Inspiration to Imagination: The Physiology of Poetry in Early Modernity |journal=Parergon |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=17–42 |doi=10.1353/pgn.2016.0129 |issn=1832-8334}}</ref> اها صلاحيت ذهن ۾ تصويرون ٺاهڻ سبب انسان کي ”اندرين اک“ سان ڏسڻ جو احساس فراهم ڪندي هئي.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":9">Castor, G. (1964). ''Pléiade poetics a study in sixteenth-century thought and terminology''.</ref> هن تصور جو هڪ مشهور مثال [[جيفري چاسر]] جي ''[[دي ڪينٽربري ٽيلز]]'' جي ڪهاڻي ''[[دي مين آف لاز ٽيل]]'' ۾ ملي ٿو، جتي هو ”[[ذهن جي اک]]“ جو ذڪر ڪندي لکي ٿو ته هڪ نابين ماڻهو به پنهنجي ذهن جي اک سان ڏسي سگهي ٿو.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Man of Lawes Tale |url=http://metaphors.lib.virginia.edu/metaphors/8723 |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=metaphors.lib.virginia.edu}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{cite book |last=Chaucer |first=Geoffrey |title=The Canterbury Tales |publisher=University Correspondence College Press |editor-last=Wyatt |editor-first=A.J. |location=London |at=Lines 550–553 |chapter=The Man of Laws Tale |orig-date={{circa|1387}}}}</ref> وچئين دور جي نفسياتي نظرين موجب تخيل اندروني حواسن جي هڪ قوت هئي، جيڪا [[يادگيري]] ۽ [[عام احساس]] سان گڏ ڪم ڪندي هئي. اهو يادگيري يا [[ادراڪ]] مان حاصل ٿيل ذهني تصويرن کي ترتيب ڏئي عقل تائين پهچائيندو هو، جنهن سان عقل کي حسي ڄاڻ حاصل ٿيندي هئي.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-renaissance-philosophy/56DCEA40CA07B949448B608C47B2B670 |title=The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy |date=1988 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-25104-4}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book |last=Kooij |first=Suzanne |title=Imagination in the later Middle Ages and Early Modern times |date=2004 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-1535-0 |chapter=Poetic Imagination and the Paradigm of Painting in Early-modern France}}</ref> اهڙيءَ طرح تخيل، حسي ادراڪ کان سواءِ به، جيئن [[خواب]]ن ۾، تصويرن کي نئين ترتيب ڏئي حقيقت جي نئين صورت پيش ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکندو هو.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Orobitg |first=Christine |title=Cervantes and the early modern mind |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-78547-1 |pages=98–105 |chapter=Wit, Imagination, and the Goat}}</ref> [[File:13th-century unknown painters - Legendary Creatures - WGA19736.jpg|thumb|وچئين دور جي فن ۾ خيالي مخلوق جون تصويرون، جن ۾ مختلف جانورن ۽ انسانن جا عضوا گڏائي نيون صورتون ٺاهيون وينديون هيون.]] جيتوڻيڪ وچئين دور ۾ تخيل کي مڪمل تخليق جي صلاحيت نه ڏني ويندي هئي، پر اهو يادگيري يا حسي ادراڪ مان مليل تصويرن کي نون طريقن سان گڏائي نوان تصور پيدا ڪرڻ جي قابل سمجهيو ويندو هو.<ref name=":27" /> مثال طور، اهو ”سون“ ۽ ”جبل“ جي تصويرن کي ملائي ”سون جو جبل“ جهڙو تصور پيدا ڪري سگهندو هو.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=E. Ruth |title=The inward wits: psychological theory in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |date=1975 |publisher=Warburg Institute |isbn=978-0-85481-051-2}}</ref> {{see also|فرشتن جي فن ۾ عڪاسي}} وچئين دور جي فن ۾ تخيل جو اهم ڪردار اهو هو ته ڏٺل شين جي مختلف حصن کي گڏائي افسانوي، پراسرار يا غيرمعمولي مخلوق جون تصويرون ٺاهيون وينديون هيون.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Bovey |first=Alixe |title=Monsters and grotesques in medieval manuscripts |date=2002 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8512-2}}</ref> اهڙي عڪاسي [[فرشتو|فرشتن]]، [[شيطان|شيطانن]]، [[دوزخ]]، [[قيامت]] ۽ ٻين مذهبي يا ڏندڪٿائي منظرن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي نظر اچي ٿي.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> === نشاةِ ثانيہ ۽ شروعاتي جديد دور === [[نشاةِ ثانيہ]] جي دور ۾ قديم يوناني ۽ رومي متنن جي ٻيهر دريافت ۽ انساني عظمت جي واکاڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو، پر ان دور جي عالمن "تخيل" جي نظرياتي سمجهاڻيءَ ۾ نمايان اضافو نه ڪيو.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":7" /> مثال طور [[مارسيليو فيچينو]] [[چترڪاري]]، [[مجسمه سازي]] ۽ [[شاعري]] جهڙين فني تخليقن کي انساني [[تخليقيت]] جون خاص يا امتيازي صورتون نه سمجهندو هو، ۽ نه ئي هن تخليقيت کي تخيل جي قوت سان منسوب ڪيو. ان جي بدران، [[مارسيليو فيچينو|فيچينو]] جو خيال هو ته تخيل اهو ذريعو آهي، جنهن وسيلي [[الاهي مداخلت]] [[تصوير]]ن جي صورت ۾ بصيرت منتقل ڪري ٿي، جيڪا آخرڪار [[فن]] جي تخليق کي ممڪن بڻائي ٿي.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite thesis |last=Frisvold |first=Nicholaj de Mattos |date=2013-01-01 |title=Marsilio Ficino and His Platonic Psychology |type=Dissertation |publisher=Norwegian University of Science and Technology |url=https://www.academia.edu/43906757}}</ref> [[File:Gustave Doré - Miguel de Cervantes - Don Quixote - Part 1 - Chapter 1 - Plate 1 "A world of disorderly notions, picked out of his books, crowded into his imagination".jpg|thumb|[[ڊان ڪئخوتي]]، سورمن جي داستانن جي ڪتابن ۾ محو.]] تنهن هوندي به، [[انسانيت پسندي|انسانيت پسند]] مفڪرن جو وڌو ويو بنياد پوءِ ايندڙ فلسفين لاءِ تخيل ۽ [[تخليقيت]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي کي وڌيڪ واضح ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيو.<ref name=":0" /> [[شروعاتي جديد دور]] جي فلسفين تخيل کي اهڙي صلاحيت يا وصف طور ڏسڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪا ڪنهن فرد ۾ موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[ميگوئل ڊي سروانتس]]، جيڪو هسپانوي طبيب ۽ فلسفي [[خوان هورتي ڊي سان خوان]] کان متاثر هو، پنهنجي مشهور ڪردار [[ڊان ڪئخوتي]] کي تخليق ڪيو، جيڪو [[خوان هورتي ڊي سان خوان|هورتي]] جي "ايجاد سان ڀرپور ذهن" واري تصور جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Iriarte |first=Mauricio |title=El Ingenioso hidalgo y el Examen de ingenios: (qué debe Cervantes al Dr. Huarte de San Juan) |journal=Revista internacional de los estudios vascos |language=Spanish |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=499–522}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Otis H. |title=The literary mind of medieval & Renaissance Spain: essays |date=1970 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-1204-6 |series=Studies in Romance languages |location=Lexington}}</ref> ان دور ۾ اهو سمجهيو ويندو هو ته اهڙي ذهانت عام طور انهن ماڻهن ۾ هوندي آهي، جن وٽ تخيل سندن ''ingenium'' ({{langx|es|ingenio}}؛ [[عقل]] يا ذهني صلاحيت جي ويجهو مفهوم) جو سڀ کان نمايان جزو هوندو آهي.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Huarte de San Juan |first=Juan |title=The examination of mens wits. |year=1594 |location=London |pages=69–70, 103 |translator-last=Carew |translator-first=Richard}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Orobitg |first=Christine |date=2014-07-01 |title=Del Examen de ingenios de Huarte a la ficción cervantina, o cómo se forja una revolución literaria |url=https://journals.openedition.org/criticon/700 |journal=Criticón |language=es |issue=120–121 |pages=23–39 |doi=10.4000/criticon.700 |issn=0247-381X}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last=Mestre Zaragozá |first=Marina |date=2018-08-29 |title=Les métiers de l'imagination dans l'Examen de ingenios para las ciencias de Huarte de San Juan |url=https://journals.openedition.org/crmh/15497 |journal=Cahiers de recherches médiévales et humanistes. Journal of medieval and humanistic studies |language=fr |issue=35 |pages=339–364 |doi=10.4000/crm.15497 |issn=2115-6360|url-access=subscription }}</ref> شروعاتي جديد دور جي فلسفين تخيل کي هڪ فعال ۽ [[ادراڪ]]ي صلاحيت طور به تسليم ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جيتوڻيڪ ان کي بنيادي طور [[حسي ادراڪ]] ({{langx|la|sensus}}) ۽ خالص فهم ({{langx|la|intellectio pura}}) جي وچ ۾ واسطي طور ڏٺو ويندو هو.<ref name=":4" /> [[ريني ڊيڪارٽ]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''[[پهرين فلسفي بابت تأملات]]'' (1641ع) ۾ تخيل کي اهڙي قوت طور بيان ڪيو، جيڪا جسماني شين تي فعال ڌيان ڏئي ٿي، پر ساڳئي وقت مختلف حواسن مان ايندڙ اثرن تي غيرفعال نموني ڀاڙي ٿي.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Desmond M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm52878350 |title=Descartes's theory of mind |date=2003 |publisher=Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926123-9 |location=Oxford : Oxford; New York |oclc=ocm52878350}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Citation |last=Newman |first=Lex |title=Descartes' Epistemology |date=2023 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/descartes-epistemology/ |access-date=2024-07-29 |edition=Winter 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> [[ٿامس هابز]] جي تحريرن ۾ تخيل انساني [[ادراڪ]] جو هڪ بنيادي عنصر بڻجي ويو.<ref name="RuncoAlbert">{{cite book |author-last1=Runco |author-first1=Mark A. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity |author-last2=Albert |author-first2=Robert S. |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-73025-9 |editor-last1=Kaufman |editor-first1=James C. |editor-link1=James C. Kaufman |chapter=Creativity Research |editor-last2=Sternberg |editor-first2=Robert J. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000unse_x7r7 |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref> سورهين ۽ سترهين صديءَ دوران "تخيل" جو مفهوم [[شروعاتي جديد دور]] جي شهري زندگيءَ جي ڪيترن ئي شعبن تائين ڦهلجي ويو.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Crane |first=William G. |title=Wit and Rhetoric in the Renaissance |date=1937-12-31 |publisher=Columbia University Press |doi=10.7312/cran94640}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Marr |first1=Alexander |title=Logodaedalus |last2=Garrod |first2=Raphaële |last3=Marcaida |first3=José Ramón |last4=Oosterhoff |first4=Richard J. |date=2018-10-02 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvcb5c95 |isbn=978-0-8229-8630-0}}</ref> [[خوان لوئيس ويويس]] تخيل ۽ [[خطابت]] جي مهارتن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي ڏانهن ڌيان ڇڪايو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mack |first=Peter |title=Imagination in the later Middle Ages and Early Modern times |date=2004 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-1535-0 |editor-last=Nauta |editor-first=Lodi |series=Groningen studies in cultural change |location=Leuven, Dudley, MA |pages=59–60 |chapter=Early Modern Ideas of Imagination: The Rhetoric Tradition |editor-last2=Pätzold |editor-first2=Detlev}}</ref> [[خوان هورتي ڊي سان خوان|هورتي]] هن خيال کي وڌيڪ وسيع ڪندي تخيل کي انهن سڀني علمن سان وابسته ڪيو، جن ۾ "شڪلون، مناسبت، هم آهنگي ۽ تناسب" ضروري هجن، جهڙوڪ [[طب]] ۽ جنگي فن.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Arrizabalaga |first=Jon |date=2018-08-29 |title=La medicina en Huarte de San Juan. Práctica clínica versus filosofía natural1 |journal=Cahiers de recherches médiévales et humanistes |issue=35 |pages=405–426 |doi=10.4000/crm.15521 |issn=2115-6360}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last1=Arrizabalaga |first1=Jon |last2=Giordano |first2=Maria Laura |date=2020-12-30 |title=Cristianismo paulino en Huarte de San Juan: meritocracia y linaje en el Examen de ingenios para las ciencias (Baeza 1575, 1594) |journal=Hispania Sacra |volume=72 |issue=146 |pages=363–375 |doi=10.3989/hs.2020.025 |issn=1988-4265|hdl=10261/235630 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ان کان سواءِ [[گليليو گليلي]] تخيل کي [[ذهني تجربو|ذهني تجربن]] (thought experiments) ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جهڙوڪ پڙهندڙن کان اهو تصور ڪرائڻ ته گُليل مان ڇڏايل پٿر ڪهڙي رخ ۾ اڏامندو.<ref name=":25">{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=James |author-link=James Franklin (philosopher) |title=1543 and All That: Image and Word, Change and Continuity in the Proto-Scientific Revolution |publisher=Kluwer |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7923-5913-5 |editor1-last=Freeland |editor1-first=Guy |location=Dordrecht |pages=53–115 |chapter=Diagrammatic reasoning and modelling in the imagination: the secret weapons of the Scientific Revolution |editor2-last=Corones |editor2-first=Anthony |chapter-url=https://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/imagin.pdf}}</ref> ===روشن خياليءَ جو دور ۽ ان کان پوءِ=== [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور]] دوران فلسفيانه بحثن ۾ تخيل جي قوت کي گهڻو ڪري [[تخليقيت]]، خاص طور [[جماليات]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kristeller |first1=Paul Oskar |last2=Tatarkiewicz |first2=Wladyslaw |last3=Kasparek |first3=Christopher |date=January 1981 |title=A History of Six Ideas: An Essay in Aesthetics. |journal=The Journal of Philosophy |volume=78 |issue=1 |page=56 |doi=10.2307/2025397 |jstor=2025397 |issn=0022-362X}}</ref> [[وليم ڊف]] انهن پهرين مفڪرن مان هو، جنهن تخيل کي نابغائپ جي هڪ خاص خوبي قرار ڏنو. هن قابليت ۽ نابغائپ ۾ فرق ڪندي دليل ڏنو ته رڳو نابغائپ ئي حقيقي تخليقي جدت پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي.<ref name="Dacey">{{cite book |last=Dacey |first=John |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-12-227076-5 |editor-last1=Runco |editor-first1=Mark A. |volume=1 |chapter=Concepts of Creativity: A history |editor-last2=Pritzer |editor-first2=Steven R.}}</ref> [[سيميوئل ٽيلر ڪولرج]] تخيل (''اميجينيشن'') ۽ خيالي آرائش (''فينسي'') ۾ فرق ڪيو. سندس خيال ۾ تخيل اهڙي حقيقت جو اظهار ڪري ٿو، جيڪا انسان جي روزمره وجود کان مٿانهين خيالي دنيا سان واسطو رکي ٿي، جڏهن ته ''فينسي'' يا تصوراتي آرائش رڳو فني روح جي تخليقي اظهار جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.<ref>Gregory, A. P. R. (2003). Coleridge and the conservative imagination. Mercer University Press. p. 59</ref> [[ديدرو جي انسائيڪلوپيڊيا]] جي ''[[پريليمينري ڊسڪورس ٽُو دي انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف ديدرو|مقدمي]]'' ({{langx|fr|ڊسڪورس پريليمينري ڊيس ايڊيٽورس}}) ۾ [[ژان لوران دالامبير]] تخيل کي [[لطيف فن]] جي تخليقي قوت قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alembert |first1=Jean Le Rond d' |url=http://archive.org/details/preliminarydisco00jean |title=Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot |last2=Schwab |first2=Richard N. |last3=Rex |first3=Walter E. |date=1995 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |via=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-226-13476-5}}</ref> [[ايمانوئل ڪانٽ]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''[[خالص عقل تي تنقيد]]'' (جرمن:ڪريٽيڪ ڊير رائنن فَرنُنفت) ۾ تخيل '''آئن بِلڊُنگس ڪرافٽ''' کي [[وجدان]] جي هڪ صلاحيت قرار ڏنو، جيڪا اهڙيون ذهني پيشڪشون (پريزنٽيشن) پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، يعني انهن شين جون حسي نمائندگيون جيڪي سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هجن.<ref name=":26">{{Cite book |last=Matherne |first=Samantha |title=The Routledge handbook of philosophy of skill and expertise |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-74477-6 |editor-last=Fridland |editor-first=Ellen |series=Routledge handbooks in philosophy |location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY |chapter=Kant's theory of the imagination |editor-last2=Pavese |editor-first2=Carlotta}}</ref> ڪانٽ تخيل جون ٻه صورتون بيان ڪيون: '''تخليقي تخيل''' (پراڊڪٽو اميجينيشن) ۽ '''ورجائيندڙ تخيل''' (ريپراڊڪٽو اميجينيشن). تخليقي تخيل ڪنهن شيءِ جي ذهني پيشڪش جو بنيادي سرچشمو هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري اهو [[تجربو]] کان به اڳ عمل ڪري سگهي ٿو؛ جڏهن ته ورجائيندڙ تخيل اڳوڻن [[تجربو|تجربن]] مان حاصل ٿيل پيشڪشن کي ٻيهر ذهن ۾ آڻي، اڳ ۾ حاصل ڪيل حسي ادراڪن کي ياد ڏياريندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/kant-anthropology-from-a-pragmatic-point-of-view/69EBBC53F8C020D0F28735E62FB62817 |title=Immanuel Kant: Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-80956-9 |editor-last=Louden |editor-first=Robert B. |location=Cambridge |pages=Anthro 7:167 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511809569}}</ref> ڪانٽ جي نظريي تخيل کي [[ادراڪ]]، [[ادراڪ (حسي)|حسي ادراڪ]]، [[جمالياتي]] فيصلي، فني تخليق ۽ [[اخلاق]] سان ڳنڍيو.<ref name=":26" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kneller |first=Jane |title=Kant and the Power of Imagination |date=2007-02-08 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511487248 |isbn=978-0-521-85143-5}}</ref> ڪانٽ جي هن تصور [[يوهان گاٽليب فشتي|فشتي]]، [[فريڊرش ولهيلم يوزف شيلنگ|شيلنگ]] ۽ [[رومانويت]] جي مفڪرن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، جن تخيل کي هڪ حقيقي تخليقي قوت ۾ تبديل ڪري پيش ڪيو، جيڪا [[نابغائپ]]، ايجاد، تخليقي سرگرمي ۽ [[آزادي]] سان وابسته هئي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=López-Domínguez |first=Virginia |date=2018-12-22 |title=The Imagination in Kant and Fichte |url=https://journals.openedition.org/ref/952 |journal=Revista de Estud(i)os sobre Fichte |volume=17 |language=en |issue=17 |doi=10.4000/ref.952 |issn=2258-014X}}</ref> [[گيورگ ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] جي فلسفي ۾، جيتوڻيڪ تخيل کي سندس اڳوڻن جيتري اهميت نه ڏني وئي، پر اهو [[هيگلي مظاهريت]] (فنامنالاجي) جي دفاع لاءِ شروعاتي نقطو بڻيو. هيگل تخيل بابت ٻن مختلف طريقن ۾ فرق ڪيو: هڪ '''مظاهرياتي''' تشريح، جيڪا انسان جي جيئري [[تجربو|تجربي]] ۽ [[شعور]] تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿي؛ ۽ ٻي '''سائنسي-قياسي''' تشريح، جيڪا تخيل جي [[فطرت]] ۽ ڪردار کي منظم ۽ نظرياتي انداز ۾ سمجهڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bates |first=Jennifer |title=Hegel's Theory of Imagination |date=2004 |publisher=State University of New York Press |doi=10.1353/book4857 |isbn=978-0-7914-8445-6}}</ref> === جديد دور === 1913ع کان 1916ع جي وچ ۾ [[ڪارل يونگ]] "[[فعال تخيل]]" (''ايڪٽو اميجينيشن'') جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي نفسياتي علاج (سائيڪوٿراپي) ۾ متعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Art of C.G. Jung |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-393-25487-7 |editor1-last=Hoerni |editor1-first=Ulrich |page=260 |editor2-last=Fischer |editor2-first=Thomas |editor3-last=Kaufmann |editor3-first=Bettina}}</ref> [[ڪارل يونگ|يونگ]] جي نظر ۾، [[فعال تخيل]] اڪثر [[خواب]]ن ۽ تخيل يا [[خيال پردازي]] (فينٽسي) وسيلي انسان جي تخليقي ذات سان ڪم ڪرڻ تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. هي [[مراقبو]] جي هڪ اهڙي ٽيڪنڪ آهي، جنهن ۾ انسان جي [[لاشعور]] جا مواد [[تصوير]]ن، [[بيانيي]]ن يا جدا وجودن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح [[شعور|شعوري]] "انا" (ايگو) ۽ لاشعور جي وچ ۾ هڪ پل جو ڪم ڪندا آهن.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jung |first=C. G.Hg |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400866854/html |title=Jung on Active Imagination |date=1997-12-31 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6685-4 |doi=10.1515/9781400866854}}</ref> {{see also|فعال تخيل}} [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن]] جو مشهور قول آهي: "تخيل... [[علم]] کان وڌيڪ اهم آهي. علم محدود آهي، جڏهن ته تخيل سڄي دنيا کي پنهنجي گهيري ۾ آڻي ٿو."<ref>{{Cite book |last=The Saturday Evening Post |url=http://archive.org/details/WhatLifeMeansToEinstein |title=What Life Means to Einstein An Interview by George Sylvester Viereck |date=1929-10-26}}</ref> [[نيڪولا ٽيسلا]] تخيل بابت لکيو: {{Quotation|جڏهن مون کي ڪو خيال ايندو آهي ته مان فوري طور ان کي پنهنجي تخيل ۾ تعمير ڪرڻ شروع ڪندو آهيان. مان ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آڻيندو آهيان، بهتريون ڪندو آهيان ۽ ان اوزار کي پنهنجي ذهن ۾ هلائيندو آهيان. مون لاءِ ڪو فرق ناهي ته مان پنهنجي ٽربائن کي ذهن ۾ هلائيندس يا پنهنجي ورڪشاپ ۾ آزمائيندس. مان اهو به محسوس ڪري سگهندو آهيان ته اها توازن کان ٻاهر آهي يا نه. ٻنهي حالتن ۾ نتيجا ساڳيا هوندا آهن. اهڙيءَ ريت مان ڪنهن شيءِ کي هٿ لائڻ کان سواءِ ئي ڪنهن تصور کي تيزيءَ سان ترقي ڏئي مڪمل بڻائي سگهندو آهيان.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tesla |first=Nikola |url=http://archive.org/details/myinventionsauto0000tesl |title=My inventions: the autobiography of Nikola Tesla |date=1982 |publisher=Williston, Vt. : Hart Bros. |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-910077-00-2}}</ref>}} تخيل جي [[مظاهريت (فلسفو)|مظاهرياتي]] (فنامنالاجيڪل) تشريح [[ژان پال سارتر]] جي 1940ع واري ڪتاب ''[[دي اميجنري (طنز)|تخيلي: تخيل جي مظاهرياتي نفسيات]]'' (ليماجينئير: سائيڪالوجي فينومينالوجيڪ دي لِماجيناسيون) ۾ ملي ٿي، جيڪو ''دي سائيڪولاجي آف دي اميجينيشن'' جي نالي سان پڻ شايع ٿيو. هن ڪتاب ۾ [[ژان پال سارتر|سارتر]] تخيل بابت پنهنجو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب تخيلي شيون ماضي جي تاثرن ۽ نئين ڄاڻ جي ميلاپ مان وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون. هن اهو پڻ بيان ڪيو ته تخيل جو وجود انساني [[شعور]] جي ماهيت بابت ڇا ظاهر ڪري ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=The Psychology of the Imagination |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-415-11954-2 |location=London |oclc=34102867 |orig-date=1940}}</ref> سارتر جي خيالن جي بنياد تي پوءِ ايندڙ مفڪرن هن تصور کي [[سماجيات]] تائين وڌايو ۽ [[سماجي تخيل]] (اميجنري) ۽ تخيل جي [[وجوديات]] (آنٽولاجي) جهڙا نظريا پيش ڪيا.<ref>John B. Thompson, ''Studies in the Theory of Ideology'' (1984) p. 6</ref><ref name="auto1">John R. Searle, ''The Construction of Social Reality'' (Penguin 1996) p. 4</ref> === ثقافتي تناظر === تخيل ڪيترين ئي ثقافتن ۾ هڪ مڃيل تصور رهيو آهي ۽ اڄ به آهي، خاص طور [[مذهب|مذهبي]] تناظر ۾، جتي ان کي ذهن جي اهڙي صلاحيت سمجهيو ويندو آهي جيڪا [[تصوير]]ون يا ذهني صورتون تخليق ڪري ٿي.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |title=Imagination: Cross-Cultural Philosophical Analyses |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-05013-6 |pages=13–15|doi=10.5040/9781350050167 }}</ref> [[ٻڌ مت]] جي جمالياتي فڪر ۾ تخيل [[مذهبي عمل]] جو هڪ بنيادي جز آهي، خاص طور [[تصور سازي]] (وزيوئلائيزيشن) جي عملن ۾. انهن ۾ [[ٻڌ]] جي جسم جو ذهني تصور، آسماني ٻڌن ۽ ٻڌ-ميدانن (جهڙوڪ پاڪ ڀونين ۽ [[منڊالا]]ن) جو تصور، ۽ مذهبي [[تصوير]]ن سان عقيدتمند وابستگي شامل آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Copp |first=Paul |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7312/copp16270/html |title=The Body Incantatory: Spells and the Ritual Imagination in Medieval Chinese Buddhism |date=2014-12-31 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-16270-8 |doi=10.7312/copp16270}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Jacob P. |title=Conjuring the Buddha |date=2023-01-16 |publisher=Columbia University Press |doi=10.7312/dalt20582 |isbn=978-0-231-55618-7}}</ref> [[ژوانگ زو]] جي [[تائوازم|تائوي فلسفي]] ۾ تخيل کي هڪ پيچيده ذهني عمل سمجهيو ويو آهي، جنهن کي [[ادراڪ]] جي هڪ اهم صورت طور اهميت ڏني وڃي ٿي. همدردي ([[همدردي]]) جي بنياد تي ان جي حمايت ڪئي وڃي ٿي، پر خالص [[عقل]] جي نقطهٔ نظر کان ان کي رڳو ذهني پيشڪش يا [[خيال پردازي]] (فينٽسي) قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو.<ref name=":33" /> == نفسياتي تحقيق ۾ == === يادگيري === {{see also|ذھني تصوير|تصور}} [[يادگيري]] ۽ [[ذهني تصوير]] تخيل جي عمل سان لاڳاپيل ٻه ذهني سرگرميون آهن، جيڪي هڪ ٻئي تي اثرانداز ٿينديون آهن.<ref name="Long">{{Cite journal |last=Long |first=Priscilla |date=2009-12-01 |title=My Brain On My Mind |url=https://theamericanscholar.org/my-brain-on-my-mind/ |journal=The American Scholar}}</ref> [[فعالي مقناطيسي گونج تصويرنگ]] (fMRI) مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ياد ڪرڻ ۽ تخيل ڪرڻ دوران دماغ جا ساڳيا حصا سرگرم ٿيندا آهن.<ref name="Long" /> عام خيالن جي يادگيري جي ڀيٽ ۾ نون يا پراڻن اصل خيالن جي تخليق دوران به ٻنهي [[پيرا هپپوڪيمپل]] ۽ [[ميڊيل پري فرنٽل ڪورٽيڪس]] (mPFC) ۾ هڪجهڙو سرگرميءَ جو نمونو ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته نون خيالن جي تعمير لاءِ اهي ئي عمل استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي [[واقعاتي يادگيري]] مان اصل تجربن کي ٻيهر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۾ ڪم ايندا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benedek |first1=Mathias |last2=Schües |first2=Till |last3=Beaty |first3=Roger E. |last4=Jauk |first4=Emanuel |last5=Koschutnig |first5=Karl |last6=Fink |first6=Andreas |last7=Neubauer |first7=Aljoscha C. |date=2018-02-01 |title=To create or to recall original ideas: Brain processes associated with the imagination of novel object uses |journal=Cortex |volume=99 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2017.10.024 |issn=0010-9452 |pmc=5796649 |pmid=29197665}}</ref> تخيل [[ڪوڙي يادگيري]] جي ٺهڻ ۾ پڻ ڪردار ادا ڪري سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، جڏهن شرڪت ڪندڙن کي خريداري مرڪز ۾ گم ٿيڻ بابت هڪ بيان پڙهڻ ۽ پوءِ ان واقعي کي ذهن ۾ آڻي لکت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو ويو، ته لڳ ڀڳ 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن بعد ۾ ان واقعي کي پنهنجي حقيقي يادگيري طور بيان ڪيو، جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪڏهن پيش ئي نه آيو هو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loftus |first=Elizabeth F. |date=May 1993 |title=The reality of repressed memories. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.48.5.518 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=518–537 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.48.5.518 |pmid=8507050 |issn=1935-990X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ان جو هڪ سبب اهو ٿي سگهي ٿو ته تخيل ۽ يادگيري ٻنهي ۾ دماغ جا ساڳيا علائقا، خاص طور [[ذهني تصوير]] سان لاڳاپيل حصا، سرگرم ٿيندا آهن. هڪ [[فعالي مقناطيسي گونج تصويرنگ]] (fMRI) مطالعي ۾ ڏٺو ويو ته جن ماڻهن لفظي اشارن کان پوءِ شين جو ذهني تصور ڪيو، انهن مان ڪي بعد ۾ غلط نموني اهو سمجهڻ لڳا ته انهن اهي شيون حقيقت ۾ ڏٺيون هيون.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gonsalves |first1=Brian |last2=Reber |first2=Paul J. |last3=Gitelman |first3=Darren R. |last4=Parrish |first4=Todd B. |last5=Mesulam |first5=M.-Marsel |last6=Paller |first6=Ken A. |date=October 2004 |title=Neural Evidence That Vivid Imagining Can Lead to False Remembering |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00736.x |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=655–660 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00736.x |pmid=15447635 |issn=0956-7976|url-access=subscription }}</ref> اهو [[پريڪيونيس]] ۽ [[هيٺيون پيريئٽل ڪورٽيڪس]] جي وڌيل سرگرمي سان لاڳاپيل هو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته تخيل ۽ [[ادراڪ]] جي وچ ۾ موجود اوورليپ يادگيري ۾ بگاڙ آڻي سگهي ٿو. تخيل يادگيري تي ان طريقي سان به اثرانداز ٿئي ٿو، جو ماڻهو ڪنهن تصور ڪيل واقعي جي حقيقي هجڻ بابت وڌيڪ يقين ڪرڻ لڳن ٿا؛ هن عمل کي [[imagination inflation]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garry |first1=Maryanne |last2=Manning |first2=Charles G. |last3=Loftus |first3=Elizabeth F. |last4=Sherman |first4=Steven J. |date=June 1996 |title=Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred |url=http://link.springer.com/10.3758/BF03212420 |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=208–214 |doi=10.3758/BF03212420 |pmid=24213869 |issn=1069-9384}}</ref> جڏهن ماڻهو ڪنهن اهڙي واقعي جو گهڻو واضح تصور ڪن ٿا، جنهن بابت شروعات ۾ سندن يقين هوندو آهي ته اهو پيش نه آيو هو، ته پوءِ هو بنا ثبوت جي به ان کي حقيقي سمجهڻ لڳن ٿا. اهڙيءَ ريت تخيل حقيقي ۽ تصور ڪيل تجربن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي ڌنڌلو ڪري سگهي ٿو. === ادراڪ === [[ژان پياجيه]] موجب، انسان جو [[ادراڪ]] سندس دنيا بابت تصور تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. اهو تصور تخيل جي مدد سان ادراڪن کي اڳ ۾ موجود ذهني تصويرن سان ترتيب ڏيڻ جو نتيجو هوندو آهي. پياجيه هڪ ٻار جو مثال ڏئي ٿو، جيڪو رات جو ڳوٺ ۾ هلندي چوندو آهي ته چنڊ سندس پٺيان اچي رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ ريت ادراڪن کي دنيا جي تصور سان هم آهنگ ڪيو ويندو آهي ته جيئن اهي بامعنيٰ بڻجن، ۽ ان عمل لاءِ تخيل ضروري آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=J. |title=The child's conception of the world |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1967 |location=London |translator-last1=Tomlinson |translator-first1=J. |translator-last2=Tomlinson |translator-first2=A.}}</ref> === دماغي سرگرمي === [[نيوڪورٽيڪس]] ۽ [[ٿيلامس]] تخيل سميت دماغ جي ٻين اهم ڪمن، جهڙوڪ [[شعور]] ۽ [[تجريدي سوچ]]، جي ضابطي ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا. تخيل دوران دماغ جا ڪيترائي نظام، جن ۾ [[جذبا]]، [[يادگيري]] ۽ [[سوچ]] شامل آهن، گڏجي ڪم ڪندا آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Anna |date=2016-10-06 |title=The imaginative mind |journal=Human Brain Mapping |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=4197–4211 |doi=10.1002/hbm.23300 |pmid=27453527 |pmc=6867574 |issn=1065-9471}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hustvedt |first=Siri |date=January 2011 |title=Three Emotional Stories: Reflections on Memory, the Imagination, Narrative, and the Self |journal=Neuropsychoanalysis |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.1080/15294145.2011.10773674 |issn=1529-4145}}</ref> [[بصري ذهني تصوير]] سان لاڳاپيل دماغي نيٽ ورڪ [[فرنٽل ڪورٽيڪس]] کان وٺي حسي علائقن تائين پکڙيل هوندو آهي ۽ [[ڊفالٽ موڊ نيٽورڪ]] سان به اوورليپ ڪندو آهي. اهو عمل گهڻي حد تائين حسي ادراڪ جي ڪمزور صورت وانگر ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Joel |date=October 2019 |title=The human imagination: the cognitive neuroscience of visual mental imagery |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41583-019-0202-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |language=en |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=624–634 |doi=10.1038/s41583-019-0202-9 |pmid=31384033 |issn=1471-003X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> هڪ [[فعالي مقناطيسي گونج تصويرنگ]] (fMRI) مطالعي ۾، شرڪت ڪندڙن کي پيچيده بصري شڪلين جو تصور ڪرڻ، انهن کي ذهني طور ٽڪرن ۾ ورهائڻ يا گڏيل شڪل ۾ ملائڻ لاءِ چيو ويو. ان دوران سندن دماغ جي [[آڪسيپيٽل لوب]]، [[فرنٽوپيريئٽل]]، [[پوسٽيرير پيريئٽل]]، [[پريڪيونيس]] ۽ [[ڊورسوليٽرل پري فرنٽل ڪورٽيڪس]] وارن علائقن ۾ سرگرمي ڏٺي وئي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlegel |first1=Alexander |last2=Kohler |first2=Peter J. |last3=Fogelson |first3=Sergey V. |last4=Alexander |first4=Prescott |last5=Konuthula |first5=Dedeepya |last6=Tse |first6=Peter Ulric |date=16 September 2013 |title=Network structure and dynamics of the mental workspace |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=40 |pages=16277–16282 |bibcode=2013PNAS..11016277S |doi=10.1073/pnas.1311149110 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3791746 |pmid=24043842 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === ٻارن ۾ ادراڪي واڌ ويجهه === تخيل ٻارن جي ذهني، جذباتي ۽ سماجي [[ارتقائي نفسيات|واڌ ويجهه]] لاءِ انتهائي اهم آهي. ٻار اڪثر [[خيالي راند]] ۾ مشغول رهندا آهن، جتي هو [[ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ]]، شين کي علامتي طور استعمال ڪرڻ ۽ ٻين طريقن سان تصوراتي حالتون تخليق ڪري انهن کي عملي صورت ڏيندا آهن. اهڙي سرگرمي نون [[ادراڪ]]ي ڍانچن ۽ صلاحيتن جي واڌ ويجهه ۾ مدد ڪندي آهي، ۽ [[ٻولي]]، سماجي لاڳاپن ۽ ٻين ماڻهن جي نقطهٔ نظر کي سمجهڻ جهڙين صلاحيتن کي هٿي ڏيندي آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fink |first=Robert S. |date=December 1976 |title=Role of Imaginative Play in Cognitive Development |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1976.39.3.895 |journal=Psychological Reports |language=en |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=895–906 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1976.39.3.895 |issn=0033-2941|url-access=subscription }}</ref> تخيل ابتدائي پڙهڻ جي صلاحيت جي ترقي ۾ پڻ مددگار آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ٻارن کي متن کي سمجهڻ، ان کي نون حالتن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ، ۽ [[ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ]] يا جسماني حرڪت ذريعي ان جي معنيٰ ڳولڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nehal |first1=Mitasha |last2=Rule |first2=Peter N. |date=2018-06-27 |title=Imaginative play and reading development among Grade R learners in KwaZulu-Natal: An ethnographic case study |url=https://sajce.co.za/index.php/sajce/article/view/518 |journal=South African Journal of Childhood Education |volume=8 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/sajce.v8i1.518 |issn=2223-7682|doi-access=free }}</ref> تحقيق مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته [[خيالي راند]] [[جذباتي خود ضابطو]] جي ترقي سان لاڳاپيل آهي. جيڪي ٻار، خاص طور سنڀاليندڙن سان گڏ، اهڙين راندين ۾ حصو وٺندا آهن، انهن ۾ جذبات تي ضابطو رکڻ جون صلاحيتون وڌيڪ بهتر هونديون آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galyer |first1=Karma T. |last2=Evans |first2=Ian M. |date=January 2001 |title=Pretend Play and the Development of Emotion Regulation in Preschool Children |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0300443011660108 |journal=Early Child Development and Care |language=en |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=93–108 |doi=10.1080/0300443011660108 |issn=0300-4430|url-access=subscription }}</ref> اهڙيءَ طرح [[خيالي راند]] [[انتظامي عملن]] (ايگزيڪيوٽو فنڪشنز) کي پڻ مضبوط ڪري ٿي، جيڪي جذباتي ۽ ادراڪي ٻنهي قسمن جي ضابطي سان لاڳاپيل آهن، ۽ گڏوگڏ [[سماج دوست روين]] جي واڌ ويجهه ۾ به مددگار ثابت ٿئي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=Rebecca H. |last2=Gilpin |first2=Ansley T. |last3=Thibodeau-Nielsen |first3=Rachel B. |date=December 2021 |title=Executive functions and imaginative play: Exploring relations with prosocial behaviors using structural equation modeling |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211949321000168 |journal=Trends in Neuroscience and Education |language=en |volume=25 |article-number=100165 |doi=10.1016/j.tine.2021.100165|pmid=34844695 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> === فيصلا سازي === تخيل [[فيصلا سازي]] ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ماڻهن کي مختلف حالتن ۽ انهن جي ممڪن نتيجن جو ذهني جائزو وٺڻ جي قابل بڻائي ٿو. ان جي ذريعي ماڻهو پنهنجي چونڊن جا نتيجا اڳواٽ تصور ڪري، متبادل رستا پرکي، ۽ خطري جو اندازو لڳائي سگهن ٿا، بغير انهن حالتن کي عملي طور آزمائڻ جي. اهڙي صلاحيت [[مسئلو حل ڪرڻ]] کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي ۽ وڌيڪ ڄاڻ تي ٻڌل فيصلا ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nanay |first=Bence |date=February 2016 |title=The Role of Imagination in Decision-Making |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mila.12097 |journal=Mind & Language |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=127–143 |doi=10.1111/mila.12097 |issn=0268-1064|url-access=subscription }}</ref> تحقيق مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته مستقبل جي ممڪن نتيجن جو ذهني تصور ماڻهن ۾ وڌيڪ [[صبر]] پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿو. جڏهن شرڪت ڪندڙن کي فيصلا ڪرڻ کان اڳ مستقبل جي نتيجن جو تصور ڪرڻ لاءِ چيو ويو، ته انهن وڌيڪ صبر ۽ سوچي سمجهي چونڊون ڪيون.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Adrianna C. |last2=Hsu |first2=Ming |date=July 2017 |title=Dissociable Contributions of Imagination and Willpower to the Malleability of Human Patience |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=894–906 |doi=10.1177/0956797617698133 |issn=0956-7976 |pmc=5507764 |pmid=28504898}}</ref> === ذهني صحت === مختلف تحقيقن مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته تخيل [[ڀلائي]] ۽ [[ذهني صحت]] تي اثرانداز ٿئي ٿو. مقصد تي ٻڌل تخيل، جنهن ۾ ماڻهو پنهنجي ذاتي مقصدن کي حاصل ڪرڻ جو ذهني تصور ڪن ٿا، وڌيڪ ذهني سڪون ۽ گهٽ [[ڊپريشن]] سان لاڳاپيل ڏٺو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gamble |first1=Beau |last2=Tippett |first2=Lynette J. |last3=Moreau |first3=David |last4=Addis |first4=Donna Rose |date=July 2021 |title=The Futures We Want: How Goal-Directed Imagination Relates to Mental Health |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2167702620986096 |journal=Clinical Psychological Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=732–751 |doi=10.1177/2167702620986096 |hdl=2292/65008 |issn=2167-7026|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ساڳيءَ طرح، مثبت نتيجن جو ذهني تصور ڪرڻ تي ٻڌل علاج [[اميد]] وڌائڻ، [[پريشاني]] ۽ منفي جذبات گهٽائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيو آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Susannah E. |last2=Clare O'Donoghue |first2=M. |last3=Drazich |first3=Erin H.S. |last4=Blackwell |first4=Simon E. |last5=Christina Nobre |first5=Anna |last6=Holmes |first6=Emily A. |date=November 2015 |title=Imagining a brighter future: The effect of positive imagery training on mood, prospective mental imagery and emotional bias in older adults |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=230 |issue=1 |pages=36–43 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2015.07.059 |pmc=4593863 |pmid=26235478}}</ref> نفسياتي علاج ۾ تخيل جي هڪ مشهور ٽيڪنڪ [[تصويري ٻيهر ترتيب]] (اميجري ري اسڪرپٽنگ) آهي، جنهن ۾ ماڻهو تڪليف ڏيندڙ يادگيرين کي ذهن ۾ ٻيهر تخليق ڪري انهن کي وڌيڪ مثبت انجام سان بدلائيندا آهن، جنهن سان [[پريشاني]]، [[ڊپريشن]] ۽ [[صدمي کان پوءِ واري ذهني دٻاءُ جي بيماري]] (PTSD) جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arntz |first=Arnoud |date=April 2012 |title=Imagery Rescripting as a Therapeutic Technique: Review of Clinical Trials, Basic Studies, and Research Agenda |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychopathology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=189–208 |doi=10.5127/jep.024211 |issn=2043-8087|url-access=subscription }}</ref> بهرحال، جيڪڏهن تخيل جو ضابطو نه رهي، ته اهو نفسياتي تڪليف جو سبب پڻ بڻجي سگهي ٿو. تخيل جي عمل ۾ بگاڙ [[شيزوفرينيا]] جي دائري واريون بيماريون ۾ عام ڏٺو ويو آهي، جتي اهو ذاتي سڃاڻپ ۽ حقيقت جي ادراڪ ۾ تبديليون آڻي سگهي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Andreas Rosén |last2=Raballo |first2=Andrea |last3=Preti |first3=Antonio |last4=Sæbye |first4=Ditte |last5=Parnas |first5=Josef |date=2022-01-17 |title=Anomalies of Imagination, Self-Disorders, and Schizophrenia Spectrum Psychopathology: A Network Analysis |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=12 |article-number=808009 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.808009 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=8801416 |pmid=35111092}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gozé |first1=Tudi |last2=Fazakas |first2=Istvan |date=2020 |title=Imagination and Self Disorders in Schizophrenia: A Review |journal=Psychopathology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=5–6 |pages=264–273 |doi=10.1159/000509488 |pmid=33059352 |issn=0254-4962}}</ref> اهڙيءَ طرح [[حد کان وڌيڪ خيالي خواب ڏسڻ]] (ميل ايڊاپٽنگ ڊي ڊريمنگ) به تخيل جي غير متوازن صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ ماڻهو انتهائي واضح ۽ لت جهڙي خيالي دنيا ۾ رهڻ لڳن ٿا. تحقيق مطابق اها حالت جذباتي ۽ روزمرهه جي ڪارڪردگي ۾ نمايان تڪليف سان لاڳاپيل آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shanbhag |first1=Trusha |last2=Pothiyil |first2=Dan Isaac |date=November 2024 |title=A Cognitive Approach to Maladaptive Daydreaming |journal=Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine |language=en |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=585–588 |doi=10.1177/02537176241236898 |issn=0253-7176 |pmc=11558703 |pmid=39545109}}</ref> ==ارتقائي نظريو== [[File:TheoryLargeFigures.png|thumb|600x600px|تخيل جي مختلف جزن جي نسلي ارتقا ۽ فردي واڌ ويجهه]] تخيل جي [[نسلي ارتقا]] آهستي آهستي ٿي. تخيل جي سڀ کان سادي صورت، يعني [[تيز اکين جي حرڪت واري ننڊ]] دوران [[خواب]] ڏسڻ، لڳ ڀڳ 14 ڪروڙ سال اڳ [[ٿڻائتا جانور|ٿڻائتن جانورن]] ۾ تيز اکين جي حرڪت واري ننڊ جي ارتقا سان پيدا ٿي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hobson |first1=J. Allan |date=1 October 2009 |title=REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=803–813 |doi=10.1038/nrn2716 |pmid=19794431 |s2cid=205505278}}</ref> لڳ ڀڳ 7 ڪروڙ سال اڳ [[پرائيميٽ|پرائيميٽن]] ۾ [[پاسي وارو اڳيون پيشاني ڪورٽيڪس]] پيدا ٿيڻ سان اوچتي [[بصيرت]] جي صلاحيت وڌيڪ سڌري. لڳ ڀڳ 60 لک سال اڳ [[هومينن|هوميننن]] جي نسل جي [[چمپانزي|چمپانزين]] واري شاخ کان جدا ٿيڻ کان پوءِ تخيل جي صلاحيت ۾ وڌيڪ واڌ آئي. [[اڳئين پيشانيءَ وارو تجزيو]] لڳ ڀڳ 33 لک سال اڳ پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن هومينن [[موڊ هڪ جا پٿر جا اوزار]] ٺاهڻ شروع ڪيا.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmand |first1=Sonia |last2=Lewis |first2=Jason E. |last3=Feibel |first3=Craig S. |last4=Lepre |first4=Christopher J. |last5=Prat |first5=Sandrine |last6=Lenoble |first6=Arnaud |last7=Boës |first7=Xavier |last8=Quinn |first8=Rhonda L. |last9=Brenet |first9=Michel |last10=Arroyo |first10=Adrian |last11=Taylor |first11=Nicholas |last12=Clément |first12=Sophie |last13=Daver |first13=Guillaume |last14=Brugal |first14=Jean-Philip |last15=Leakey |first15=Louise |date=20 May 2015 |title=3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8697F75/download |journal=Nature |volume=521 |issue=7552 |pages=310–315 |bibcode=2015Natur.521..310H |doi=10.1038/nature14464 |pmid=25993961 |s2cid=1207285 |last16=Mortlock |first16=Richard A. |last17=Wright |first17=James D. |last18=Lokorodi |first18=Sammy |last19=Kirwa |first19=Christopher |last20=Kent |first20=Dennis V. |last21=Roche |first21=Hélène}}</ref> لڳ ڀڳ 20 لک سال اڳ پٿر جي اوزارن واري ثقافت جو [[موڊ ٻه جا پٿر جا اوزار|موڊ ٻه]] تائين پهچڻ اڳئين پيشانيءَ واري تجزيي ۾ نمايان اڳڀرائيءَ جو اشارو ڏئي ٿو. تخيل جو سڀ کان ترقي يافته عصبي طريقو، يعني [[اڳئين پيشانيءَ واري ترڪيب]]، ممڪن آهي ته انسانن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 70 هزار سال اڳ پيدا ٿيو هجي، جنهن سان جديد انساني رويو وجود ۾ آيو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vyshedsky |first1=Andrey |year=2019 |title=Neuroscience of Imagination and Implications for Human Evolution |url=http://currentneurobiology.org/neurobiology/neuroscience-of-imagination-and-implications-for-humanevolution.pdf |journal=Current Neurobiology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=89–109 |issn=0975-9042 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531155035/http://currentneurobiology.org/neurobiology/neuroscience-of-imagination-and-implications-for-humanevolution.pdf |archive-date=2019-05-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531155035/http://currentneurobiology.org/neurobiology/neuroscience-of-imagination-and-implications-for-humanevolution.pdf |date=2019-05-31 }}</ref> جديد تخيل ڏانهن هن وڏي تبديليءَ کي قديم انسانن جي مطالعي ڪندڙ عالمن مختلف نالن سان بيان ڪيو آهي، جن ۾ '''ادراڪي انقلاب'''،<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval N. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780099590088 |title=Sapiens: a brief history of humankind |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-84655-824-5 |location=London |publisher=Harvill Secker |oclc=890244744 |url-access=registration}}</ref> '''مٿئين پراڻي پٿر واري دور جو انقلاب'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bar-Yosef |first=Ofer |date=October 2002 |title=The Upper Paleolithic Revolution |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=363–393 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085416 |issn=0084-6570}}</ref> ۽ '''وڏي اڳتي ٽپ''' شامل آهن.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared M. |title=The third chimpanzee: the evolution and future of the human animal |publisher=HarperPerennial |year=2006 |isbn=0-06-084550-3 |location=New York |oclc=63839931}}</ref> == مصنوعي تصور == {{For|[[مصنوعي ذهانت]] ۾ تصور|پيداوار مصنوعي ذهانت}} [[عام مصنوعي ذهانت]] (AGI) جي هڪ ذيلي جزو طور '''مصنوعي تصور''' (''آرٽيفيشل اميجينيشن'') اهڙا حقيقي يا ممڪن [[افسانو|افسانوي]] نمونا تيار، نقل ۽ سهولت فراهم ڪري ٿو،<ref name="IMI_1">{{cite arXiv |eprint=2211.11602 |class=cs.LG |author1=Abramson, J. |author2=Ahuja, A |title=Improving Multimodal Interactive Agents with Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback |date=21 November 2022 |author3=Carnevale, F. |page=26}}</ref> جن جي بنياد تي [[اڳڪٿي]]ون، [[ايجاد]]ون،<ref name="PDU">{{cite arXiv |eprint=2202.00728 |class=cs.LG |author1=Allen, K.R. |author2=Lopez-Guevara, T. |title=Physical Design using Differentiable Learned Simulators |date=1 February 2022 |author3=Stachenfeld, K. |author4=Sanchez-Gonzalez, A. |author5=Battaglia, P. |author6=Hamrick, J. |author7=Pfaff, T.}}</ref> يا شعوري تجربا پيدا ڪري سگهجن. هي اصطلاح [[مشين]]ن يا ڪمپيوٽري پروگرامن جي ان صلاحيت لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جنهن وسيلي اهي انسانن جي ذهني ۽ تخليقي سرگرمين، جهڙوڪ [[تخليقڪاري]]، بصري ادراڪ، [[ڊجيٽل فن]]، [[مزاح]] ۽ [[طنز]] جي تقليد ڪري سگهن ٿا.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-16 |title=How Generative AI Can Augment Human Creativity |url=https://hbr.org/2023/07/how-generative-ai-can-augment-human-creativity |access-date=2023-06-20 |work=Harvard Business Review |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> مصنوعي تصور جي تحقيق جا روايتي شعبا (مصنوعي) [[بصري نظام|بصري]]<ref name="VIR">{{cite book |author1=Thomee, B. |title=Proceedings of the 6th ACM international conference on Image and video retrieval |author2=Huiskes, M.J. |author3=Bakker, E. |author4=Lew, M.S. |date=July 2007 |publisher=ACM |isbn=978-1-59593-733-9 |pages=127–130 |chapter=Visual information retrieval using synthesized imagery |doi=10.1145/1282280.1282303 |access-date=19 December 2023 |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1282280.1282303?download=true |s2cid=11199318}}</ref> ۽ [[سمعي]] تصور تي مشتمل آهن،<ref>''AUDIO CONTENT TRANSMISSION'' by Xavier Amatriain & Perfecto Herrera, {{cite web |title=Publications |url=http://www.iua.upf.es/mtg/publications/dafx2001-xamat.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106033332/http://www.iua.upf.es/mtg/publications/dafx2001-xamat.pdf |archive-date=2007-01-06 |access-date=2007-12-22}}</ref> جيڪي خيالن، ذهني تصويرن ۽ [[تصور (خيال)|تصورن]] جي تشڪيل سان لاڳاپيل سڀني عملن کي شامل ڪن ٿا. هن شعبي ۾ مصنوعي بصري ياداشت، انساني [[جذبو|جذبن]] جي بنياد تي مواد جي نمونابندي ۽ فلٽرنگ، ۽ تعاملي ڳولا جهڙن موضوعن تي پڻ تحقيق جاري آهي.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oliva |first=Aude |year=2008 |title=Visual long-term memory has a massive storage capacity for object details |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=38 |pages=14325–14329 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10514325B |doi=10.1073/pnas.0803390105 |pmc=2533687 |pmid=18787113 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ان کان علاوه، اهو به اڀياس ڪيو پيو وڃي ته مصنوعي تصور مستقبل ۾ اهڙو [[خيالي دنيا|مصنوعي جهان]] ڪيئن تخليق ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪو ماڻهن لاءِ حقيقت کان عارضي فرار جو ذريعو بڻجي سگهي.<ref>''Hypertext and "the Hyperreal"'' by Stuart Moulthrop, [[ييل يونيورسٽي]] http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=74224.74246</ref> مصنوعي تصور جو هڪ اهم ذيلي شعبو '''مصنوعي اخلاق''' آهي، جيڪو وڌندڙ ڌيان حاصل ڪري رهيو آهي. [[مصنوعي ذهانت]] کي مشينن جي غلطين يا فيصلن جي ذميواري طئي ڪرڻ<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tigard |first=Daniel W. |date=2021-06-10 |title=Artificial Moral Responsibility: How We Can and Cannot Hold Machines Responsible |journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=435–447 |doi=10.1017/s0963180120000985 |pmid=34109925 |issn=0963-1801}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Constantinescu |first1=Mihaela |last2=Vică |first2=Constantin |last3=Uszkai |first3=Radu |last4=Voinea |first4=Cristina |date=2022-04-12 |title=Blame It on the AI? On the Moral Responsibility of Artificial Moral Advisors |journal=Philosophy & Technology |volume=35 |issue=2 |article-number=35 |doi=10.1007/s13347-022-00529-z |issn=2210-5433}}</ref> ۽ اهڙيون مشينون تيار ڪرڻ ۾ ڏکيائي پيش اچي ٿي، جيڪي عالمي سطح تي قبوليل اخلاقي اصولن تي عمل ڪن.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Colin |last2=Varner |first2=Gary |last3=Zinser |first3=Jason |date=July 2000 |title=Prolegomena to any future artificial moral agent |journal=Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=251–261 |doi=10.1080/09528130050111428 |bibcode=2000JETAI..12..251A |issn=0952-813X}}</ref> تازي تحقيق ۾ اخلاقيات جي سخت تعريف تي ڀاڙڻ بدران [[مشين لرننگ]] جي طريقن سان مشينن کي انساني اخلاقي فيصلن جي تقليد ڪرڻ سيکاريو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moser |first1=Christine |last2=den Hond |first2=Frank |last3=Lindebaum |first3=Dirk |date=March 2022 |title=Morality in the Age of Artificially Intelligent Algorithms |journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.5465/amle.2020.0287 |issn=1537-260X|hdl=1871.1/042dea52-f339-445e-932c-8a06c9a51c0a |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal |last=Floridi |first=Luciano |date=2016-12-28 |title=Faultless responsibility: on the nature and allocation of moral responsibility for distributed moral actions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=374 |issue=2083 |article-number=20160112 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2016.0112 |pmid=28336791 |bibcode=2016RSPTA.37460112F |issn=1364-503X}}</ref> هزارين ماڻهن جي اخلاقي فيصلن بابت ڊيٽا تي تربيت ڏنل اهڙا ماڊل عام طور تي وڏي پيماني تي قبوليل اخلاقي اصولن جي عڪاسي ڪري سگهن ٿا.<ref name=":34" /> === عملي استعمال === مصنوعي تصور جا عملي استعمال تيزيءَ سان وڌي رهيا آهن. مثال طور، ''ريلم آف ڊزاسٽر'' نالي نظام ۾ '''آئيزيئا'''Isaiah (اشعيا: ھڪ عبراني پيغمبر) نالي مصنوعي تصوراتي ماڊل استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ممڪن آفتن جا منظرناما تيار ڪري انهن جي بنياد تي تجزيو ۽ منصوبابندي ۾ مدد فراهم ڪري ٿو. == اخلاقي تصور == '''اخلاقي تصور''' (''مورل اميجينيشن'') مان مراد عام طور اها ذهني صلاحيت آهي، جنهن وسيلي ماڻهو [[اخلاق]]ي سوالن ۽ ڏکيائين جا حل تصور ۽ ذهني منظرڪشي جي عمل ذريعي ڳولي سگهي ٿو. علمي ادب ۾ "اخلاقي تصور" جون مختلف وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=R. E. |title=The moral imagination of Patricia werhane: A festschrift |last2=Dmytriyev |first2=S. |last3=Wicks |first3=A. C. |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2018 |page=97}}</ref> فيلسوف [[مارڪ جانسن]] موجب، اخلاقي تصور "اها صلاحيت آهي، جنهن سان ماڻهو ڪنهن ڏنل صورتحال ۾ عمل ڪرڻ جي مختلف امڪانن کي تخليقي نموني پرکي سگهي ٿو ۽ ڪنهن خاص عمل مان پيدا ٿيندڙ امڪاني فائدي يا نقصان جو اڳواٽ تصور ڪري سگهي ٿو".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=M. |title=Moral imagination |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |location=Chicago |page=202}}</ref> هڪ مثال طور، [[اڊولف هٽلر]] تي قاتلاڻو حملو ڪندڙ [[ڪلاوس فون شٽائوفنبرگ]] بابت چيو ويو آهي ته هن (ٻين سببن سان گڏ) "اخلاقي تصور" جي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[نازي حڪومت]] جو تختو اونڌو ڪرڻ جو خطرو مول ورتو. هٽلر کي قتل ڪرڻ لاءِ سندس تياري رڳو پنهنجي ساٿين، ڪٽنب يا ان وقت جي دوستن سان همدردي جي ڪري نه هئي، پر هن ايندڙ نسلن ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي ممڪن تڪليفن بابت به سوچيو، جن کي هو ذاتي طور نه سڃاڻندو هو. ٻين لفظن ۾، اخلاقي تصور جي ذريعي هو اهڙن "مجرد" ماڻهن جي ڀلائي بابت به فڪرمند ٿيو، جهڙوڪ مستقبل جون جرمن نسلون، اهي ماڻهو جيڪي اڃا ڄاوا ئي نه هئا، يا اهي ماڻهو جيڪي سندس سڌي پهچ کان ٻاهر هئا.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langhof |first1=J. G. |last2=Gueldenberg |first2=S. |year=2021 |title=Whom to serve? Exploring the moral dimension of servant leadership: Answers from operation Valkyrie |journal=Journal of Management History |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=537–573 |doi=10.1108/jmh-09-2020-0056 |s2cid=238689370}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{Portal|فلسفو|نفسيات}} * {{annotated link|تخليقي منظرڪشي}} * {{annotated link|تخليقڪاري}} * {{annotated link|خيال آرائي (نفسيات)}} * {{annotated link|ذهني تصويرڪشي}} * {{annotated link|خيالي (نفسياتي تجزيو)}} * {{annotated link|خيالي (سماجيات)}} * {{annotated link|تصور جو دور}} * {{annotated link|تصوراتي واڌ}} * {{annotated link|سماجي تصور}} * {{annotated link|تلپا}} * {{annotated link|حقيقت نمائي}} == حوالا == {{Reflist|30em}} {{Wikiquote|imagination}} {{NIE Poster|year=1905|Imagination}} == وڌيڪ مطالعو == ;ڪتاب * Byrne, R. M. J. (2005). ''The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality.'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. * [https://unifi.academia.edu/PaoloFabiani Fabiani, Paolo. ''The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche''. F.U.P. (Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009.] * Salazar, Noel B. (2010). ''[http://www.berghahnbooks.com/title.php?rowtag=SalazarEnvisioning Envisioning Eden: Mobilizing Imaginaries in Tourism and Beyond.]'' Oxford: Berghahn. * {{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = J. G. | year = 2016 | title = Sartre and the Imagination: Top Shelf Magazines | journal = Sexuality & Culture | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 775–784 | doi = 10.1007/s12119-016-9358-x | s2cid = 148101276 }} ;مقالا * Salazar, Noel B. (2020). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354067X20936927 ''On Imagination and Imaginaries, Mobility and Immobility: Seeing the Forest for the Trees.''] ''Culture & Psychology'' 1–10. * {{cite journal | last1 = Salazar | first1 = Noel B. | year = 2011 | title = The Power of Imagination in Transnational Mobilities | journal = Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 576–598 | doi = 10.1080/1070289X.2011.672859 | s2cid = 143420324 | url = https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/275464 }} * Watkins, Mary. ''Waking Dreams'' (Harper Colophon Books, 1976) ۽ ''Invisible Guests – The Development of Imaginal Dialogues'' (The Analytic Press, 1986). * Moss, Robert. ''The Three "Only" Things: Tapping the Power of Dreams, Coincidence, and Imagination'' (New World Library، 10 سيپٽمبر 2007). * {{EB1911|wstitle=Imagination|volume=14|pages=304–305}} تصور کي مرڪزي فلسفياتي تصور طور پيش ڪندڙ ٽن اهم فلسفين ۾ [[ڪينڊل والٽن]]، [[جان سالس]] ۽ [[رچرڊ ڪيرني]] شامل آهن. انهن بابت خاص طور هيٺيان ڪتاب ڏسو: * [[ڪينڊل والٽن]]، ''Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts.'' Harvard University Press، 1990. {{ISBN|0-674-57603-9}} * [[جان سالس]]، ''Force of Imagination: The Sense of the Elemental'' (2000) * [[جان سالس]]، ''Spacings – Of Reason and Imagination: In Texts of Kant, Fichte, Hegel'' (1987) * [[رچرڊ ڪيرني]]، ''The Wake of Imagination.'' University of Minnesota Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-8166-1714-7}} * [[رچرڊ ڪيرني]]، ''Poetics of Imagining: Modern to Post-modern.'' Fordham University Press (1998) == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{Wiktionary-inline|imagination}} * {{Commons category-inline|Imagination|lcfirst=yes}} * {{In Our Time|Imagination|p00548lc|Imagination}} * [http://www.co-bw.com/BrainConciousness%20Update%20index.htm Imagination, Mental Imagery, Consciousness, and Cognition: Scientific, Philosophical and Historical Approaches] * [http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=Two-Factor+Imagination+Scale&all=yes&cs=UTF-8&cat=Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/Intelligence/Emotional_Intelligence/Online_Tests Two-Factor Imagination Scale] * {{cite web|title=The neuroscience of imagination|url=https://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-neuroscience-of-imagination-andrey-vyshedskiy|website=TED-Ed}} {{ذهني عمل}} {{اخلاقي خوبيون}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:تصور]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ]] [[زمرو:ذهني عمل]] [[زمرو:ادراڪ]] [[زمرو:شاعري]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] [[زمرو:لغت]] d9cu1mmmkuanl9bee15sza4y2zehsqj سيد احمد بريلوي 0 38071 394764 383855 2026-07-16T07:46:20Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|اسلامي احيا پسند، صوفي عالم ۽ فوجي اڳواڻ (1786–1831)}} {{distinguish|text=[[احمد رضا خان بريلوي]] ۽ [[سيد احمد خان]]}} {{other uses|سيد احمد (سلجھائپ)}} {{Infobox religious biography | religion = [[سني اسلام]] | name = سيد احمد بريلوي | image = File:Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi Calligraphy.png | caption = عربيءَ ۾ ”سيد احمد بريلوي“ (سَيِّدُ أَحْمَدْ بَرَيْلَوِيّ) جي نالي جي اسلامي خطاطي | birth_date = {{birth date |1786|11|29|df=y}} | birth_place = [[راءِ بريلي]]، [[اودھ جي بادشاھت]] | death_date = {{death date and age |1831|5|6|1786|11|29|df=y}} | death_place = [[بالاڪوٹ]]، [[سک سلطنت]] | other_names = شهيدِ بالاڪوٹ، امام المجاهدين | known_for = [[اسلامي احيا پسندي]] | influences = [[شاه ولي الله دهلوي]]، [[شاه عبدالعزيز دهلوي]] | main_interests = [[اسلامي بنياد پرستي]]، [[شيعه مخالف تحريڪ]]، [[حديث]]، [[جهاد]] | relatives = | website = | footnotes = | jurisprudence = [[حنفي]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ahmad Ali | first=Mukhtar | title= Sectarian Conflict in Pakistan: A Case Study of Jhang | publisher = Regional Centre for Strategic Studies | year= 2000 | isbn= 9789558051092 | page= 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Hidden caliphate: Sufi saints beyond the Oxus and Indus|pages=176|last=Ziad|first=Waleed|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2021|isbn=9780674269385}}</ref><br> [[اجتهاد|آزاد اجتهادي]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hedayetullah|first=Muhammad|title=Sayyid Ahmad: a Study of the Religious Reform Movement of Sayyid Ahmad of Ra'e Bareli|publisher=Mcgill University|year=1968|location=Montreal, Canada|pages=113, 115, 158}}</ref> | creed = [[ماتريدي]] | influenced = [[صديق حسن خان]]، [[سيد نذير حسين دهلوي]]، [[ڪرامت علي جونپوري]]، [[نور محمد نظامپوري]]، [[رشيد احمد گنگوهي]]، [[ابوالاعليٰ مودودي]]، [[تيتو مير]]<br />۽ بعد ۾ ايندڙ تقريباً هر هندستاني جهادي تحريڪ | Sufi_order = [[چشتي سلسلو]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reifeld, Zaheer Husain Jafri | first=Helmut, Saiyid | title= The Islamic Path: Sufism, Society, and Politics in India | publisher= Rainbow Publishers | year=2006 | isbn= 9788186962862 | page=5}}</ref><br> [[نقشبندي مجددي سلسلو]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics|last=Gaborieau|first=Marc|publisher=Brill|year=2021|isbn=90-04-11300-2|pages=457-58}}</ref> | movement = [[تحريڪ مجاهدين|طريقه محمديه]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics|last=Gaborieau|first=Marc|publisher=Brill|year=2021|isbn=90-04-11300-2|page=457}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=What is a Madrasa?|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4744-0173-9|page=92}}</ref> }} '''سيد احمد بريلوي'''، جيڪو '''سيد احمد شهيد''' جي نالي سان پڻ مشهور آهي،<ref name=Guha>{{Cite book|last=Guhathakurta, van Schendel|first=Meghna, Willem|title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics|isbn=978-0-8223-5304-1|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2013|location=London, United Kingdom|pages=102|chapter=Wage Holy War-Or Leave!}}</ref> (1786ع–1831ع){{sfn|Adamec|2009|p=54}}{{sfn|Jalal|2009|pp=307–308}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جو هڪ [[مجدد|اسلامي مجدد]]، [[سني اسلام|سني]] [[اسلامي عالم]]، [[نقشبندي سلسلو|نقشبندي]] صوفي ''مرشد''،<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics|last=Gaborieau|first=Marc|publisher=Brill|year=2021|isbn=90-04-11300-2|pages=457-58}}</ref> ۽ فوجي اڳواڻ هو، جيڪو اتر هندستان جي [[راءِ بريلي]] شهر سان تعلق رکندو هو. سندس لقب ''بريلوي'' سندس آبائي شهر راءِ بريلي مان نڪتل آهي. سيد احمد [[تحريڪ مجاهدين (طريقه محمديه)|طريقه محمديه]] جي اڳواڻي ڪئي، جيڪا هڪ اسلامي اصلاحي ۽ [[جهاد]]ي تحريڪ هئي، جنهن جو بنيادي هدف [[سک سلطنت]] جي خلاف جدوجهد هو. بعد ۾ اها تحريڪ [[برطانوي هندستان]] جي مختلف علائقن ۾ طويل نوآبادياتي مخالف بغاوتن جو بنياد بڻي.{{sfn|Jalal|2009|p=71}}<ref name="Guha" /> ڪيترائي مسلمان کيس پنهنجي دور جو ''[[مجدد]]'' (دين جو نئون ڪندڙ) قرار ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campo|first=Juan Eduardo|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|pages=92}}</ref> [[اهل حديث]] ۽ [[ديوبندي تحريڪ]] جا پيروڪار پڻ کيس هڪ وڏي علمي ۽ مذهبي اڳواڻ جي حيثيت سان احترام ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ahmad|first=M.|title=Saiyid Ahmad Barevali: His Life and Mission (No. 93)|date=1975|publisher=Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications|pages=27}}</ref> == احوال زندگي == سندس وڏو ڏاڏو سيد قطب الدين شاهه، التمش جي دؤر ۾ هندستان ۾ آيو ۽ شيخ الاسلام جو عهدو حاصل ڪيو هئائين<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. سيد احمد شروعاتي تعليم گھر ۾ حاصل ڪئي. ننڍپڻ ۾ بندوق ۽ تير هلائڻ ۾ وڏي مهارت رکندو هو. ٿورو وڏو ٿيڻ بعد مخلوقِ خدا جي خدمت ڪرڻ شروع ڪيائين. سترهن سالن جي عمر ۾ ملازمت لاءِ پهرين لکنؤ ۽ پوءِ دهليءَ شاهه عبدالعزيز جي خدمت ۾ پهتو، جنهن کيس شاهه عبدالقادر ڏانهن موڪليو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. جتي پاڻ عربي ۽ فارسي جا ڪتاب پڙهيائين<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. 1808ع ۾ سيد احمد واپس بريليءَ پهتو ۽ اتي ئي ”زهره“ نالي عورت سان شادي ڪيائين<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. انهيءَ زماني ۾ امير الدوله نواب ٽونڪ وٽ ملازمت ڪيائين.<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا">[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=بريلوي%20%20احمد%20شاهه ''بريلوي احمد شاھ''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241229031442/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%20%20%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF%20%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%87 |date=2024-12-29 }} [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]] (جي ويب-سرزمين) جلد پھريون، [[سنڌي ٻوليءَ جو با اختيار ادارو]]، حيدرآباد. سال:2012ع</ref> رائيبريلي کان دھلي لڏڻ بعد ھن شاھ ولي الله جي پٽ سان گڏ تعليم حاصل ڪئي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/>. 1811 کان 1818 تائين ھن وچ انڊيا جي ھڪ مسلمان حاڪم جي فوج ملازمت ڪئي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام "> - Encyclopedia of Islam- Juan E. Campo J. Gordon Melton, Series Editor-: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 - pages# 92,93 </ref>. ==سنڌ ۾ آمد== سيد احمد بريلوي جي سنڌ آمد کان ٿورو اڳ [[حيدرآباد]] جا حڪمران [[مير نور محمد ٽالپر]] (وفات 1833ع)، [[مير ڪرم علي ٽالپر]] (وفات 1823ع) ۽ [[مير مراد علي ٽالپر]] (وفات 1837ع) هئا. ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته ميرن کي سيد احمد جي شخصيت ۽ سندس سرگرمين بابت پنهنجن جاسوسن ۽ خبر رسائيندڙن وسيلي چڱيءَ طرح آگاهي حاصل هئي. مير خاص طور تي [[ايسٽ انڊيا ڪمپني]] جي توسيع پسند پاليسي بابت فڪرمند رهندا هئا ۽ برطانوي قبضي هيٺ علائقن جي هر اهم واقعي بابت معلومات گڏ ڪندا هئا.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> اهڙي صورتحال ۾ ميرن جي ذهنن ۾ سيد احمد جي تحريڪ بابت شڪ پيدا ٿيڻ فطري ڳالهه هئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سندس گهڻا ساٿي برطانوي علائقن مان ڀرتي ڪيا ويا هئا، کيس وڏي پيماني تي مالي امداد ملي رهي هئي، ۽ هو سک سلطنت خلاف جنگ جي تياري ڪري رهيو هو. ان هوندي به برطانوي حڪومت نه صرف سندس سرگرمين کي روڪيو نه، پر کيس هٿياربند ساٿين سميت پنهنجي علائقن مان گذرڻ جي اجازت پڻ ڏني. هندستاني رياستن جا حڪمران، جيڪي مڪمل طور برطانوي اثر هيٺ هئا ۽ سندن ناراضگي مول وٺڻ کان ڪيٻائيندا هئا، سيد احمد جي آجيان ڪندا هئا ۽ کيس اخلاقي ۽ مادي مدد پڻ فراهم ڪندا هئا. انهن حالتن سبب ميرن جو خيال هو ته سيد احمد ۽ سندس تحريڪ کي برطانوي حڪومت جي حمايت حاصل آهي<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar">{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Mubarak |title=Essays On The History of Sindh |publisher=Fiction House |location=Lahore |year=2005 |pages=—66 کان 72 تائين }}</ref> سنڌ، [[بلوچستان]] ۽ [[پنجاب]] ۾ اها افواهه به عام هئي ته سيد احمد دراصل برطانوي حڪومت جو ايجنٽ آهي. سياح [[چارلس ميسن]]، جيڪو انهن علائقن ۾ گهمندو رهيو، لکي ٿو ته سيد احمد پنهنجي سپاهين کي ڪمپنيءَ جي رپين ۾ پگهار ڏيندو هو، جنهن سبب ماڻهو کيس برطانوي حڪومت جو نمائندو سمجهندا هئا. ميسن وڌيڪ لکي ٿو ته عام ماڻهن کي شڪ هو ته سيد احمد کي ”صاحبن“ موڪليو آهي، ۽ کيس پاڻ به بار بار ان بابت سوالن جا جواب ڏيڻا پوندا هئا.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> سنڌ ۾ سيد احمد جي آمد ۽ ميرن سان سندس ملاقاتن باوجود انهن جا شڪ ختم نه ٿيا. جڏهن 1827ع ۾ [[جيمس برنس]] ميرن جي درٻار ۾ آيو ته [[مير مراد علي ٽالپر]] هڪ خانگي ملاقات دوران کانئس پڇيو ته ڇا برطانوي حڪومت سيد احمد کي مالي امداد فراهم ڪري ٿي؟ جيمس برنس لکي ٿو ته هن تعجب جو اظهار ڪندي جواب ڏنو ته سيد احمد رڳو دين خاطر جنگ ڪري رهيو آهي، پر سندس جواب مير مراد علي کي مطمئن نه ڪري سگهيو. مير مراد علي وراڻيو ته جيتوڻيڪ [[بمبئي]] حڪومت، جنهن جو جيمس برنس ملازم هو، شايد ان معاملي کان بيخبر هجي، پر [[بنگال]] ۾ يقيناً سڀ ڪجهه معلوم هوندو.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> انهن حالتن ۾ جڏهن سيد احمد 1826ع ۾ سنڌ پهتو ته کيس اهڙي آجيان نه ملي جهڙي هن اميد ڪئي هئي. نه کيس پنهنجي لشڪر لاءِ رضاڪار مليا ۽ نه ئي تحريڪ لاءِ خاطرخواهه مالي مدد حاصل ٿي. هو [[مارواڙ]] مان ريگستان پار ڪري سنڌ ۾ داخل ٿيو ۽ [[عمرڪوٽ]] سندس پهريون قيام گاهه بڻيو. اتي پهچڻ شرط هن حاجي عبدالرحيم کي قلعي جي [[قلعدار]] سان ڳالهين لاءِ موڪليو ته جيئن رهائش جا انتظام ٿي سگهن. قلعدار کي سيد احمد جي برطانوي علائقن مان اچڻ سبب شڪ هو، تنهن ڪري هن کيس ۽ سندس ساٿين کي قلعي اندر اچڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني. احتياطاً حڪم ڏنو ويو ته هو قلعي کان محفوظ فاصلي تي ترسن ۽ ٻئي ڏينهن علائقو ڇڏي وڃن. جڏهن سيد احمد جا ڪجهه ساٿي قلعي جي زيارت لاءِ ويجهو پهتا ته سپاهين کين شڪي نظر سان ڏٺو ۽ فائرنگ لاءِ تيار ٿي ويا، پر جڏهن کين يقين ڏياريو ويو ته سندن مقصد صرف قلعي جو ديدار آهي ته کين اندر وڃڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> عمرڪوٽ کان پوءِ سيد احمد [[کارو]] پهتو، جتي سندس ملاقات وڏي عزت وارن سيد [[چورڻ شاهه]] سان ٿي. چورڻ شاهه کيس هڪ مينهن تحفي طور ڏني ۽ سنڌ ۾ پکڙيل انهن افواهن بابت آگاهه ڪيو ته هو انگريزن جو ايجنٽ آهي. هن اهو پڻ پيش ڪيو ته هو سيد احمد جو تعارف [[ميرپورخاص]] جي حڪمران سان ڪرائيندو ته جيئن سندس شڪ شبها دور ٿي سگهن. جڏهن سيد احمد [[ميرپورخاص]] پهتو ته [[مير علي مراد ٽالپر]] (وفات 1837ع) پاڻ ساڻس ملڻ نه آيو. هن فقط ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ٻه ماڻهو موڪليا ته جيئن سيد احمد کي [[حيدرآباد]] جو رستو ڏيکاري سگهن. ميرپورخاص کان پوءِ سيد احمد [[ٽنڊو الهيار]] پهتو، جتي حيدرآباد مان ٻه ماڻهو خاص طور تي سندس بابت معلومات حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڪليا ويا. اتان هو [[ٽنڊو ڄام]] ويو ۽ پوءِ حيدرآباد جي ميرن ڏانهن پنهنجي آمد جو اطلاع موڪليائين.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> ميرن سندس استقبال لاءِ [[سيد صبغت الله شاهه]] کي موڪليو. حيدرآباد پهچڻ تي شهر جي [[ڪوٽوال]] سندس آجيان ڪئي ۽ ميرن جي طرفان خوراڪ ۽ ٻيون ضروري شيون فراهم ڪيون. آمد کان ٽن ڏينهن پوءِ سيد احمد ميرن سان ملاقات لاءِ قلعي ۾ ويو. ميرن سندس سٺي نموني سان آجيان ڪئي ۽ کيس ڪجهه نقد رقم ۽ معمولي تحفا ڏنا. درٻار جي ڪجهه ماڻهن، جن ۾ ميرن جو وزير [[مير اسماعيل شاهه]] ۽ امير [[محمد يوسف خان]] شامل هئا، سيد احمد جي هٿ تي بيعت پڻ ڪئي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> سيد احمد حيدرآباد ۾ تيرهن ڏينهن رهيو، پر ميرن جي سرد مهريءَ سبب مايوس ٿيو. کيس نه اها مالي مدد ملي جنهن جي اميد هئي ۽ نه ئي اها سياسي حمايت جيڪا هو حاصل ڪرڻ چاهيندو هو. انهيءَ سبب هن پنهنجي خاندان کي حيدرآباد گهرائڻ جو ارادو به ترڪ ڪري ڇڏيو. حيدرآباد کان پوءِ هو [[رانيپور]]، [[هالا]]، [[ڪوٽ سيد]]، [[لعلو ڪوٽ]]، [[هنگورجا]] ۽ [[پير ڳوٺ]] ويو. [[پير صبغت الله شاهه راشدي]]، جيڪو [[حر تحريڪ]] جو روحاني اڳواڻ هو، رانيپور ۾ ساڻس مليو. هن سيد احمد جي رهائش جو بندوبست ڪيو ۽ هر قسم جون سهولتون فراهم ڪيون. سندس دوستانه رويو ڏسي سيد احمد فيصلو ڪيو ته پنهنجي خاندان کي هتي آباد ڪندو. پير صبغت الله شاهه سک سلطنت خلاف جهاد ۾ حصو وٺڻ جي خواهش جو به اظهار ڪيو.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> پير ڳوٺ کان پوءِ سيد احمد [[راکا]]، [[حبيب ڪوٽ]] ۽ آخرڪار [[شڪارپور]] پهتو. شڪارپور ۾ سندس اوچتو پهچڻ سبب شهر وارن کي گمان ٿيو ته هو [[شاهه شجاع]] جي لشڪر جو حصو آهي، جنهن جون تلخ يادون اڃا تائين شهرين جي ذهنن ۾ موجود هيون. نتيجي طور شهر جا دروازا بند ڪيا ويا ۽ ڪنهن کي به اندر اچڻ جي اجازت نه ڏني وئي. سيد احمد پنهنجي ڪجهه قابل اعتماد ماڻهن کي شهر جي گورنر [[آغا ڪاظم]] وٽ موڪليو ته کيس يقين ڏيارين ته هن جو شاهه شجاع سان ڪو تعلق ناهي ۽ هو صرف ٻه يا ٽي ڏينهن رهڻ چاهي ٿو.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> ان کان پوءِ آغا ڪاظم ٻن ماڻهن کي شهر اندر خريداري لاءِ اچڻ جي اجازت ڏني. بعد ۾ شهر جا دروازا کولي ڇڏيا ويا ۽ شهر جا ماڻهو سيد احمد سان ملڻ لاءِ اچڻ لڳا. آغا ڪاظم نه صرف سندس ۽ سندس ساٿين جي مهمانداري ڪئي، پر عقيدت جي اظهار طور کيس تحفا پڻ پيش ڪيا. هن وڏي جوش سان سيد احمد جي حمايت جو اعلان ڪيو ۽ واعدو ڪيو ته هو پنهنجي فوج سميت سک سلطنت خلاف جهاد ۾ شامل ٿيندو.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> شڪارپور، جيڪو ان وقت سنڌ جو اهم واپاري مرڪز هو، اتي سيد احمد پنهنجي ساٿين لاءِ جوتا ۽ ڪپڙا خريد ڪيا. آخرڪار 20 جولاءِ 1826ع تي هو شڪارپور ڇڏڻ کان پوءِ پنهنجي سفر تي اڳتي روانو ٿي ويو.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> == سنڌ ۾ سندس تحريڪ جو اثر == سيد احمد بريلوي کي سنڌ مان پنهنجي تحريڪ لاءِ وڏيون اميدون هيون. هن جي خواهش هئي ته سنڌ مان وڏي تعداد ۾ رضاڪار سندس لشڪر ۾ شامل ٿين ۽ ميرن توڙي عام ماڻهن کان مالي مدد حاصل ٿئي. پر ''تاريخِ تازه نواءِ معارڪ'' جي مصنف موجب سنڌ ۾ سيد احمد کي سندس مذهبي نظرين سبب سخت تنقيد ۽ مخالفت کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هو ''وهّابي'' طور مشهور ٿي چڪو هو. ماڻهن جي هڪ وڏي حصي کي اهو به شڪ هو ته ٿورڙن ساٿين سان گڏ هڪ طاقتور [[سک سلطنت]] خلاف جنگ ڪرڻ جو منصوبو عملي طور ڪامياب نه ٿي سگهندو. عام راءِ اها هئي ته هن تحريڪ جا ڪي واضح سياسي يا عملي مقصد نه آهن ۽ رڳو مذهب جي نالي تي بيگناهه ماڻهن کي مشڪلاتن ۾ وڌو پيو وڃي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> برطانوي هندستان جي ابتڙ سنڌ ان وقت ڪنهن غير ملڪي طاقت جي قبضي هيٺ نه هئي، تنهن ڪري ماڻهن کي ڪنهن سياسي نعري هيٺ گڏ ڪرڻ آسان نه هو. سيد احمد جي تحريڪ جو بنياد گهڻو ڪري مذهبي جذباتيت تي هو، جڏهن ته سنڌ جا ماڻهو پاڻ کي سياسي ۽ معاشي طور نسبتاً مطمئن محسوس ڪندا هئا ۽ کين هن تحريڪ ۾ شامل ٿيڻ سان ڪو واضح مادي فائدو نظر نه ايندو هو. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه ماڻهو، جهڙوڪ [[آغا ڪاظم]]، جيتوڻيڪ ظاهري طور سندس همدردي ڪندا هئا ۽ ساڻس شامل ٿيڻ جا واعدا به ڪندا هئا، پر عملي طور اهي واعدا ڪڏهن به پورا نه ڪيا ويا.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . سيد احمد جو سنڌ ۾ قيام تمام مختصر هو، جنهن سبب کيس ماڻهن ۾ پنهنجن مذهبي ۽ سياسي خيالن جي تبليغ ڪرڻ ۽ کين پنهنجي مقصد لاءِ قائل ڪرڻ جو مناسب موقعو نه ملي سگهيو. نتيجي طور سندس تحريڪ سنڌي سماج ۾ ڪو مضبوط بنياد قائم نه ڪري سگهي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . ميرن جو رويو پڻ گهڻو محتاط ۽ سفارتي نوعيت جو هو. هنن عوامي سطح تي سيد احمد سان همدردي جو اظهار ڪيو، پر عملي طور سندس تحريڪ ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان پاسو ڪيو. ميرن کي تحريڪ جي اصل مقصدن بابت پورو يقين نه هو. ساڳئي وقت هو [[مهاراجا رنجيت سنگهه]] کي ناراض ڪرڻ به نه چاهيندا هئا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رنجيت سنگهه انتهائي طاقتور حڪمران هو ۽ کيس سنڌ تي حملي لاءِ ڪنهن به بهاني جي تلاش رهندي هئي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . بهرحال، 1831ع ۾ ميرن سيد احمد جي نالي کي پنهنجي سياسي مفادن لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. جڏهن [[اليگزينڊر برنس]] کي [[سنڌو درياهه]] ۾ آمدرفت ۽ جاچ لاءِ موڪليو ويو ته ميرن جي هڪ نمائندي [[رنجيت سنگهه]] جي درٻار ۾ اهو تاثر ڏنو ته برنس جيڪو گاڏو ساڻ کڻي اچي رهيو آهي، اهو سون جي اشرفين سان ڀريل آهي ۽ اهي اشرفيون سيد احمد کي ڏيڻ لاءِ آنديون پيون وڃن. پر اها تدبير ڪامياب نه ٿي سگهي ۽ اليگزينڊر برنس پنهنجي مهم مڪمل ڪندي سنڌو درياهه جي آمدرفت بابت سروي انجام ڏني.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . جيتوڻيڪ سيد احمد جي آمد ۽ سندس مختصر قيام جو سنڌ جي مقامي تاريخ تي سڌو سنئون ڪو وڏو اثر نه پيو، پر سک سلطنت خلاف سندس جنگين اڻسڌي طرح سنڌ جي مستقبل تي اهم اثر ڇڏيو. جڏهن [[رنجيت سنگهه]] سنڌ تي حملي جا ارادا رکندو هو، تڏهن هو سيد احمد سان لڳاتار جنگين ۾ مصروف رهيو. 1832ع ۾، سيد احمد جي شڪست ۽ وفات کان پوءِ، رنجيت سنگهه ٻيهر سنڌ تي قبضي لاءِ برطانوي حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، پر کيس اها اجازت نه ملي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . ڊاڪٽر مبارڪ علي مطابق مؤرخ کيرا صحيح طور مشاهدو ڪيو آهي ته: "مهاراجا رنجيت سنگهه گهڻو دير ڪري چڪو هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جنهن عرصي دوران هو سيد احمد سان جنگين ۾ مشغول رهيو، ان دوران برطانوي حڪومت جا سنڌ بابت مفاد ۽ پاليسيون تبديل ٿي چڪيون هيون، ۽ هاڻي سنڌ سندن خاص دلچسپيءَ جو مرڪز بڻجي چڪي هئي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref>" اهڙيءَ طرح، هڪ لحاظ کان سيد احمد بريلوي جي تحريڪ سنڌ کي سک سلطنت جي قبضي کان بچائي ورتو، پر آخرڪار سنڌ برطانوي سلطنت جي قبضي هيٺ هلي وئي.<ref name="MubarakAli-Essays-Lahribandar"></ref> . . == جھاد == 1810ع ۾ جڏهن امير خان انگريزن سان معاهدو ڪيو ته هن امير خان کان عليحدگي اختيار ڪئي ۽ شاهه عبدالعزيز جي خدمت ۾ حاضر ٿيو، جتي اڪبري مسجد ۾ رهيو ۽ تعليم ڏيڻ شروع ڪيائين<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. اتي شاهه اسماعيل سندس هٿ تي بيعت ڪئي، انهيءَ زماني ۾ جهاد جي تبليغ شروع ڪيائين. سهارن پور، گنگوهه، مظفر نگر، ديوبند، ڪانڌلا، سلون، الهه آباد، بنارس، سلطان پور، ڪانپور، لکنؤ ۽ ٻين شهرن جو سفر مسلمانن جي عقيدي ۽ عمل جي اصلاح ۽ منجهن جهاد جو شوق پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪيائين<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>.1822<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/> يا 1821ع<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/> ۾ 400 ساٿين سان گڏ حج تي روانو ٿيو ۽ 28 شعبان 1239ھ/28 اپريل 1824ع تي ساٿين سميت حج جو فريضو ادا ڪري واپس وطن پهتو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. حج تان واپسيءَ بعد سيد احمد بريلوي جهاد جي تيارين ۾ مصروف ٿي ويو ۽ جڏهن مجاهدن جي هڪ جماعت تيار ٿي، تڏهن 7 جمادي الثاني 1241ھ/ 17 جنوري 1826ع کان هندستان کي ’دارالحراب‘ جو نالو ڏئي ڪالپي، گواليار، ٽونڪ، اجمير، پالي، امرڪوٽ، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]] (سنڌ)، راڻيپور، شڪارپور، بولان، ڪوئٽا، غزني، ڪابل، جلال آباد جي رستي پشاورپهتو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. سنڌ مان گذرڻ دوران هن پير صبغته الله شاهه اول سان راڻيپور ۾ ملاقات ٿي، جتي پير صاحب نه رڳو هن سان پنهنجا 500 سرفروش گڏي ڏنا، پر سندس حرن کي پاڻ وٽ پناهه بہ ڏني. اهي سنڌي سرفروش بالاڪوٽ واري معرڪي ۾ بهادريءَ سان وڙهيا هئا<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. پشاور پهچڻ بعد عام ماڻهن ۽ حاڪمن کي اسلام جي دعوت ڏنائين. ايتري قدر جو 1826ع ۾ پنجاب جي حاڪم رنجيت سنگهه کي شرعي پيغام موڪليائين ته بهتر ٿيندو ته هو اسلام قبول ڪري<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. ان ڳالھ تي رنجيت سنگھ پنهنجي ڀاءُ ٻڌ سنگھ کي ڏهن هزارن جي لشڪر سان سيد احمد شهيد سان مقابلي لاءِ موڪليو. 20 جمادي الاول 1242ھ/ 1826ع تي 900 مجاهدن رات جو سکن تي حملو ڪيو. هن معرڪي ۾ 700 سِک ۽ 82 مجاهد مارجي ويا ۽ سکن جو لشڪر اڪوڙا مان ڀڄي شيدو ۾ وڃي پناهه ورتي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. 1827ع تي سيد احمد شاهه جي ڪوششن سان 80 هزار مجاهد گڏ ٿيا<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. سکن سازش وسيلي يار محمد خان ۽ ٻين کي پاڻ سان ملائي ڇڏيو، يار محمد خان سيد احمد کي زهر ڏياريو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. هي اهو وقت هو جڏهن سکن سان شيدو جي ڏکڻ-الهندي ۾ جنگ شروع ٿيڻ واري هئي. سيد احمد بچي تہ ويو پر هي جنگ شڪست جو باعث بڻجي وئي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. عين فتح ياب ٿيڻ وقت يار محمد خان جنگ جي ميدان مان ڀڄي نڪتو، جنهنڪري کٽيل جنگ شڪست ۾ تبديل ٿي ويئي. ان بعد سک ۽ پشاور جا سردار سيد احمد جي ساٿين جا دشمن ٿي پيا. جنگ دوران يار محمد خان ماريو ويو ۽ ڪجهه وقت کانپوءِ ڳجهيءَ سازشن هيٺ سيد احمد جا 150 ساٿي ماريا ويا<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. 17 اپريل 1831ع تي سيد احمد بريلوي سچون کان بالاڪوٽ روانو ٿيو. جتي شاهه اسماعيل سندس شاندار استقبال ڪيو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>. 24 ذوالقعد تي بالاڪوٽ ۽ مٽي ڪوٽ جي وچ تي سيد احمد ۽ شير سنگھ جي جنگ شروع ٿي. سيد صاحب ساٿين سميت وڏي جذبي سان جنگ وڙهندو رهيو. جنگ وڙهندي پاڻ مٽي ڪوٽ جي واھ ۾ ڪري شهيد ٿي ويو. سيد احمد شهيد جي مزار بالاڪوٽ ۾ موجود آهي.<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/> [[File:Grave Of Syed Ahmed Shaheed.JPG|thumb|سيد احمد شھيد جي بالاڪوٽ ۾ قبر]] == ڪجهه تاريخي حقيقتون == پاڪستان جي حڪومتي سرپرستي واري تاريخ ۾ جيڪڏهن سيد احمد شھيد جي 1831 واري جھادي تحريڪ کي جيڪڏهن ڏسبو ته مورخ تحريڪ جي ناڪامي لاءِپٺاڻ قبيلن ۽ ان جي سردارن کي اھو چئي ذميدار قرار ڏين ٿاتہ انھن غداري ڪئي ۽ مجاھدين جو ساٿ نه ڏنو جيڪو سيد احمد شاھ جي شڪست جو سبب بڻيو<ref name="ڊاڪٽر مبارڪ علي"/>. ڊاڪٽر مبارڪ علي ان جو تجزيو ڪندي لکيو آهي تہ:"جڏهن ان تحريڪ کي علائقائي نظر سان ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته آھي سوال پيدا ٿيندا آهن تہ اھي قبيلن جي مشوري ۽ رضامندي کان بغير اتي آيا ۽ پنھنجي حڪومت قائم ڪري قبيلن کي پنھنجي اطاعت لاءِ مجبور ڪيو ان لاء پٺاڻن جي بغاوت جائز ھئي ڇوتہ انھن مجاھدن اتي اچي انھن قبيلن جي خودمختياري تي حملو ڪيو ھو<ref name=" ڊاڪٽر مبارڪ علي">اردو کتاب: تاریخ کی باتیں؛ از: ڈاکٹر مبارک علی؛ پبلشرز: تاریخ پبلیکیشنز،لاہور صہ28- </ref>. سيد احمد شاھ شيعن پاران امامن کي وڏو مقام ڏيڻ جي عمل ، مزارن تي پرستش وارين رسمن، ھندن جي سماجي ۽ مذھبي رسمن ۾ مسلمانن جي شرڪت جو سخت مخالفت ھو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/>. سندس حامين کيس پنھنجي دؤر جو مجدد ۽ ڪن کيس بشارت ڪيل [[مھدي]] سڏيو پر سندس مخالفن کيس [[وھابي]] سڏيو پر ھن پاڻ ڪڏھن اھڙي ڪابہ دعوا ڪانہ ڪئي ھئي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/>. درحقيقت ھي [[وھابي تحريڪ]] جي باني [[محمد ابن عبدالوھاب]] کان وڌيڪ [[شاھ ولي الله]] دھلي واري جي پيروي ڪندڙ ھيو<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/>. سيد احمد شاھ بريلوي جي تحريڪ [[احمد رضا بريلوي]] جي 1880 واري ڏھاڪي ۾ ھلايل [[بريلوي تحريڪ]] کان مختلف ھئي. ان سيد احمد شاھ بريلوي جي اصلاحي خيالن جي مخالفت ڪئي ۽ ان جي ابتڙ انھن صوفي بزرگن جي محنت ۽ انھن جي مزارن تي عقيدت سان حاضرين جي حمايت ڪئي<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف اسلام"/>. == ڪتاب == سيد احمد شهيد مسلمانن جي هدايت لاءِ ڪجهه ڪتاب پڻ لکيا. جن مان ڪجهه جا نالا ھيٺ ڏجن ٿا<ref name="انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا"/>: * [[صراطِ مستقيم]] * [[تنبيهه الغافلين]] * [[رسالا نماز]] * [[ملهمات احمديه في طريق المحمديه]] == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:بالاڪوٽ]] [[زمرو:1786ع جون وفاتون]] [[زمرو:1831ع جون فوتگيون]] [[زمرو:1831ع جون وفاتون]] [[زمرو:جھاد]] [[زمرو:حر]] [[زمرو:ڀارتي مسلمان]] [[زمرو:سڌارو ڪندڙ مسلمان]] k3b7kos4997za4u5zj6056m3xp6n4oj سنڌي نالا 0 39253 394591 369232 2026-07-15T12:49:54Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394591 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ### خان ۽ خانم '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### بيگ ۽ بيگم '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### مل سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ### هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### موسمون * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ### آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ### وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ### ميوا * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ### پکي * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ### گل * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ### جواهرات ۽ زيور * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] fu7f0xhmc28i4jz3gt9yf4dptedwxv1 394593 394591 2026-07-15T12:51:10Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا */ 394593 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ===خان ۽ خانم=== '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===بيگ ۽ بيگم=== '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مل=== سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ### هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### موسمون * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ### آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ### وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ### ميوا * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ### پکي * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ### گل * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ### جواهرات ۽ زيور * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] hrv4214j1wneq92igmcuhdjs3pkxakb 394594 394593 2026-07-15T12:51:45Z Intisar Ali 8681 394594 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ===خان ۽ خانم=== '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===بيگ ۽ بيگم=== '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مل=== سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا=== مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ===هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا=== هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ### موسمون * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ### آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ### وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ### ميوا * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ### پکي * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ### گل * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ### جواهرات ۽ زيور * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] l8zog0ex70gnkrdpdmm5vv6t3qz2eu5 394596 394594 2026-07-15T12:53:06Z Intisar Ali 8681 394596 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ===خان ۽ خانم=== '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===بيگ ۽ بيگم=== '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مل=== سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا=== مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ===هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا=== هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===موسمون=== * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ===آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر=== * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ===وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا=== * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ===ميوا=== * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ===پکي=== * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ===گل=== * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ===جواهرات ۽ زيور=== * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] 10ax2dmc84d2yp5ngk746otla1vh2on 394597 394596 2026-07-15T12:57:18Z Intisar Ali 8681 394597 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ===خان ۽ خانم=== '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===بيگ ۽ بيگم=== '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مل=== سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا=== مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ===هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا=== هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===موسمون=== * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ===آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر=== * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ===وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا=== * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ===ميوا=== * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ===پکي=== * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ===گل=== * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ===جواهرات ۽ زيور=== * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} ==سنڌي نالن جي فھرست== === مرداڻا نالا === {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ style="background:#2E8B57; color:white;" | سنڌي مرداڻا نالا ! style="background:#CFEED8;" | نالو ! style="background:#CFEED8;" | معنيٰ |- | الله ڏنو || خدا جو ڏنل تحفو |- | الله بچايو || خدا جي حفاظت ۾ |- | الله رکيو || خدا جي امان ۾ |- | آڪاش || آسمان |- | گل || گل |- | هيرو || هيرو، قيمتي پٿر |- | مهران || سنڌو درياهه |- | مور || مور |- | نينهن || محبت |- | پنهو || لوڪ داستان جو ڪردار |- | سچل || سچو، ايماندار |- | سانوڻ || برسات جي موسم |- | سمن || ڦر |- | سجاڳ || بيدار، هوشيار |- | سڄڻ || دوست، مهربان |- | ساگر || سمنڊ |- | عرس || عرس جي نسبت سان |- | زوراور || بهادر، طاقتور |} === عورتاڻا نالا === {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ style="background:#C2185B; color:white;" | سنڌي عورتاڻا نالا ! style="background:#F8D7E6;" | نالو ! style="background:#F8D7E6;" | معنيٰ |- | الله دِني || خدا جو ڏنل تحفو |- | الله رکي || خدا جي امان ۾ |- | آس || اميد |- | آسرا || سهارو، اميد |- | ڀاڳ || نصيب |- | چندروڪي || چنڊ جي روشني |- | گلان || گل |- | هوري || پري |- | ڪنول || ڪنول جو گل |- | ڪينجهر || ڍنڍ جو نالو |- | مارئي || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | مومل || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | نوري || روشني |- | پونم || مڪمل چنڊ |- | راڻي || راڻي |- | سونهن || حسن |- | سسئي || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | سنڌو || سنڌو درياهه |- | ستارو || تارو |- | ورکا || برسات |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] bgerfiwct3r37z8f17m30mfo62jctns 394600 394597 2026-07-15T12:59:28Z Intisar Ali 8681 394600 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سنڌي نالا''' سنڌي سماج ۾ رائج ذاتي نالا، لقب، ڪنيتون ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايتن تي مشتمل آهن، جيڪي سنڌ جي ڊگهي تاريخ، گهڻ رخي ثقافت ۽ مختلف مذهبي، لساني ۽ سماجي اثرن جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. سنڌي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]]، [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]] ۽ جديد دور ۾ [[انگريزي]] سميت ڪيترين ٻولين جو اثر رهيو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح [[هندومت]]، [[ٻڌ ڌرم]]، [[جين ڌرم]]، [[اسلام]] ۽ [[سک مت]] جهڙين مذهبي روايتن پڻ سنڌي نالن جي چونڊ ۽ معنائن تي نمايان اثر وڌو آهي. سنڌ ۾ نالا رڳو مذهبي شخصيتن يا تاريخي ڪردارن تان ئي نه، پر مهينن، هفتي جي ڏينهن، موسمن، گلن، وڻن، پکين، جواهرن، فطري شين، اخلاقي وصفن ۽ مقامي لوڪ روايتن تان پڻ رکيا ويندا رهيا آهن. مختلف دورن ۾ سياسي، واپاري ۽ ثقافتي رابطن سبب سنڌي نالن ۾ ڪيترائي پرڏيهي لقب ۽ نالا پڻ شامل ٿيا، جيڪي وقت سان گڏ سنڌي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويا. == نالن جي بناوت ۽ روايت == سنڌ ۾ ذاتي نالن جي جوڙجڪ تي مختلف ٻولين، ثقافتن ۽ تاريخي روايتن جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان لقب، ذاتي سڃاڻپ يا سماجي حيثيت ظاهر ڪندڙ لفظ پڻ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ ڪي نالا ڄمڻ جي وقت، مهيني، ڏينهن، موسم يا فطري شين جي نسبت سان رکيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="sandilo">سنڌي نالا؛ ڊاڪٽر عبدالڪريم سنديلو؛ ''مھراڻ'' رسالو، جلد 36، 1987ع؛ [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو.</ref> == لقبن تي ٻڌل نالا == ===خان ۽ خانم=== '''خان''' ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''سردار''، ''امير'' يا ''رئيس'' آهي. تاريخي طور اهو ترڪستان ۽ وچ ايشيا جي حڪمرانن ۽ اميرن جو لقب هو. بعد ۾ سنڌ سميت برصغير جي مسلمانن ۾ به اهو لقب نالن سان گڏ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيئن ''اسلم خان''، ''اعظم خان'' ۽ ''افضل خان''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''خانم'''، ''خان'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا اشرافي گهراڻن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''بلقيس خانم'' ۽ ''خورشيد خانم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===بيگ ۽ بيگم=== '''بيگ''' پڻ ترڪي ٻوليءَ جو لفظ آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''امير''، ''نواب'' يا ''سردار'' آهي. سنڌ ۾ هي لقب مردن جي نالن سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيئن ''قليچ بيگ'' ۽ ''افضل بيگ''.<ref name="sandilo"/> '''بيگم'''، ''بيگ'' جي مونث صورت آهي، جيڪا معزز يا اشرافي خاندانن جي عورتن لاءِ لقب طور استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيئن ''جهان آرا بيگم'' ۽ ''نورجهان بيگم''.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مل=== سنڌي هندن جي ڪيترن نالن جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ '''مل''' ايندو آهي، جيئن ''جڳت مل'' ۽ ''رهندومل''. ''مل'' جو بنياد سنسڪرت جي لفظ ''ملّ'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ''بهادر''، ''ويڙهاڪ'' يا ''پهلوان'' آهي. سنڌي لفظ ''ملهه'' پڻ انهيءَ مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پهلوان يا ڪشتيباز جي معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/><ref>''هندي شبد ساگر''، جلد 5، ص 2676، ناگري پرچارڻي سڀا، ڪاشي.</ref> == ڄمڻ جي وقت سان لاڳاپيل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ٻارن جا نالا سندن ڄمڻ جي مهيني يا ڏينهن جي نسبت سان رکڻ جي روايت پڻ موجود رهي آهي.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===مهينن تي ٻڌل نالا=== مسلمانن ۾: * محرم خان، محمد محرم * صفر خان، محمد صفر * عرس خان، محمد عرس * شعبان خان، محمد شعبان * رمضان خان، محمد رمضان هندن ۾: * چيٽومل * ڄيٺومل * سانوڻ مل * آسومل * پوهومل * ڦڳڻ مل * ڦڳڻ داس ===هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا=== هفتي جي ڏينهن تي ٻڌل نالا پڻ عام رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * آچر خان، آڏومل * سومر خان، سومار خان * منگل خان، منگل مل * ٻڌر مل * خميسو خان * جمعا خان * محمد جمن == فطرت مان ورتل نالا == سنڌ ۾ ڪيترائي نالا قدرتي شين، موسمن ۽ ماحول مان پڻ ورتا ويا آهن.<ref name="sandilo"/> ===موسمون=== * بهار خان * بهارو مل * بهاري لال * بسنت راءِ * بسنت مل ===آسماني ۽ موسمي عنصر=== * ميگهراج * مينگهراج * ميگهومل * مينگهومل * بادل خان * بادل مل ===وڻ ۽ ٻوٽا=== * ٻيلو خان * ٻيلو مل * جهنگل خان * اڪ خان ===ميوا=== * ڏاڙهون خان * ڏاڙهومل * صوف خان * محمد صوفن ===پکي=== * مورخان * مور خاتون * موران * طوطو مل * طوطل داس * طوطل خان ===گل=== * گلاب خان * گلابي * گلاب سنگ * گلان * گلي ===جواهرات ۽ زيور=== * ماڻڪ خان * ماڻڪ مل * هيرومل * هيرانند * گوهر خان * لعل محمد * لعل داس * چاندي خان * سونو خان * سونل == گڏيل نالا == سنڌ جي گڏيل سماجي ۽ ثقافتي ماحول سبب ڪيترائي نالا مسلمانن ۽ هندن ٻنهي ۾ هڪجهڙا رائج رهيا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * چڀڙ خان / چڀڙ مل * متيرو خان / متيرو مل * ڪوڙو خان / ڪوڙو مل * سڄڻ خان / سڄڻ مل * مانجھي خان / مانجھي مل * عيدن خان / عيدن مل * کٽڻ خان / کٽڻ مل بهرحال، ڪجهه نالا صورت ۾ هڪجهڙا هجڻ باوجود سندن بنيادي اشتقاق ۽ معنيٰ مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور ''سچو'' مسلمانن وٽ ''سچي ڏنو'' سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ هندن وٽ اهو سنسڪرت جي ''سچدانند'' مان نڪتل سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="sandilo"/> == عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون == سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪيترن عربي ۽ فارسي نالن جون مقامي صورتون پڻ رائج ٿيون، جن مان ڪجهه هي آهن:<ref name="sandilo"/> {| class="wikitable" ! اصل نالو !! سنڌي مقامي صورتون |- | آمنہ || ايمڻا، آمني، آمڻي، آمي |- | فاطمہ || ڦاپان، ڦاپي، ڦاپو، ڦاپل |- | زليخا || جلان، جلي |- | صفوره || سڦوران، سڦوري |- | نعمت || نيامت، نيامي، نامي |- | صاحب خان || صابو، صبو |- | غلام قادر || قادن، قادو |} == نالي رکڻ جو رواج == سنڌي نالن جي بناوت ۽ نالي رکڻ جي روايت تي سنڌ جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ تاريخي ورثي جو گهرو اثر رهيو آهي. سنڌ جا اڪثر رهواسي [[اسلام]] جا پوئلڳ آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ [[هندومت]]، [[سک مت]] ۽ ٻين مذهبن سان واسطو رکندڙ سنڌي پڻ پنهنجي پنهنجي مذهبي ۽ ثقافتي روايتن موجب نالا اختيار ڪندا آهن. سنڌي نالن ۾ [[عربي]]، [[فارسي]]، [[ترڪي]]، [[سنسڪرت]]، [[پراڪرت]] ۽ ٻين هند-آريائي ٻولين مان ورتل نالا وڏي پيماني تي رائج آهن.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |title=Sindh, and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus |publisher=W. H. Allen |year=1851}}</ref><ref name="sindhi1">{{cite web |title=Structure of Sindhi Language |website=Central Institute of Indian Languages |date=21 April 2024 |url=http://lisindia.ciil.org/Sindhi/sindhi_struct.html}}</ref> روايتي طور سنڌي مڪمل نالي ۾ ذاتي نالو، والد يا ڪنهن بزرگ جي نسبت وارو نالو، ۽ خانداني نالو يا ذات شامل هوندي آهي. ڪيترن نالن سان ''خان''، ''بيگ''، ''سيد''، ''مير''، ''مولانا''، ''حاجي'' يا ''ڊاڪٽر'' جهڙا لقب پڻ اڳيان يا پٺيان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي مذهبي، سماجي، علمي يا خانداني حيثيت ظاهر ڪن ٿا.<ref name="sindhi1"/> === مرداڻا نالا === {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ style="background:#2E8B57; color:white;" | سنڌي مرداڻا نالا ! style="background:#CFEED8;" | نالو ! style="background:#CFEED8;" | معنيٰ |- | الله ڏنو || خدا جو ڏنل تحفو |- | الله بچايو || خدا جي حفاظت ۾ |- | الله رکيو || خدا جي امان ۾ |- | آڪاش || آسمان |- | گل || گل |- | هيرو || هيرو، قيمتي پٿر |- | مهران || سنڌو درياهه |- | مور || مور |- | نينهن || محبت |- | پنهو || لوڪ داستان جو ڪردار |- | سچل || سچو، ايماندار |- | سانوڻ || برسات جي موسم |- | سمن || ڦر |- | سجاڳ || بيدار، هوشيار |- | سڄڻ || دوست، مهربان |- | ساگر || سمنڊ |- | عرس || عرس جي نسبت سان |- | زوراور || بهادر، طاقتور |} === عورتاڻا نالا === {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ style="background:#C2185B; color:white;" | سنڌي عورتاڻا نالا ! style="background:#F8D7E6;" | نالو ! style="background:#F8D7E6;" | معنيٰ |- | الله دِني || خدا جو ڏنل تحفو |- | الله رکي || خدا جي امان ۾ |- | آس || اميد |- | آسرا || سهارو، اميد |- | ڀاڳ || نصيب |- | چندروڪي || چنڊ جي روشني |- | گلان || گل |- | هوري || پري |- | ڪنول || ڪنول جو گل |- | ڪينجهر || ڍنڍ جو نالو |- | مارئي || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | مومل || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | نوري || روشني |- | پونم || مڪمل چنڊ |- | راڻي || راڻي |- | سونهن || حسن |- | سسئي || سنڌي لوڪ داستان جي ڪردار |- | سنڌو || سنڌو درياهه |- | ستارو || تارو |- | ورکا || برسات |} == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:ساھتيۂ]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ثقافت]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ذاتيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:سنڌي نالا]] q411ccpft7lojak1assmezvicbjuham صابڻ 0 39788 394767 394448 2026-07-16T08:28:35Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|صفائي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ مادو}} [[فائل:Handmade soap cropped and simplified.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|هٿ سان تيار ڪيل صابڻ جي ٽڪي]] [[فائل:Sodium stearate v2.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[سوڊيم اسٽيئريٽ]] جي ڪيميائي بناوت، جيڪا صابڻ جي ٽڪين ۾ عام جزو هوندي آهي]] [[فائل:Action of soap on oil.ogv|thumb|upright=1|تيل تي صابڻ جي [[ايمَلشن|ايمَلشن ٺاهڻ]] واري عمل جو ڏيک]] '''صابڻ''' (عربي: صابون، فارسي: صابن، ھندي/اردو: صابون، سقونيا، حنين ۽ سوپ) [[چرٻيدار تيزاب]] (Fatty acid) يا ڪڏهن ٻين [[ڪاربوڪسائلي تيزاب]]ن جي [[لوڻ (ڪيميا)|لوڻ]] کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو صفائي، ڌوئڻ، سڻڀ ڏيڻ ۽ ٻين ڪيترن صنعتي مقصدن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref>{{GoldBookRef |title=Soap |file=S05721 |accessdate=9 August 2010}}</ref> گهريلو استعمال ۾، خاص طور ''ٽوائليٽ صابڻ''، [[سطحي فعال مادو|سطحي فعال مادا]] (سرفيڪٽنٽس) هوندا آهن، جيڪي هٿ، جسم، ڪپڙا ۽ گهر جي ٻين شين جي صفائي لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. صنعتي شعبي ۾ صابڻ کي [[گاڙهو ڪندڙ مادو]]، ڪجهه [[چکنائي ڏيندڙ مادا|چکنائي ڏيندڙن]] (لبريڪنٽس) جو جزو، [[ايمَلسيفاير]] ۽ [[ڪيٽالسٽ]] طور پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. صابڻ عام طور تي چرٻين يا تيلن کي ڪنهن [[الڪلي]] (بيس) سان ملائي تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن عمل کي [[صابڻ سازي]] (Saponification) چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's The Difference Between Soap and Detergent|publisher=cleancult.com|url=https://www.cleancult.com/blog/whats-the-difference-between-soap-and-detergent/|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2019-12-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218165118/https://www.cleancult.com/blog/whats-the-difference-between-soap-and-detergent/|url-status=live}}</ref> انسان هزارين سالن کان صابڻ يا صابڻ جهڙا مادا استعمال ڪندو اچي ٿو. قديم [[بابل]] ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 2800 ق.م. ڌاري صابڻ جهڙا مادا تيار ٿيڻ جا آثار مليا آهن، جيڪي صابڻ جي تياري بابت سڀ کان قديم ڄاتل شاهدين مان شمار ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willcox |first=Michael |title=Poucher's Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7514-0479-1 |editor=Hilda Butler |edition=10th |location=Dordrecht |page=453 |chapter=Soap |quote=The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BCE in ancient Babylon. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4HI8dGHgeIQC&pg=PA453 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820150103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4HI8dGHgeIQC&pg=PA453 |archive-date=2016-08-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Soap.jpeg|thumb|صابڻ]] ==تاريخ== ===قديم دور=== [[فائل:MODOAmigo.jpg|thumb|ويهين صديءَ جي ''اميگو ڊيل اوبريرو'' (ڪارڪن جو دوست) صابڻ جي پيڪنگ، جيڪا [[Museo del Objeto del Objeto]] جي مجموعي ۾ محفوظ آهي.]] چرٻي ۽ الڪلي کي ملائي تيار ڪيل ابتدائي صابڻ جهڙا مادا، جيڪي صفائي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا هئا، انهن جو ذڪر [[سوميري تهذيب|سوميري]]، [[بابلي سلطنت|بابلي]] ۽ [[قديم مصر]] جي تحريرن ۾ ملي ٿو.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024">{{Cite journal |date=2024-08-22 |title=An Experimental Exploration of the Earliest Soapmaking |url=https://exarc.net/issue-2024-3/at/experimental-exploration-earliest-soapmaking |journal=EXARC Journal |issue=2024/3}}</ref><ref name="Jess Shaw-2024">{{cite podcast |title=The Meaning of Cleaning |website=Exarc |host=Jess Shaw |date=2 February 2024 |url=https://exarc.net/podcast/meaning-cleaning }}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> صابڻ جهڙي مادي جي تياري جو سڀ کان پراڻو لکت ۾ ثبوت تقريباً '''2800 ق.م.''' جي [[قديم بابل]] مان ملي ٿو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willcox |first=Michael |title=Poucher's Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps |edition=10th |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |year=2000 |page=453}}</ref> ان کان لڳ ڀڳ '''2500 ق.م.''' ۾ سوميري مٽيءَ جي هڪ تختي تي اهڙي مادي ٺاهڻ جو طريقو درج ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ تيل ۽ ڪاٺ جي راک کي گرم ڪري اون جا ڪپڙا ڌوئڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="falbe">{{cite book |editor=Jürgen Falbe |chapter=Historical Review |title=Surfactants in Consumer Products |publisher=Springer-Verlag |year=2012 |pages=1–2}}</ref> [[ايبرس پيپائرس]]، جيڪو تقريباً '''1550 ق.م.''' جو مصري طبي مسودو آهي، ٻڌائي ٿو ته قديم مصري جانورن جي چرٻي يا نباتاتي تيل کي [[ٽرونا]] (قدرتي سوڊا ايش) سان ملائي صابڻ جهڙو مادو تيار ڪندا هئا، جيڪو دوائن ۽ اون جي تياري ۾ استعمال ٿيندو هو.<ref name="falbe" /> [[نابونيدس]] (556–539 ق.م.) جي دور ۾ به صابڻ جهڙي مادي جي ترڪيب ملي ٿي، جنهن ۾ راک، صنوبر جو تيل ۽ ترن جو تيل شامل هئا ۽ ان کي پٿرن جي صفائي لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martin Levey |title=Gypsum, salt and soda in ancient Mesopotamian chemical technology |journal=Isis |year=1958 |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=336–342}}</ref> جديد صابڻ، جيڪو جهڳ پيدا ڪندو آهي ۽ سخت يا نرم ٻنهي صورتن ۾ تيار ٿي سگهي ٿو، انهن ابتدائي صابڻ جهڙن مرڪبن کان مختلف هو. محققن موجب اهو پڪ سان معلوم نه آهي ته حقيقي صابڻ پهريون ڀيرو ڪهڙي تهذيب ايجاد ڪيو، ۽ ممڪن آهي ته دنيا جي مختلف سماجن ۾ اهو الڳ الڳ وقتن تي وجود ۾ آيو هجي.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Derry |first1=Thomas Kingston |last2=Williams |first2=Trevor Illtyd |title=A Short History of Technology |year=1960 |page=265}}</ref> قديم زماني ۾ الڪلي هزارين سالن کان اون ۽ ڪپڙي جي صفائي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي رهي، پر صابڻ تڏهن ئي ٺهندو آهي جڏهن چرٻي مناسب مقدار ۾ موجود هجي. جديد تجربن مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته خوشبودار تيلن جي تياري ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ مواد کي بار بار ڌوئڻ سان صابڻ نما مادو پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪو قديم [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي شاهدي سان مطابقت رکي ٿو.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" /> قديم [[روم]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ پهرين صدي عيسوي تائين صابڻ جو عام استعمال نه هو. رومي ماڻهو جسم تي تيل لڳائڻ کان پوءِ [[اسٽريجل]] نالي ڌاتوءَ جي اوزار سان تيل ۽ مٽي لاهي صفائي ڪندا هئا.<ref>{{cite journal |last=De Puma |first=Richard |title=A Third-Century B.C.E. Etruscan Tomb Group from Bolsena |journal=American Journal of Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Padgett |first=J. Michael |title=Objects of Desire |year=2002}}</ref> رومي عالم [[پليني بزرگ]] صابڻ کي ''گال'' (Gauls) جي ايجاد قرار ڏنو ۽ لکيو ته اهو چرٻي ۽ راک مان تيار ٿيندو هو.<ref>{{cite web |title=The history of soapmaking |url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-technology-and-medicine/history-science/the-history-soapmaking}}</ref> بعد ۾ طبيب [[گيلن]] (ٻي صدي عيسوي) صابڻ ٺاهڻ جا طريقا بيان ڪيا ۽ جسم ۽ ڪپڙن جي صفائي لاءِ ان جي استعمال جي سفارش ڪئي، جنهن کان پوءِ ذاتي صفائي ۾ صابڻ جو استعمال آهستي آهستي وڌڻ لڳو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Partington |first=James Riddick |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gun Powder |year=1999 |page=307}}</ref> ===قديم چين=== قديم [[چين]] ۾ ''[[Gleditsia sinensis]]'' جي ٻجن مان صابڻ جهڙو صفائي ڪندڙ مادو تيار ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="Jones">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Geoffrey |title=Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry |year=2010 |chapter=Cleanliness and Civilization}}</ref> هڪ ٻيو روايتي صاف ڪندڙ مرڪب سور جي لبلبي ۽ ٻوٽن جي راک مان تيار ٿيندو هو، جنهن کي ''ژويزي'' (Zhuyizi) چيو ويندو هو. جانورن جي چرٻي مان ٺهيل جديد قسم جو صابڻ چين ۾ گهڻو پوءِ رائج ٿيو.<ref name="Benn">{{cite book |last=Benn |first=Charles |title=Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty |year=2002 |page=116}}</ref> ===اسلامي سنهري دور=== [[اسلامي سنهري دور]] ۾ [[اولهه ايشيا]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ خوشبودار سخت ٽوائليٽ صابڻ تيار ٿيڻ لڳو ۽ صابڻ سازي هڪ باقاعده صنعت جي صورت اختيار ڪري وئي. مشهور مسلمان طبيب [[محمد بن زڪريا رازي]] (865–925ع) پنهنجي ڪتابن ۾ صابڻ ٺاهڻ جا طريقا بيان ڪيا ۽ [[زيتون جو تيل]] استعمال ڪري [[گليسرين]] تيار ڪرڻ جي ترڪيب پڻ ڏني.<ref name="hassan">{{cite book |last=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan |title=Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and Applied Sciences |publisher=UNESCO |year=2001 |pages=73–74}}</ref> اسلامي دنيا ۾ صابڻ عام طور نباتاتي تيلن يا چرٻين کي الڪلي ۽ [[چونو|چوني]] سان ملائي تيار ڪيو ويندو هو. خاص طور [[شام]] ۾ زيتون جي تيل مان ٺهيل صابڻ تمام مشهور ٿيو ۽ اتان يورپ سميت اسلامي دنيا جي ٻين علائقن ڏانهن برآمد ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="hassan" /> ٻارهين صديءَ جي هڪ عربي دستاويز ۾ صابڻ ٺاهڻ جو تفصيلي طريقو محفوظ آهي، جنهن ۾ ''القلوي'' (Alkali) کي بنيادي جزو قرار ڏنو ويو آهي. ''القلوي'' لفظ ئي بعد ۾ جديد ڪيمياءَ جي اصطلاح ''Alkali'' جو بنياد بڻيو.<ref>BBC, ''Science and Islam'', Part 2.</ref> تيرهين صديءَ تائين [[نابلس]]، [[فاس]]، [[دمشق]] ۽ [[حلب]] صابڻ سازي جا اهم مرڪز بڻجي چڪا هئا، جتان وڏي پيماني تي صابڻ تيار ۽ واپار ڪيو ويندو هو. ===يورپ جو وچيون دور=== [[نيپلز]] ۾، جيڪو ان وقت [[اوڀر رومي سلطنت]] جي قبضي هيٺ هو، ڇهين صديءَ جي آخر تائين صابڻ ٺاهيندڙ [[بازنطيني گلڊ]]ن جا ميمبر هوندا هئا.<ref>{{cite book|page=footnote 48, p. 104|title=Understanding the Middle Ages: the transformation of ideas and attitudes in the Medieval world|first=Harald|last=Kleinschmidt|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|year=2000|isbn=0-85115-770-X}}</ref> اٺين صديءَ تائين [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] ۾ صابڻ سازي هڪ مشهور صنعت بڻجي چڪي هئي.<ref name="Related Lime Soap Dispersants 1996, p. 632">Anionic and Related Lime Soap Dispersants, Raymond G. Bistline Jr., in ''Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry'', Helmut Stache, ed., Volume 56 of Surfactant science series, CRC Press, 1996, chapter 11, p. 632, {{ISBN|0-8247-9394-3}}.</ref> تقريباً 800ع ۾ [[شارليمان]] جي حڪمن تي تيار ٿيل [[ڪارولينجي]] دور جي دستاويز ''[[Capitulare de villis|De Villis]]'' ۾ صابڻ کي انهن شين مان هڪ قرار ڏنو ويو آهي، جن جو حساب شاهي جاگيرن جا منتظم رکندا هئا. اٺين صديءَ تائين [[وچئين دور جي اسپين]] صابڻ جي اهم پيداوار ڪندڙ علائقن مان هڪ بڻجي چڪي هئي، جڏهن ته [[انگلينڊ جي بادشاھت]] ۾ صابڻ سازي لڳ ڀڳ 1200ع ڌاري شروع ٿي.<ref>[http://www.soap-flakes.com/history.html www.soap-flakes.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526035507/http://www.soap-flakes.com/history.html|date=2015-05-26}}.</ref> ان ئي دستاويز ۾ صابڻ سازي کي هڪ طرف عورتن جي ڪم طور ۽ ٻي طرف ماهر ڪاريگرن جي صنعت طور ذڪر ڪيو ويو آهي، جيئن واڍن، لوهارن ۽ نانبائين جي پيشائن جو بيان ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=James Harvey|title=Readings in European History: Vol. I|publisher=Ginn and Co.|year=1904|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/carol-devillis.html}}</ref> نائين صديءَ جي يورپ ۾ صابڻ گهڻو ڪري جانورن جي چرٻي مان تيار ڪيو ويندو هو، جنهن سبب ان ۾ اڻ وڻندڙ بوءِ هوندي هئي. بعد ۾ جڏهن صابڻ جي تياري ۾ [[زيتون جو تيل]] استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو ته ان جي معيار ۽ خوشبوءَ ۾ نمايان سڌارو آيو، ۽ يورپ جي صابڻ سازي جو وڏو حصو [[بحر روم]] جي زيتون پوکيندڙ علائقن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي ويو.<ref name="Springer">{{cite book|title=A History of Technology, Volume 2|editor=Charles Springer|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1954|pages=355–356|isbn=9780198581062}}</ref> عربن سخت ٽوائليٽ صابڻ يورپ ۾ متعارف ڪرايو، جيڪو آهستي آهستي هڪ اعليٰ ۽ قيمتي استعمال جي شيءِ بڻجي ويو. اهڙي صابڻ ۾ گهڻو ڪري خوشبو پڻ شامل ڪئي ويندي هئي.<ref name="hassan" /><ref name="Springer" /> پندرهين صديءَ تائين [[عيسائي يورپ]] ۾ صابڻ جي پيداوار ڪيترن ئي شهرن ۾ صنعتي پيماني تي ٿيندي هئي. ان دور ۾ [[اينٽورپ]]، [[ڪاسٽيل]]، [[مارسيلي]]، [[نيپلز]] ۽ [[وينس]] صابڻ سازي جا اهم مرڪز هئا.<ref name="Related Lime Soap Dispersants 1996, p. 632" /> ===سورهين ۽ سترهين صدي=== سورهين صديءَ جي ٻئي اڌ تائين [[فرانس]] ۾ صابڻ جي نيم صنعتي ۽ پيشاورانه پيداوار گهڻي ڀاڱي [[پروونس]] جي چند شهرن، جهڙوڪ [[ٽولون]]، [[هيئرس]] ۽ [[مارسيلي]]، ۾ مرڪوز ٿي وئي هئي، جتان سڄي فرانس کي صابڻ فراهم ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nef, John U. |year=1936 |title=A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-political-economy_1936-10_44_5/page/642 |journal=The Journal of Political Economy |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=643–666 (660ff.) |doi=10.1086/254976 |jstor=1824135 |s2cid=222453265}}</ref> 1525ع تائين [[مارسيلي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻه وڏا صابڻ جا ڪارخانا قائم ٿي چڪا هئا، ۽ وقت سان گڏ مارسيلي جي صابڻ سازي ٻين پروونسي مرڪزن تي غالب اچي وئي.<ref>Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660 note 99.</ref> [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ صابڻ جي پيداوار جو مرڪز گهڻو ڪري [[لنڊن]] هو.<ref>Nef 1936:653, 660.</ref> [[ٽيوڊر گهراڻو|ٽيوڊر دور]] ۾ اعليٰ معيار جي سخت صابڻ جي طلب ايتري وڌي وئي جو صابڻ ٺاهڻ لاءِ راک جا بيرل ٻاهرين ملڪن مان درآمد ڪيا ويندا هئا.<ref name="Jess Shaw-2024" /> سترهين صديءَ کان پوءِ يورپ ۾ جانورن جي چرٻي بدران نباتاتي تيلن، خاص طور [[زيتون جو تيل|زيتون جي تيل]]، مان وڌيڪ نفيس صابڻ تيار ٿيڻ لڳا. انهن مان ڪيترائي صابڻ اڄ به صنعتي ۽ دستڪاري ٻنهي طريقن سان تيار ڪيا وڃن ٿا. [[ڪاسٽيل صابڻ]] (Castile soap) اٽلي جي قديم "اڇي صابڻ" مان نڪتل، خالص نباتاتي تيلن تي ٻڌل مشهور صابڻن مان هڪ آهي. 1634ع ۾ بادشاهه [[چارلس اول]] نئين قائم ٿيل ''سوسائٽي آف سوپ ميڪرز'' کي صابڻ جي پيداوار جو اجارو (Monopoly) عطا ڪيو. هن اداري پنهنجي صابڻ جي معيار بابت معزز عورتن ۽ ٻين استعمال ڪندڙن جا تصديقي بيان پڻ حاصل ڪيا، جن موجب "نئون اڇو صابڻ، پراڻي صابڻ جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ اڇو ۽ وڌيڪ خوشبودار ڌوئي ٿو".<ref>Keith Thomas, "Noisomeness", ''London Review of Books'', Vol. 42, No. 14, 16 July 2020.</ref> [[اسٽوارٽ دور]] جي بحالي واري زماني ۾ (1665ع–1714ع) انگلينڊ ۾ صابڻ تي ٽيڪس لاڳو ڪيو ويو، جنهن سبب اوڻيهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين صابڻ هڪ مهانگي ۽ عيش واري شيءِ بڻيل رهيو ۽ ان جو باقاعده استعمال گهڻو ڪري خوشحال طبقي تائين محدود رهيو. صابڻ جي صنعت تي سرڪاري محصولي عملدارن جي سخت نگراني هوندي هئي، جيڪي صابڻ ٺاهيندڙن جي اوزارن کي نگراني کان سواءِ تالا لڳرائي رکندا هئا. ان کان علاوه، قانون موجب هر ڀيري گهٽ ۾ گهٽ هڪ امپيريل ٽن صابڻ تيار ڪرڻ لازمي هو، جنهن سبب ننڍن پيدا ڪندڙن لاءِ هن صنعت ۾ داخل ٿيڻ ڏکيو ٿي پيو. 1853ع ۾ صابڻ تي لڳل ٽيڪس ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ صابڻ جي واپار ۾ نمايان واڌ آئي ۽ صنعت تي لاڳو ڪيترائي ضابطا به ختم ڪيا ويا.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Soap Tax |url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/27th-april-1833/14/the-soap-tax |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324084455/http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/27th-april-1833/14/the-soap-tax |archive-date=24 March 2017 |access-date=23 March 2017 |website=The Spectator Archive |publisher=The Spectator, London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Repeal of the Soap Tax |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1838/apr/03/repeal-of-the-soap-tax |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324084015/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1838/apr/03/repeal-of-the-soap-tax |archive-date=24 March 2017 |access-date=23 March 2013 |date=3 April 1838 |website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hansard |first1=Thomas Curson |title=Hansard's Parliamentary Debates |date=1864 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=9780243121328 |location=Uxbridge, England |pages=363–374}}</ref> ===جديد دور=== ارڙهين صديءَ جي آخر ڌاري صنعتي طريقي سان تيار ڪيل سخت صابڻ (بار سوپ) عام مارڪيٽ ۾ دستياب ٿيڻ لڳو. يورپ ۽ آمريڪا ۾ هلندڙ اشتهاري مهمن ماڻهن ۾ صفائي ۽ صحت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت شعور وڌايو، جنهن سان صابڻ جو استعمال تيزيءَ سان وڌيو.<ref>{{cite book |last=McNeil |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA203 |title=An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-415-01306-2 |pages=2003–205 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505145316/https://books.google.com/books?id=uxsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA203 |archive-date=2016-05-05 |url-status=live}}</ref> جديد دور ۾، بيماريون پکيڙيندڙ [[بيماري پيدا ڪندڙ جاندار|مرض پيدا ڪندڙ خوردبيني جاندارن]] جي روڪٿام ۾ [[صفائي سٿرائي]] جي اهميت بابت سائنسي ڄاڻ وڌڻ سبب صنعتي ملڪن ۾ صابڻ جو استعمال روزمره زندگيءَ جو لازمي حصو بڻجي ويو.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahveninen |first=Anna |date=2020-03-31 |title=Hand sanitiser or soap: making an informed choice for COVID-19 |url=https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/hand-sanitiser-or-soap-making-informed-choice-covid-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805233531/https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/hand-sanitiser-or-soap-making-informed-choice-covid-19 |archive-date=2020-08-05 |access-date=2020-08-04 |website=Curious |language=en}}</ref> <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Dobbins' medicated toilet soap, advertising, 1869.jpg|1869ع ۾ ڊوبنز جي دوائن واري ٽوائليٽ صابڻ جو اشتهار File:Palmolive soap 1922 advertisement ladies home journal.jpeg|1922ع ۾ [[Palmolive]] صابڻ جو رسالي ۾ ڇپيل اشتهار File:Liquid antibacterial soap.jpg|سيال جراثيم ڪش صابڻ File:Pexels-pixabay-433624.jpg|صابڻ رکڻ وارو ڊسپينسر </gallery> [[فائل:langtry cartoon.png|thumb|upright|1890ع ۾ رسالي ''[[پنچ (رسالو)|پنچ]]'' ۾ [[للي لينگٽري]] جو ڪارٽون. هوءَ جنهن صابڻ جي دٻي تي ويٺل آهي، اهو سندس صابڻ ۽ سينگار جي شين جي اشتهارن سان وابستگيءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.]] [[صنعتي انقلاب]] کان اڳ صابڻ سازي ننڍي پيماني تي ٿيندي هئي ۽ تيار ٿيندڙ صابڻ نسبتاً اڻگهڙيل هوندو هو. 1780ع ۾ [[جيمز ڪيئر]] [[ٽپٽن]] ۾ هڪ ڪيميائي ڪارخانو قائم ڪيو، جتي پوٽاش ۽ سوڊا جي سلفيٽن مان الڪلي تيار ڪئي ويندي هئي. بعد ۾ هن ساڳئي هنڌ صابڻ جو ڪارخانو پڻ قائم ڪيو. 1790ع ۾ [[نڪولس ليبلينڪ]] عام لوڻ مان الڪلي تيار ڪرڻ جو طريقو ايجاد ڪيو، جنهن صابڻ جي صنعت ۾ اهم تبديلي آندي. 1807ع ۾ [[اينڊريو پيرز]] لنڊن ۾ اعليٰ معيار جو شفاف [[پيرز (صابڻ)|پيرز صابڻ]] تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو.<ref>{{cite book |author=Pears, Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFlJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA100 |title=The Skin, Baths, Bathing, and Soap |publisher=The author |year=1859 |pages=100– |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504074628/https://books.google.com/books?id=yFlJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA100 |archive-date=2016-05-04 |url-status=live}}</ref> 1865ع ۾ سندس سئوٽ [[ٿانس جي. بريٽ]] هن ڪمپني جو برانڊ مئنيجر بڻيو، جنهن کي جديد برانڊ مارڪيٽنگ جي شروعات ڪندڙن مان شمار ڪيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glenday |first=Craig |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/200 |title=Guinness World Records 2014 |year=2013 |isbn=9781908843159 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/200 200]|publisher=Guinness World Records Limited }}</ref> 1882ع ۾ هن انگريز اداڪارا ۽ سماجي شخصيت [[للي لينگٽري]] کي پيرز صابڻ جي اشتهارن لاءِ چونڊيو، جنهن کي ڪنهن تجارتي پيداوار جي پهرين مشهور شخصيت (سيليبرٽي) طرفان توثيق سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite news |title=When Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2002/02/03/when-celebrity-endorsers-go-bad/260776e6-d38c-4319-b683-eb466c499dce/ |url-status=live |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116081428/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2002/02/03/when-celebrity-endorsers-go-bad/260776e6-d38c-4319-b683-eb466c499dce/ |archive-date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Jef I. |title=A History of Advertising: The First 300,000 Years |date=2022 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=286}}</ref> 1850ع واري ڏهاڪي کان [[وليم گوسيج]] گهٽ قيمت ۽ سٺي معيار جو صابڻ تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. [[رابرٽ اسپيئر ھڊسن (صابڻ)|رابرٽ اسپيئر ھڊسن]] 1837ع ۾ صابڻ کي مهڙي ۽ مهٽي سان پيهي صابڻ جو پائوڊر تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. آمريڪي صنعتڪار [[بينجمن ٽي. بئبيٽ]] صابڻ جي مارڪيٽنگ ۾ نوان طريقا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ صابڻ جون ٽڪيون وڪڻڻ سان گڏ مفت نمونا (پراڊڪٽ سيمپلز) ورهائڻ به شامل هو. 1886ع ۾ [[وليم ھيسڪيٿ ليور]] ۽ سندس ڀاءُ [[جيمز ليور]] [[وارنگٽن]] ۾ هڪ ننڍو صابڻ جو ڪارخانو خريد ڪري ''ليور برادرز'' ڪمپني قائم ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي [[يونيليور]] جي نالي سان دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏين صارفين جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنين مان هڪ بڻجي وئي. انهن ڪمپنين وڏي پيماني تي اشتهاري مهمون هلائي صابڻ جي عالمي واپار کي نئين رخ ڏنو.===سيال صابڻ=== سيال صابڻ اوڻيهين صديءَ ۾ ايجاد ٿيو. 1865ع ۾ [[وليم شيپرڊ]] سيال صابڻ جي هڪ قسم جو پيٽنٽ حاصل ڪيو.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=49561|title=Improved liquid soap|status=patent|gdate=1865-08-22|invent1=Sheppard, William}}</ref> 1898ع ۾ [[بي. جي. جانسن]] کجيءَ ۽ زيتون جي تيل مان تيار ٿيندڙ صابڻ ٺاهيو، ۽ سندس ڪمپني [[بي. جي. جانسن صابڻ ڪمپني]] ساڳئي سال [[پامولائيو صابڻ]] نالي سان ان کي مارڪيٽ ۾ متعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prigge |first=Matthew |date=2018-01-25 |title=The Story Behind This Bar of Palmolive Soap |url=https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125175123/https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |archive-date=2018-01-25 |access-date=2019-06-27 |website=Milwaukee Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> هي نئون برانڊ تمام تيزيءَ سان مشهور ٿيو، جنهن کان پوءِ بي. جي. جانسن صابڻ ڪمپني پنهنجو نالو بدلائي [[ڪولگيٽ-پامولائيو]] رکيو.<ref>{{cite web |title=Colgate-Palmolive Company History: Creating Bright Smiles for 200 Years |url=http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502094906/http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |archive-date=2 May 2006 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=[[Colgate-Palmolive]] Company}}</ref> ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ ٻين ڪمپنين پڻ پنهنجا سيال صابڻ تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. [[پائن-سول]] ۽ [[ٽائڊ]] جهڙيون شيون مارڪيٽ ۾ متعارف ٿيون، جن ڪپڙن، فرشن، غسل خانن ۽ ٻين گهريلو شين جي صفائي کي اڳي کان وڌيڪ آسان بڻايو.<ref name=e>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bwQdAAAAIBAJ&pg=6598,929929 |title=There's Gold in those Pine Stumps |newspaper=Sarasota Journal |first=Hal |last=Boyle |authorlink=Hal Boyle |page=11 |date=September 12, 1954 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251202063139/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bwQdAAAAIBAJ&pg=6598%2C929929 |archive-date=2025-12-02 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Heritage - Learn About Tide's History {{!}} Tide |url=https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250806001944/https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-date=2025-08-06 |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=tide.com |language=en}}</ref> سيال صابڻ روايتي ڌوئڻ جي طريقن، جهڙوڪ [[ڌوٻيءَ جي تختي]] تي ڪپڙا ڌوئڻ، لاءِ پڻ وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو پاڻيءَ ۾ آسانيءَ سان ملي وڃي ٿو ۽ صفائيءَ جي عمل کي وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻائي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of Liquid Soap |url=http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201140608/http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |archive-date=1 December 2012 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=Blue Aspen Originals}}</ref> ===سيال صابڻ=== سيال صابڻ اوڻيهين صديءَ ۾ ايجاد ٿيو. 1865ع ۾ [[وليم شيپرڊ]] سيال صابڻ جي هڪ قسم جو پيٽنٽ حاصل ڪيو.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=49561|title=Improved liquid soap|status=patent|gdate=1865-08-22|invent1=Sheppard, William}}</ref> 1898ع ۾ [[بي. جي. جانسن]] کجيءَ ۽ زيتون جي تيل مان تيار ٿيندڙ صابڻ ٺاهيو، ۽ سندس ڪمپني [[بي. جي. جانسن صابڻ ڪمپني]] ساڳئي سال [[پامولائيو صابڻ]] نالي سان ان کي مارڪيٽ ۾ متعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prigge |first=Matthew |date=2018-01-25 |title=The Story Behind This Bar of Palmolive Soap |url=https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125175123/https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |archive-date=2018-01-25 |access-date=2019-06-27 |website=Milwaukee Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> هي نئون برانڊ تمام تيزيءَ سان مشهور ٿيو، جنهن کان پوءِ بي. جي. جانسن صابڻ ڪمپني پنهنجو نالو بدلائي [[ڪولگيٽ-پامولائيو]] رکيو.<ref>{{cite web |title=Colgate-Palmolive Company History: Creating Bright Smiles for 200 Years |url=http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502094906/http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |archive-date=2 May 2006 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=[[Colgate-Palmolive]] Company}}</ref> ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ ٻين ڪمپنين پڻ پنهنجا سيال صابڻ تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. [[پائن-سول]] ۽ [[ٽائڊ]] جهڙيون شيون مارڪيٽ ۾ متعارف ٿيون، جن ڪپڙن، فرشن، غسل خانن ۽ ٻين گهريلو شين جي صفائي کي اڳي کان وڌيڪ آسان بڻايو.<ref name=e/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Heritage - Learn About Tide's History {{!}} Tide |url=https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250806001944/https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-date=2025-08-06 |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=tide.com |language=en}}</ref> سيال صابڻ روايتي ڌوئڻ جي طريقن، جهڙوڪ [[ڌوٻيءَ جي تختي]] تي ڪپڙا ڌوئڻ، لاءِ پڻ وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو پاڻيءَ ۾ آسانيءَ سان ملي وڃي ٿو ۽ صفائيءَ جي عمل کي وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻائي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of Liquid Soap |url=http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201140608/http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |archive-date=1 December 2012 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=Blue Aspen Originals}}</ref> == قسم == [[فائل:Decorative Soaps.jpg|thumb|right|هوٽلن ۾ عام طور رکيل سينگاريل صابڻ جون ٽڪيون]] === ٽوائليٽ صابڻ === [[فائل:Micelle.svg|thumb|upright=1|[[ميسيل]] جي بناوت؛ صابڻ جي ماليڪيولن جي گڏجڻ سان ٺهندڙ ننڍڙي گولي نما بناوت، جنهن جو ٻاهريون حصو پاڻي سان ۽ اندريون حصو چرٻيءَ سان لاڳاپو رکي ٿو.]] گهريلو استعمال ۾ ''صابڻ'' مان عام طور مراد '''ٽوائليٽ صابڻ''' هوندو آهي، جيڪو جسم، هٿن ۽ گهر جي صفائي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ٽوائليٽ صابڻ چرٻيدار تيزابن جا لوڻ هوندا آهن، جن جو عام ڪيميائي فارمولو (RCO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>)M<sup>+</sup> هوندو آهي، جتي M عام طور [[سوڊيم]] (Na) يا [[پوٽاشيم]] (K) هوندو آهي.<ref name="UllSoap">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Klaus Schumann |author2=Kurt Siekmann |chapter=Soaps |encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2005 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |location=Weinheim |doi=10.1002/14356007.a24_247 |isbn=978-3527306732}}</ref> صفائي دوران صابڻ مٽي، چرٻي ۽ ٻين گندگين کي پاڻيءَ ۾ حل ٿيڻ جهڙو بڻائي ڇڏيندو آهي. صابڻ جا ماليڪيول گڏجي '''[[ميسيل]]''' (Micelle) نالي ننڍڙيون گولي نما بناوتون ٺاهيندا آهن. انهن جو ٻاهريون حصو پاڻي ڏانهن مائل (هائيڊروفلڪ) ۽ اندريون حصو چرٻي ڏانهن مائل (ليپو فلڪ) هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب چرٻي ۽ تيل ميسيل جي اندر ڦاسي پاڻيءَ سان ڌوپي نڪري ويندا آهن. هٿ ڌوئڻ دوران صابڻ [[جراثيم]]ن جي لپيڊ جھلي کي ٽوڙي ۽ انهن جي پروٽينن کي غيرفعال ڪري ڪيترن ئي خرد حياتين کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيندو آهي، جڏهن ته تيل ۽ چرٻي کي [[ايمَلشن]] جي صورت ۾ پاڻي سان گڏ وهائي ڇڏيندو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jabr |first=Ferris |date=2020-03-13 |title=Why soap works |url=https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/why-soap-works/ |website=Yale School of Medicine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Getting back to chemistry basics: How simple soap saves lives |url=https://news.emory.edu/stories/2020/03/esc_soap_saves_lives/campus.html |website=Emory University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Donavyn Coffey |date=2022-06-18 |title=How does soap kill germs? |url=https://www.livescience.com/how-soap-kills-germs |website=Live Science}}</ref> [[سخت پاڻي]] (Hard water) ۾ صابڻ آسانيءَ سان جهڳ پيدا نه ڪندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ڪيلشيم ۽ ميگنيشيم جي لوڻن سان ملي [[صابڻ جي تهه]] (سوپ اسڪم) ٺاهي ڇڏيندو آهي، جنهن سان صفائيءَ جي ڪارڪردگي گهٽجي ويندي آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holman |first1=John S. |last2=Stone |first2=Phil |title=Chemistry |publisher=Nelson Thornes |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=9780748762392}}</ref> === غير ٽوائليٽ صابڻ === '''ڌاتي صابڻ''' (ميٽالڪ سوپ) صنعتي استعمال ۾ وڏي اهميت رکن ٿا ۽ گهڻين [[چکنائي ڏيندڙ مادا|چکنائين]] (گريز) ۽ گاڙها ڪندڙ مرڪبن جو بنيادي جزو هوندا آهن.<ref name="UllSoap" /> [[ليٿيم اسٽيئريٽ]] انهن مان هڪ اهم مثال آهي. عام طور چکنائيون [[ڪيلشيم اسٽيئريٽ|ڪيلشيم]] يا [[ليٿيم اسٽيئريٽ|ليٿيم]] صابڻ ۽ [[معدني تيل]] جي ايمَلشن تي ٻڌل هونديون آهن. [[ايلومينيم]]، [[سوڊيم]] ۽ ٻين ڌاتن جا صابڻ به تيلن جي [[لزوجت]] (وسڪوسٽي) وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. قديم دور ۾ [[زيتون جو تيل]] ۽ [[چونو]] ملائي چکنائي تيار ڪئي ويندي هئي، جنهن سان ڪيلشيم صابڻ ٺهندو هو.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Thorsten Bartels |display-authors=etal |chapter=Lubricants and Lubrication |encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2005 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |location=Weinheim |doi=10.1002/14356007.a15_423 |isbn=978-3527306732}}</ref> ڌاتي صابڻ جديد [[تيل وارا رنگ|تيلن وارن رنگن]] ۾ به شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي اهي رنگ جي وهڪري ۽ گاڙهاڻ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn23/wn23-3/wn23-304.html |title=A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint |last=Tumosa |first=Charles S. |date=2001-09-01}}</ref> اهي چرٻيدار تيزابن کي ڌاتي آڪسائيڊن سان غيرجانبدار (Neutralize) ڪري تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن: :<math>2RCO_2H + CaO \rightarrow (RCO_2)_2Ca + H_2O</math> ڪڏهن ڌاتن جي بدران حياتياتي الڪلي جهڙوڪ [[امونيم]] به استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور '''[[امونيم نونانوئيٽ]]''' امونيم تي ٻڌل صابڻ آهي، جيڪو [[جڙي ٻوٽين کي ناس ڪندڙ دوا]] (ھربيسائيڊ) طور ڪم اچي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/fs_PC-031802_01-Nov-06.pdf |title=Ammonium nonanoate Fact Sheet |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=21 September 2006}}</ref> غير ٽوائليٽ صابڻن جي هڪ ٻي قسم '''رال صابڻ''' (ريزن سوپ) آهي، جيڪا [[ڪاغذ سازي]] جي صنعت ۾ وڻن جي رال کي الڪلي سان عمل ڪرائي تيار ڪئي ويندي آهي. انهن جو اهم جزو [[ابيئٽڪ تيزاب]] (Abietic acid) جو سوڊيم لوڻ هوندو آهي، جيڪو خاص طور [[ايمَلسيفاير]] طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.a23_073 |chapter=Resins, Natural |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2000 |last1=Fiebach |first1=Klemens |last2=Grimm |first2=Dieter}}</ref> == صابڻ ٺاهڻ == {{Main article|Soaper}} ٽوائليٽ صابڻ جي تياري عام طور [[ٽرائي گلسرائيڊ]]ن جي [[ساپونيفڪيشن]] (Saponification) وسيلي ڪئي ويندي آهي. ٽرائي گلسرائيڊ ٻوٽن يا جانورن مان حاصل ٿيندڙ تيلن ۽ چرٻين تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. انهن کي الڪلي محلول، جهڙوڪ [[لائي]] (Lye)، سان ملايو ويندو آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ٽرائي گلسرائيڊ پاڻيءَ جي عمل سان ٽٽي چرٻيدار تيزابن جي لوڻن ۾ تبديل ٿي ويندا آهن ۽ ساڳئي وقت [[گليسرول]] (گليسرين) آزاد ٿيندو آهي. گليسرين کي ڪڏهن صابڻ ۾ ئي رهڻ ڏنو ويندو آهي ته جيئن صابڻ نرم ۽ چمڙي لاءِ وڌيڪ موزون رهي، جڏهن ته ڪڏهن ان کي ڌار ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Cavitch, Susan Miller. ''The Natural Soap Book''. Storey Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0-88266-888-9.</ref><ref>Garzena, Patrizia & Tadiello, Marina (2013). ''The Natural Soapmaking Handbook''. ISBN 978-0-9874995-0-9.</ref> گليسرين شامل صابڻ کي عام طور '''گليسرين صابڻ''' چيو ويندو آهي. === اضافا === صفائيءَ جي صلاحيت وڌائڻ لاءِ صابڻ ۾ ڪڏهن [[ريت]] يا [[پومِس]] (Pumice) شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان ''اسڪورنگ صابڻ'' تيار ٿيندو آهي. اهڙا ذرڙا چمڙي جي مٿاڇري تان مئل خلين کي هٽائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جنهن عمل کي [[ايڪسفوليئيشن]] چيو ويندو آهي. [[جراثيم ڪش صابڻ]] ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[ٽرائيڪلوسان]] يا [[ٽرائيڪلوڪاربان]] جهڙا مرڪب شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن. بهرحال، سائنسدانن خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته اهڙن مرڪبن جو وڌندڙ استعمال جراثيمن ۾ [[ضد حياتياتي مزاحمت]] (Antimicrobial resistance) کي هٿي ڏئي سگهي ٿو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=117985 |title=Antibacterial Soaps Concern Experts |publisher=ABC News |date=6 January 2006}}</ref> استعمال ٿيندڙ الڪلي ڌاتو صابڻ جي خاصيتن کي طئي ڪري ٿي. [[سوڊيم هائيڊرو آڪسائيڊ]] سان تيار ڪيل صابڻ سخت ۽ ٺوس هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[پوٽاشيم هائيڊرو آڪسائيڊ]] سان ٺهيل صابڻ نرم يا مائع صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. تاريخي طور پوٽاشيم هائيڊرو آڪسائيڊ ٻوٽن جي راک مان حاصل ڪئي ويندي هئي. [[ليٿيم]] جا صابڻ پڻ سخت هوندا آهن ۽ تقريباً مڪمل طور صنعتي [[چکنائي ڏيندڙ مادا|چکنائين]] (Greases) ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.<ref name="UllSoap" /> ٽوائليٽ صابڻ جي تياري لاءِ ٽرائي گلسرائيڊ عام طور [[ناريل جو تيل]]، [[زيتون جو تيل]]، [[کجيءَ جو تيل]] ۽ جانورن جي صاف ڪيل چرٻي ([[ٽيلو]]) مان حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="Ullmann">{{cite journal |author=David J. Anneken |display-authors=etal |title=Fatty Acids |journal=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2006 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a10_245.pub2}}</ref> مختلف تيلن ۾ چرٻيدار تيزابن جي مقدار مختلف هجڻ سبب انهن مان ٺهندڙ صابڻن جي سختي، جھڳ، نرمي ۽ چمڙي تي اثر به مختلف هوندا آهن. خالص [[زيتون جو تيل]] مان ٺهيل صابڻ، جيڪو [[ڪاسٽائيل صابڻ]] يا [[مارسيل صابڻ]] جي نالي سان مشهور آهي، پنهنجي نرم مزاج ۽ چمڙي لاءِ سازگار خاصيتن سبب مشهور آهي. جسم ڌوئڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا صابڻ ''ريفيٽيڊ'' يا ''سُپر فيٽيڊ'' هوندا آهن. اهڙن صابڻن ۾ اضافي چرٻي يا تيل شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان صابڻ ۾ بچيل الڪلي ختم ٿي ويندي آهي، صابڻ ۾ دراڙون پوڻ جا امڪان گهٽ ٿيندا آهن ۽ ڌوئڻ دوران چمڙي مان نڪرندڙ قدرتي تيلن جي جزوي تلافي پڻ ٿيندي آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuntom |first1=Ainie |last2=Ahmad |first2=Iftikhar |last3=Kifli |first3=Hamirin |last4=Shariff |first4=Zainon Mat |title=Effects of superfatting agents on cracking phenomena in toilet soap |journal=Journal of Surfactants and Detergents |year=1999 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=325–329 |doi=10.1007/s11743-999-0084-5}}</ref> هٿ سان تيار ڪيل صابڻ ۾ اضافي چرٻي يا [[ناريل جو تيل]] شامل ڪري ''سُپر فيٽنگ'' ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ان ۾ رهيل گليسرين قدرتي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڪندو آهي. اهڙن صابڻن ۾ ڪڏهن [[جوجوبا جو تيل]] يا [[شيا بٽر]] جهڙا نرم ڪندڙ مادا به شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن ته جيئن چمڙي وڌيڪ نرم ۽ محفوظ رهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Process of Making Soap |url=http://edtech.mcc.edu/~abaker/comw100/finalproject/process.html}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ صابڻ ٺاهڻ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ مختلف چرٻين ۾ چرٻيدار تيزابن جو تقابلي تناسب (٪) ! چرٻي / تيل ! [[لورڪ تيزاب]] ! [[مائرسٽڪ تيزاب]] ! [[پالميٽڪ تيزاب]] ! [[اسٽيئرڪ تيزاب]] ! [[اوليئڪ تيزاب]] ! [[لينوليئڪ تيزاب]] ! [[لينولينڪ تيزاب]] |- | [[ٽيلو]] | 0 || 4 || 28 || 23 || 35 || 2 || 1 |- | [[ناريل جو تيل]] | 48 || 18 || 9 || 3 || 7 || 2 || 0 |- | [[پام ڪرنل تيل]] | 46 || 16 || 8 || 3 || 12 || 2 || 0 |- | [[کجيءَ جو تيل]] | 0 || 1 || 44 || 4 || 37 || 9 || 0 |- | [[لوريل جو تيل]] | 54 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 15 || 17 || 0 |- | [[زيتون جو تيل]] | 0 || 0 || 11 || 2 || 78 || 10 || 0 |- | [[ڪينولا جو تيل]] | 0 || 1 || 3 || 2 || 58 || 9 || 23 |} ==طب== روايتي طب موجب هن ٻوٽي مان تيار ڪيل مرهم [[بادفرنگ]]، [[آتشڪ]]، [[ناسور]] ۽ زائد گوشت وارن ڦٽن جي علاج لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي. ان کان سواءِ روايتي معالجن ۾ هن کي حيض جاري ڪرڻ، آنڊن جي ڪيڙن کي ختم ڪرڻ ۽ حقني (Enema) جي صورت ۾ ننڍڙن ٻارن جي قبض ۽ سدن ڪڍڻ لاءِ پڻ ڪم آندو ويندو هو. ساڳين روايتي ذريعن موجب، حمل دوران هن جو استعمال اسقاطِ حمل جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو ۽ هن کي زهريلو پڻ قرار ڏنو ويو آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جديد طبي نگراني کان سواءِ ان جو استعمال مناسب نه سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>ڪتاب: [[فرھنگ جعفري]]؛ ليکڪ: حڪيم محمد جعفر؛ ايڊيشن: 2007ع؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]]، ڄامشورو، سنڌ.</ref> ==تصويرون== <gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:African Black Soap.jpg|[[آفريقي ڪارو صابڻ|ڊيڊو-اوسون (Dudu-Osun)]] – آفريقي ڪاري صابڻ جو هڪ مشهور قسم File:Azul e Branco.JPG|[[Azul e branco soap|ازول اي برانڪو صابڻ]] – نيري ۽ اڇي رنگ جي صابڻ جي ٽڪي File:Soap P1140887.jpg|[[فرانس]] جي شهر [[هيئرس]] ۾ وڪرو ٿيندڙ هٿ سان تيار ڪيل صابڻ File:Bars of pure Marseille and Aleppo soap, 2024.jpg|روايتي [[مارسيل صابڻ]] (کاٻي) ۽ [[حلب صابڻ]] (ساڄي) File:Soap Shop, Tübingen (2019).jpg|[[جرمني]] جي شهر [[ٽوبنگن]] ۾ جديد صابڻ جو دڪان (2019ع) File:Pouring lye into water to make soap.jpg|صابڻ ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[لائي]] کي پاڻيءَ ۾ حل ڪندي File:Wheel Bearing Grease.jpg|گاڏين جي ڦيٿن جي چکنائي، جنهن ۾ ڌاتي صابڻ شامل هوندا آهن File:Pexels-pixabay-206299.jpg|صابڻ رکڻ واري ٿالهي تي رکيل صابڻ </gallery> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} l56i5ivmwlkaou2anh2cxuvlvke35y0 روشن خيالي 0 40450 394582 317012 2026-07-15T12:27:50Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394582 wikitext text/x-wiki '''روشن خيالي''' (Enlightenment) روشن خيال عام طور تي اهڙي شخص کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو غلط [[روايت|روايتن]]، رواج پرستي جي زنجيرن کان آزاد هجي ۽ اخلاق ۽ معاشرتي طور طريقن کي عقل ۽ فھم سان پرکي ۽ انهن کي پنھنجي زندگيءَ ۾ اپنائي يا بين الاقوامي سطح تي نون تقاضائن مطابق اختيار ڪجي. اهڙا عمل جي روايت پرستيءَ جي خلاف هجن ۽ عقل فھم جي روشنيءَ ۾ عالمي قدرن مطابق هجن، تن کي روشن خياليءَ ۾ شمار ڪبو آهي.<ref>ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> '''روشن خيالي'''، '''روشني''' يا '''بيداري''' هيٺين معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿي: == تاريخ == * [[روشن خياليءَ جو دور]]، اولهه جي فڪري ۽ ثقافتي تاريخ جو دور (17هين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ کان 18هين صديءَ جي آخر تائين)، جنهن ۾ هيٺيان علائقائي دور شامل آهن: ** [[ڊچ روشن خيالي]] ** [[فرانسيسي روشن خيالي]] ** [[مڊلينڊز روشن خيالي]] ** [[جرمن روشن خيالي]] ** [[آسٽريائي روشن خيالي]] ** [[جديد يوناني روشن خيالي]] ** [[هنگريائي روشن خيالي]] ** [[اطالوي روشن خيالي]] ** [[هاسڪالا]] (يهودي روشن خيالي) ** [[پولش روشن خيالي]] ** [[پورچوگالي روشن خيالي]] ** [[رومانيائي روشن خيالي]] ** [[روسي روشن خيالي]] ** [[اسڪاٽش روشن خيالي]] ** [[هسپانوي روشن خيالي]] ** [[سوئيڊني روشن خيالي]] ** [[آمريڪي روشن خيالي]] * [[نهضه]]، عثماني سلطنت جي عرب علائقن ۾ 19هين ۽ 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات جو ثقافتي تحريڪ * چين ۾: ** [[چوٿين مئي جي تحريڪ]] ** [[نئين روشن خيالي (چين)]] == فلسفو == * [[روشن خيالي (فلسفو)]] * [[روشن خياليءَ جو فلسفو]] == مذهب == * [[ٻڌمت ۾ روشني]] (بودهي) * [[موڪشا]] * [[جين مت ۾ موڪشا]] * [[ڪيول ڄاڻ]] * [[الاهي روشني]] == ڪمپيوٽنگ == * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (ونڊو مئنيجر)]] * [[اين لائيٽن (ريڊيئوسيٽي انجڻ)]] * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ فائونڊيشن لائبريريون]] == تقريبون == * [[اين لائيٽن ڪينبرا]] * [[2012ع سمر پيرا اولمپڪس جي افتتاحي تقريب#Enlightenment|اين لائيٽنمينٽ]] == فلم ۽ ٽيليويزن == * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (ڊاڪٽر هو)]] == موسيقي == * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (وين موريسن جو البم)]] * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (ميڪائي ٽائنر جو البم)]] * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (وين موريسن جو گيت)]] * [[اين لائيٽنمينٽ (ساونڊ ٽريڪ)]] == ٻيا استعمال == * [[آئيونين روشن خيالي]] * [[اونداهي روشن خيالي]] * [[روشن خيالي تحريڪ (افغانستان)]] * [[پروجيڪٽ اين لائيٽنمينٽ]] == پڻ ڏسو == * [[روشن خياليءَ جي مخالفت]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:انساني رويا]] j0a0e8w81ybtug6wyca13q3mhntvcqu سائنسي طريقو 0 40490 394758 392789 2026-07-16T06:34:08Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|سائنس ۾ مشاهدي، تجربي ۽ نظريي جي وچ ۾ لهه وچڙ}} <!-- ←----------------------------------------------------------------------------- مهرباني ڪري بحث صفحي تي اڳواٽ ڳالهه ٻولهه ڪرڻ کان سواءِ هيٺين تعارفي پيراگراف کي تبديل نه ڪريو: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --> '''سائنسي طريقو''' ڌيانائتي [[تجرباتي ثبوت|تجرباتي]] [[مشاهدو|مشاهدي]]، سخت [[شڪ پرستي]]، [[مفروضي جي پرک]] ۽ تجرباتي تصديق وسيلي [[ڄاڻ]] حاصل ڪرڻ جو طريقو آهي. قديم ۽ وچئين دور جي رواجن مان اسرندڙ هي طريقو مڃي ٿو ته [[سائنس جو فلسفو#مشاهدو نظريي کان ڌار نه آهي|ذهني اڳڪٿيون ۽ مفروضا]] [[ادراڪ#عمل ۽ اصطلاح|مشاهدي]] جي تشريح کي بگاڙي سگهن ٿا. سائنسي طريقو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ سترهين صديءَ کان [[سائنس]] جي خاصيت رهيو آهي. سائنسي تحقيق ۾ [[استقرائي استدلال]] وسيلي پرک جوڳو<!--پرک جوڳو کي ڳنڍڻو نه ڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته ائين ڪرڻ MOS جي هدايتن، خاص طور [[MOS:OVERLINK]] ۽ [[MOS:SEAOFBLUE]]، جي ڀڃڪڙي آهي--> [[مفروضو]] ٺاهڻ، ان کي تجربن ۽ انگي تجزيي وسيلي پرکڻ، ۽ نتيجن جي بنياد تي مفروضي کي بدلائڻ يا رد ڪرڻ شامل آهي.<ref name="principia">{{Cite book|title=Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|last=Newton|first=Isaac|series=The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy |publisher=University of California Press|others=Includes "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I. Bernard Cohen, pp. 1–370. (The ''Principia'' itself is on pp. 371–946)|isbn=978-0-520-08817-7|location=Berkeley, CA|date=1999|at=791–796 ("Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy"); ''see also'' [[فلاسافي نيچرلِس پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا#استدلال جا اصول]]|translator-last=Cohen|translator-first=I. Bernard|trans-title=Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy|orig-date=1726 (3rd ed.)|translator-last2=Whitman|translator-first2=Anne|translator-last3=Budenz|translator-first3=Julia|title-link=فلاسافي نيچرلِس پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English|date=2016|chapter-url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/scientific-method|chapter=scientific method|access-date=28 May 2016|archive-date=2016-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620062539/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/scientific-method}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/383323|title=Oxford English Dictionary|via=OED Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|edition=3rd|location=Oxford|url-access=subscription|access-date=2018-05-31 |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112639/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/scientific-method_n|url-status=live}}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ [[سائنس جون شاخون|شعبن]] موجب طريقيڪار مختلف هوندا آهن، پر بنيادي [[#عمل|عمل]] اڪثر هڪجهڙو هوندو آهي. وڌيڪ تفصيل سان، سائنسي طريقي ۾ [[گمان]]، يعني مفروضي وضاحتون، ٺاهڻ، مفروضي مان نڪرندڙ منطقي نتيجن جي اڳڪٿي ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ انهن اڳڪٿين جي بنياد تي تجربا يا تجرباتي مشاهدا ڪرڻ شامل آهن.<ref name="NA">{{cite wikisource|title=A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God|date=1908|first=Charles Sanders|last=Peirce|wslink=A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God|volume=7|pages=90–112|journal=Hibbert Journal}} اضافي نوٽن سان. اڳ اڻڇپيل حصي سميت ٻيهر ڇپيل، ''Collected Papers'' جلد 6، پيراگراف 452–85، ''The Essential Peirce'' جلد 2، ص. 434–450، ۽ ٻين هنڌن تي. نوٽ: 435.30 'living institution': Hibbert J. ۾ 'living institution' جي غلط نقل ٿي ('institution' جي جاءِ تي "constitution")</ref> مفروضو اهڙو گمان هوندو آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن سوال جو جواب ڳوليندي حاصل ڪيل ڄاڻ تي ٻڌل هجي. مفروضا تمام خاص يا وسيع ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر انهن جو [[ترديد جوڳو|ترديد جوڳو]] هجڻ ضروري آهي؛ يعني اهڙو ممڪن تجرباتي يا مشاهدي وارو نتيجو سڃاڻي سگهجي، جيڪو مفروضي مان ڪڍيل اڳڪٿين سان ٽڪراءَ ۾ هجي. ٻي صورت ۾ مفروضي کي بامعنيٰ نموني پرکي نٿو سگهجي.{{sfn|Popper|1959|p=273}} جيتوڻيڪ سائنسي طريقي کي اڪثر قدمن جي مقرر ترتيب طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر حقيقت ۾ اهو عام اصولن جو مجموعو آهي. هر [[#سائنسي تحقيق|سائنسي تحقيق]] ۾ سڀ قدم لازمي طور پيش نٿا اچن، نه ئي هڪجهڙي حد تائين، ۽ نه ئي اهي هميشه ساڳئي ترتيب سان ٿين ٿا.<ref name="allScience">{{harvp|Gauch|2003|p=3}}: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS 2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow."</ref><ref name="Inductive Science 1837">[[وليم وهيويل]]، ''History of Inductive Science'' (1837ع)، ۽ ''Philosophy of Inductive Science'' (1840ع)</ref> ڪيتريون دريافتون درسي ڪتابن ۾ بيان ڪيل سائنسي طريقي واري نموني تي نه هليون آهن، ۽ ڪجهه حالتن ۾ اتفاق پڻ ڪردار ادا ڪيو آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krauss |first1=Alexander |title=Redefining the scientific method: as the use of sophisticated scientific methods that extend our mind |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=28 March 2024 |volume=3 |issue=4 |article-number=pgae112 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae112 |doi-access=free|pmid=38560527 |pmc=10981393 }}</ref><ref name="DunbarLuck" /><ref name="Serendip">{{cite book |last1=Merton |first1=Robert King |last2=Barber |first2=Elinor |last3=Barber |first3=Elinor G. |title=The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science |date=2006 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Press |chapter=Accidental Discovery in Science|location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=0-691-12630-5}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} == تاريخ == {{Main|سائنسي طريقي جي تاريخ}} {{For timeline|سائنسي طريقي جي تاريخ جي وقتوار ترتيب}} سائنسي طريقي جي تاريخ خود [[سائنس جي تاريخ]] کان مختلف آهي. [[سائنسي استدلال]] جي اصولن جي واڌ ويجهه سڌي يا سادي نه رهي آهي؛ سائنس جي سڄي تاريخ ۾ سائنسي طريقو سخت ۽ ورجندڙ بحثن جو موضوع رهيو آهي، ۽ نامور قدرتي فلسفين ۽ سائنسدانن سائنسي ڄاڻ قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ مختلف طريقن جي اوليت جي حمايت ڪئي آهي. [[تجربيت]] ۽ سائنسي طريقي جا مختلف اوائلي اظهار سڄي تاريخ ۾ ملن ٿا، مثال طور قديم [[رواقيت|رواقين]]، [[ارسطو]]،<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hepburn |first1=Brian |last2=Andersen |first2=Hanne |title=Scientific Method |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/#HisRevAriMil |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021}}</ref> [[ايپيڪيورس]]،<ref name=Asmis>Elizabeth Asmis (1985) ''Epicurus' Scientific Method''. Cornell University Press</ref> [[ابن الهيثم]]،{{efn-ua|name= vacuum| ٻه هزار ٽي سئو سال اڳ ارسطو چيو ته فطرت ۾ [[خلا]] جو وجود ناهي؛ تيرهن سئو سال پوءِ [[ابن الھيثم]] [[انڪسار]] بابت تجربن وسيلي ارسطو جي مفروضي کي غلط ثابت ڪيو،<ref name=treatiseOnLight2 >Alhacen (c.1035) ''Treatise on Light'' (رسالة في الضوء) جيئن [[شموئيل سامبرسڪي]]، مرتب (1975ع)، [https://archive.org/details/physicalthoughtf0000unse/page/136/mode/2up Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists : an anthology]، ص.137 ۾ حوالو ڏنو ويو.</ref> ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح [[ٻاهريون خلا|ٻاهرين خلا]] جي وجود جو نتيجو ڪڍيو.{{efn|name= alhacenCharacterizes| ''[[بصريات جو ڪتاب]]'' (لڳ ڀڳ 1027ع) ۾ انساني اک جي جسماني بناوت جي جاچ ۽ انساني بصري ادراڪ جي وسيع اڀياس کان پوءِ، ابن الهيثم [[اقلیدس جي بصريات]] جي پهرين مفروضي کي ”غير ضروري ۽ بيڪار“ قرار ڏنو (ڪتاب پهريون، [6.54] — ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح منطق ۽ تجربي مان استنباط وسيلي اقلیدس، بطليموس ۽ گالين جي [[نظر جو اخراجي نظريو|نظر جي اخراجي نظريي]] کي رد ڪيو. هن ڏيکاريو ته اقلیدس جي بصريات جو پهريون مفروضو رڳو قياسي هو ۽ سندس تجربن جي وضاحت نٿو ڪري)، ۽ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ڏسڻ لاءِ روشنيءَ جو اک ۾ داخل ٿيڻ ضروري آهي. هن پنهنجي جاچ جي حصي طور [[ڪيمرا اوبسڪيورا]] پڻ بيان ڪئي.}}{{efn-ua|1=[[ابن الهيثم]] سوال جوڙڻ ۽ پوءِ انهن کي پرکڻ جي اهميت تي زور ڏنو: ”روشني شفاف جسمن مان ڪيئن سفر ڪري ٿي؟ روشني شفاف جسمن مان رڳو سڌين ليڪن ۾ سفر ڪري ٿي... اسان پنهنجي ''[[بصريات جو ڪتاب|بصريات جي ڪتاب]]'' ۾ ان کي تفصيل سان بيان ڪيو آهي.{{efn|name= straightLinesOnly }} پر هتي ان کي يقيني نموني ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ ڳالهه بيان ڪريون ٿا: روشنيءَ جو سڌين ليڪن ۾ سفر ڪرڻ انهن ڪرڻن ۾ چٽيءَ طرح ڏسي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي سوراخن مان اونداهن ڪمرن ۾ داخل ٿين ٿيون... داخل ٿيندڙ روشني هوا ۾ ڀريل مٽيءَ ۾ صاف ڏسڻ ۾ ايندي.“<ref name=treatiseOnLight>Alhazen, ''Treatise on Light'' ({{lang|ar|رسالة في الضوء}})، جرمن مان انگريزي ترجمو M. Schwarz، [http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/30949 "Abhandlung über das Licht"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230190424/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/30949 |date=2019-12-30 }}، J. Baarmann (عربيءَ مان جرمن ترجمو ڪندڙ ۽ مرتب، 1882ع)، ''[[Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft]]'' جلد '''36'''، جيئن {{harvp|Sambursky|1975|p=136}} ۾ نقل ٿيل.</ref> * هن ”روشني شفاف جسمن مان رڳو سڌين ليڪن ۾ سفر ڪري ٿي“ واري پنهنجي گمان کي روشنيءَ جي شعاع ڀرسان سڌي لٺ يا ڇڪيل ڌاڳو رکي ثابت ڪيو، جيئن {{harvp|Sambursky|1975|p=136}} ۾ نقل ٿيل آهي. * [[ڊيوڊ هاڪني]] ابن الهيثم کي [[ڪيمرا اوبسڪيورا]] استعمال ڪندڙ تصويرگريءَ واري طريقي جو ممڪن سرچشمو قرار ڏيندي ڪيترائي ڀيرا حوالو ڏئي ٿو؛ هاڪني اهو طريقو [[چارلس ايم. فالڪو]] جي بصري تجويز جي مدد سان ٻيهر ڳولي لڌو. ''ڪتاب المناظر''، يعني ابن الهيثم جو ''[[بصريات جو ڪتاب]]''، جنهن کي ان وقت ''Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis'' چيو ويندو هو، يورپي استعمال لاءِ 1270ع تائين عربيءَ مان لاطينيءَ ۾ ترجمو ٿي چڪو هو. هاڪني فريڊرش رزنر جي 1572ع واري باسل ڇاپي ''Opticae Thesaurus'' جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو. هاڪني ابن الهيثم کي ڪيمرا اوبسڪيورا جي پهرين چٽي وضاحت ڏيندڙ قرار ڏئي ٿو.<ref name= truthSought4sake >{{harvp|Hockney|2006|p=240}}: ”سچائي رڳو سچائيءَ خاطر ڳولي وڃي ٿي. جيڪي ماڻهو ڪنهن شيءِ کي ان جي پنهنجي خاطر ڳولين ٿا، سي ٻين ڳالهين ۾ دلچسپي نٿا رکن. سچ ڳولڻ ڏکيو آهي ۽ ان ڏانهن ويندڙ واٽ اڻانگي آهي.“ – [[ابن الهيثم]] (965ع – لڳ ڀڳ 1040ع)، ''[[بطليموس تي تنقيد]]''، ترجمو S. Pines، ''Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences''، جلد '''I'''، اٿاڪا 1962ع، جيئن سيمبرسڪي (1975ع) صفحو 139 ۾ نقل ٿيل. (هي اقتباس بطليموس جي ڪتابن ''[[المجسطي]]''، ''سياري جو مفروضو''، ۽ {{cite book |title=Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-862-9 |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhLVHR5QAQkC&dq=Opticae+thesaurus+alhazen&pg=PA59 |translator=A. Mark Smith |access-date=2021-11-27 |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112635/https://books.google.com/books?id=mhLVHR5QAQkC&dq=Opticae+thesaurus+alhazen&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q=Opticae%20thesaurus%20alhazen&f=false |url-status=live }}) تي ابن الھيثم جي تنقيد مان ورتل آهي.</ref>}}{{efn-lr|name=Tanqih }} [[ابن سينا]]، [[البيروني]]،{{sfn|Alikuzai|2013|p=154}}{{sfn|Rozhanskaya|Levinova|1996}} [[راجر بيڪن]]{{efn-lg|سندس ''اوپس مجوس'' ۾ ڪيل اها دعويٰ ته ”عقل وسيلي پيش ڪيل نظرين کي حسي انگن اکرن سان پرکڻ گهرجي، اوزارن جي مدد وٺڻ گهرجي ۽ ڀروسي جوڳن شاهدن وسيلي تصديق ڪرائڻ گهرجي“<ref>Bacon, ''اوپس مجوس'', Bk.&VI.</ref> کي ”سائنسي طريقي جي پهرين اهم ڄاتل صورتن مان هڪ“ سمجهيو ويو آهي ۽ اڄ به سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Borlik|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132]}}}}، ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪم]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McFadden |first1=J |title=Razor sharp: The role of Occam's razor in science. |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=December 2023 |volume=1530 |issue=1 |pages=8–17 |doi=10.1111/nyas.15086 |pmid=38018886|pmc=10952609 |bibcode=2023NYASA1530....8M }}</ref> سورهين ۽ سترهين صديءَ جي [[سائنسي انقلاب]] دوران اهم اڳڀرائين ۾ [[فرانسس بيڪن]] ۽ [[رابرٽ هوڪ]] طرفان [[تجربيت]] جي واڌ،<ref>{{Cite book| last = Inwood | first = Stephen | title = The Forgotten Genius: The biography of Robert Hooke (1635–1703) | publisher = MacAdam/Cage Pub. |location=San Francisco | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-931561-56-3 |oclc=53006741 |pages=112–116}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc. |year=1705 |first=Robert |last=Hooke |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Waller |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/b30454621_0001/page/3/mode/1up |chapter=First general: The present state of natural philosophy and wherein it is deficient}}</ref> [[ريني ڊيڪارٽ]] طرفان بيان ڪيل [[عقليت پسند]] طريقو، ۽ [[استقرائيت]] شامل هئا، جنهن کي خاص طور [[آئزڪ نيوٽن]] ۽ سندس پوئلڳن وڌيڪ نمايان بڻايو. نيوٽن چار اصول پيش ڪيا، جيڪي جديد سائنس جو بنياد بڻجن ٿا،<ref name=":12">{{cite book |last1=Carpi |first1=Anthony |url=https://archive.org/details/processofscience0000carp/page/91 |title=The Process of Science |last2=Egger |first2=Anne E. |publisher=Visionlearning |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-257-96132-0 |edition=Revised |pages=91–92}}</ref> ۽ هن سائنسي طريقي کي وڌيڪ سنواريو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harper |first=William L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDUfqo-q0fkC&pg=PA2 |title=Isaac Newton's Scientific Method: Turning Data into Evidence about Gravity and Cosmology |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957040-9 |location= |pages=2–3}}</ref> فرانسس بيڪن تجربن جي حمايت ڪئي، جڏهن ته [[جامباتيستا ڊيلا پورٽا]]،<ref>{{cite conference |conference=The optics of Giovan Battista della Porta (1535–1615): A Reassessment Workshop at Technische Universität Berlin, 24–25 October 2014 |url=http://www.wissensgeschichte-berlin.de/sites/default/files/2014_10_24_DellaPortaWS_Program_Abstracts.pdf |title=various papers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527202632/http://www.wissensgeschichte-berlin.de/sites/default/files/2014_10_24_DellaPortaWS_Program_Abstracts.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-27}}</ref> [[يوهانس ڪيپلر]]،{{refn|1=Kepler, Johannes (1604) ''Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur'' (Witelo لاءِ واڌارا، جن ۾ فلڪيات جي بصري حصي تي بحث ٿيل آهي){{efn|مڪمل عنوان جو ترجمو {{harvp|Voelkel|2001|p=60}} تان ورتل آهي.}} جيئن {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=A. Mark|title=What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|date=June 2004 |volume=148 |issue=2|pages=180–194|jstor=1558283 |pmid=15338543}} ۾ حوالو ڏنل.}}{{efn|name= Kepler1604| ڪيپلر کي هي تجربو ڪرڻ جي ترغيب 10 جولاءِ 1600ع تي گراز ۾ جزوي سج گرهڻ ڏسڻ کان پوءِ ملي. هن ٽائڪو براهي جو مشاهدي وارو طريقو استعمال ڪيو، جنهن ۾ سج ڏانهن سڌو ڏسڻ بدران هڪ ننڍڙي سوراخ مان سج جي تصوير ڪاغذ تي وڌي ويندي هئي. هن براهي جي ان نتيجي سان اختلاف ڪيو ته مڪمل سج گرهڻ ممڪن نه آهن، ڇاڪاڻ ته مڪمل گرهڻن جا تاريخي احوال موجود هئا. ان جي بدران هن نتيجو ڪڍيو ته سوراخ جي ماپ ٺهيل تصوير جي چٽائيءَ کي ضابطو ڪري ٿي؛ سوراخ جيترو وڏو هوندو، تصوير اوتري وڌيڪ درست ٿيندي. اها ڳالهه هاڻي بصري نظامن جي جوڙجڪ لاءِ بنيادي آهي. {{harvp|Voelkel|2001|p=61}} لکي ٿو ته ڪيپلر جي 1604ع وارن تجربن نظر ۽ اک بابت پهريون صحيح احوال ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ ته هن سمجهيو ته اک کي نظرانداز ڪري فلڪياتي مشاهدي بابت صحيح نموني لکي نٿو سگهجي. {{harvp|Smith|2004|p=192}} بيان ڪري ٿو ته ڪيپلر جامباتيستا ڊيلا پورٽا جون پاڻيءَ سان ڀريل شيشي جون گوليون اک جي نموني طور استعمال ڪيون، ۽ اک جي شاگرد جي جاءِ تي سوراخ رکي ڏيکاريو ته داخلي سوراخ وٽ موجود سڄو منظر شيشي جي گوليءَ جي پٺئين هڪ نقطي تي مرڪوز ٿئي ٿو، جيڪو اک جي پردي جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. اهڙيءَ طرح ڪيپلر بصري سلسلي بابت پنهنجي تحقيق مڪمل ڪئي، ڇاڪاڻ ته اها فلڪيات ۾ سندس استعمال سان ٺهڪي آئي.}} ۽ [[گليليو گليلي]] تجربا ڪيا.{{efn-lg|name= empirical|...تجرباتي طريقي جي حمايت گليليو 1638ع ۾ ''[[ٻه نيون سائنسون]]'' ڇپائڻ سان ڪئي.{{sfn|Galileo Galilei|1638}}}} خاص ترقي شڪ پرست [[فرانسسڪو سانچز]] جي نظرياتي ڪمن،{{sfn|Sanches|1988}} ۽ مثاليت پسندن سان گڏ تجربيت پسندن [[جان لاڪ]]، [[جارج برڪلي]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ هيوم]] جي ڪم سان ٿي.{{efn|name= particDev |1= سانچز ۽ لاڪ ٻئي طبيب هئا. روم ۽ فرانس ۾ پنهنجي سکيا دوران سانچز مدرسي واري ارسطاطالي طريقي کان اڳتي سائنس جو طريقو ڳوليو. 1600ع کان اڳ طبي سکيا ۾ مدد لاءِ سانچز جي زماني ۾ يونيورسٽين ۾ نباتاتي باغ شامل ڪيا ويا. ''ڏسو لاڪ [https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Locke#An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding_(1689) (1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]'' برڪلي نيوٽن جي مادي پرست عالمي نظام جي مقابلي ۾ بيٺو؛ هن زور ڏنو ته سائنسدانن کي ”قاعدگيءَ تائين گهٽتائي“ ڳولڻ گهرجي.<ref name= idealism >Lisa Downing، ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/#3.2.3 (Fall 2021) George Berkeley, 3.2.3 Scientific explanation]</ref> Atherton (مرتب) 1999ع ۾ لاڪ، برڪلي ۽ هيوم کي تجربيت پسند مڪتب ۾ شامل ڪري ٿو.<ref>Margaret Atherton (مرتب) 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=iifXAAAAMAAJ The Empiricists]</ref> }} ويهين صديءَ ۾ [[چارلس سينڊرز پئرس|سي. ايس. پئرس]] [[مفروضي-استنباطي نمونو]] جوڙيو، ۽ ان کان پوءِ هن نموني ۾ اهم ترميمون ٿيون.{{sfn|Godfrey-Smith|2003|p=236}} ''سائنسي طريقو'' وارو اصطلاح اوڻيهين صديءَ ۾ سائنس جي اهم اداراتي واڌ ويجهه ۽ اهڙن اصطلاحن جي نتيجي ۾ سامهون آيو، جن سائنس ۽ غير سائنس جي وچ ۾ چٽيون [[حدبنديءَ جو مسئلو|حدون]] قائم ڪيون، جهڙوڪ ''سائنسدان'' ۽ ''ڪوڙي سائنس''.{{sfn|Thurs|2011}} 1830ع ۽ 1850ع واري ڏهاڪن ۾، جڏهن بيڪنيت مقبول هئي، وليم وهيويل، جان هرشل ۽ جان اسٽورٽ مل جهڙا قدرتي عالم ”استقرا“ ۽ ”حقيقتن“ بابت بحث ڪندا هئا، ۽ سندن ڌيان ڄاڻ پيدا ڪرڻ جي طريقي تي هو.{{sfn|Thurs|2011}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ [[فلسفياڻو حقيقت پسندي|حقيقت پسندي]] ۽ [[حقيقت پسنديءَ جي مخالفت|غير حقيقت پسندي]] وچ ۾ بحث ٿيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته سگهارا سائنسي نظريا مشاهدي جي دائري کان اڳتي وڌي رهيا هئا.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Achinstein |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRGPAR8vJZkC&pg=PA1 |title=Science Rules: A Historical Introduction to Scientific Methods |date=2004 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-7943-2 |pages=1–5 |chapter=General Introduction}}</ref> === جديد استعمال ۽ تنقيدي فڪر === ''سائنسي طريقو'' وارو اصطلاح ويهين صديءَ ۾ عام استعمال ۾ آيو؛ ڊيوئي جي 1910ع واري ڪتاب ''[[اسان ڪيئن سوچيون ٿا]]'' [[عام رھنمائي|عام رهنمائي ڪندڙ اصولن]] کي اتساهيو.<ref name="cowles">{{harvp|Cowles|2020|p=264}}</ref> اهو اصطلاح لغتن ۽ سائنس جي درسي ڪتابن ۾ ظاهر ٿيڻ لڳو، جيتوڻيڪ ان جي مطلب بابت گهڻو اتفاق موجود نه هو.{{sfn|Thurs|2011}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين ان جي استعمال ۾ واڌ ٿي،{{efn|name= deweySchool|1= 1902ع ۾ ڊيوئي جي تجربيگاهي اسڪول بابت: ڪائولز 2020 لکي ٿو ته ڊيوئي تجربيگاهي اسڪول کي استادن ۽ شاگردن وچ ۾ سهڪار سمجهندو هو. پنجن قدمن واري وضاحت کي تشريحي بدران لازمي سمجهيو ويو. هن سخت ۽ اڻلچڪدار تشريح کان پريشان ٿي، ڊيوئي پنجن قدمن واري رٿا کي نرم ڪرڻ لاءِ انهن قدمن کي ”مرحلا“ نالو ڏنو، پر اها ترميم نظرانداز ڪئي وئي.}} پر 1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين سائنس جي ڪيترن اثرائتن فلسفين، جهڙوڪ [[ٿامس ڪوهن]] ۽ [[پال فيئرابنڊ]]، ”سائنسي طريقي“ جي آفاقيت تي سوال اٿاريا، ۽ سائنس کي هڪجهڙي ۽ آفاقي طريقي طور ڏسڻ واري تصور کي گهڻي حد تائين ان خيال سان مٽايو ته سائنس مختلف نوعيت رکندڙ ۽ مقامي عمل آهي.{{sfn|Thurs|2011}} خاص طور پال فيئرابنڊ پنهنجي 1975ع واري ڪتاب ''[[طريقي جي خلاف]]'' جي پهرين ڇاپي ۾ [[سائنس]] لاءِ ڪنهن به آفاقي اصول جي موجودگيءَ جي مخالفت ڪئي؛<ref name="auto" /> [[ڪارل پوپر]]{{efn-lg|پوپر پنهنجي 1963ع واري تصنيف ''ڪنجيڪچرز اينڊ رفيوٽيشنس'' ۾ دليل ڏنو ته رڳو [[آزمائش ۽ غلطي]] کي ”آفاقي طريقو“ چئي سگهجي ٿو.<ref name= trialAndErr>{{ citation | mode=cs1 | url= http://www.paul-rosenfels.org/Popper.pdf | last= Popper | author-link= Karl Popper | date= 1963 | title= Conjectures and Refutations | pages=312–365 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013124349/http://www.paul-rosenfels.org/Popper.pdf |archive-date =2017-10-13 |ref=none | quote=جيڪڏهن اسان ان کي پنهنجو مقصد بڻايو آهي، ته پوءِ آزمائش ۽ غلطيءَ جي طريقي—يعني گمان ۽ رد—کان وڌيڪ ڪو به عقلي طريقو ناهي.}}</ref>}} ۽ گائچ 2003<ref name= allScience /> فيئرابنڊ جي دعويٰ سان اختلاف ڪيو. پوءِ وارن موقفن ۾ طبعياتدان [[لي سمولين]] جو 2013ع وارو مضمون ”ڪو به سائنسي طريقو ناهي“ شامل آهي،<ref name="Smolin 2013">{{cite web |url=http://bigthink.com/in-their-own-words/there-is-no-scientific-method |title=There is No Scientific Method |last1=Smolin |first1=Lee |access-date=2016-06-07 |date=May 2013 |archive-date=2016-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807052038/http://bigthink.com/in-their-own-words/there-is-no-scientific-method |url-status=live }}</ref> جنهن ۾ هو ٻن [[اخلاقي اصول|اخلاقي اصولن]] جي حمايت ڪري ٿو، لي سمولين پنهنجي 2013ع واري مضمون ”ڪو به سائنسي طريقو ناهي“ ۾<ref name="Smolin 2013"/> ٻن [[اخلاقي اصول|اخلاقي اصولن]] جي حمايت ڪري ٿو. پهريون: ”اسان سچ ڳالهائڻ تي متفق آهيون ۽ عوامي ثبوتن مان نڪرندڙ عقلي دليل جي تابع رهڻ تي متفق آهيون.“ ٻيو: ”جڏهن ثبوت ايترا ڪافي نه هجن، جو عقلي دليل وسيلي طئي ڪري سگهجي ته هڪ موقف صحيح آهي يا ٻيو، تڏهن اسان مقابلي ۽ گوناگونيءَ کي همٿائڻ تي متفق آهيون.“ اهڙيءَ طرح هو {{harvp|Popper|1963|p=viii}} جي خيال کي ورجائي ٿو.}} ۽ [[سائنس جي تاريخ|سائنس جي مورخ]] ڊينيئل ٿرس جو 2015ع واري ڪتاب ''نيوٽنس ايپل اينڊ اڌر مٿس ابائوٽ سائنس'' ۾ لکيل باب پڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ويو ته سائنسي طريقو هڪ ڏندڪٿا، يا وڌ ۾ وڌ هڪ مثالي خاڪو آهي.<ref name="Thurs2015">{{Citation | last = Thurs | first = Daniel P. | chapter = That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do | editor-last1 = Numbers | editor-first1 = Ronald L. | editor-link = Ronald L. Numbers | editor-last2 = Kampourakis | editor-first2 = Kostas | title = Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science | pages = 210–218 | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2015 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ&q=newton%27s+apple+and+other+myths+about+science | isbn = 978-0-674-91547-3 | quote = شايد بهتر اهو آهي ته پهرين خراب خبر ٻڌائي ڇڏجي: جنهن کي ”سائنسي طريقو“ چيو وڃي ٿو، سو هڪ ڏندڪٿا آهي.&nbsp;... جيڪڏهن ان جون عام وضاحتون درست هجن ها، ته حقيقي سائنس رڳو پرائمري اسڪولن جي ڪلاس رومن ۾ ئي ٿي رهي هجي ها. | access-date = 2020-10-20 | archive-date = 2023-11-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112729/https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ&q=newton%27s+apple+and+other+myths+about+science#v=snippet&q=newton's%20apple%20and%20other%20myths%20about%20science&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref> جيئن [[ڏند ڪٿا|ڏندڪٿائون]] عقيدا هونديون آهن،<ref name= beliefCreatesReality /> تيئن اهي [[بياني مغالطو|بياني مغالطي]] جي تابع هونديون آهن، جيئن طالب نشاندهي ڪئي آهي.<ref name= narrativeFallacy /> فلسفين [[رابرٽ نولا]] ۽ هاورڊ سينڪي پنهنجي 2007ع واري ڪتاب ''ٿيوريز آف سائنٽيفڪ ميٿڊ'' ۾ چيو ته سائنسي طريقي بابت بحث جاري آهي، ۽ دليل ڏنو ته فيئرابنڊ، پنهنجي ڪتاب ''طريقي جي خلاف'' جي عنوان باوجود، طريقي جا ڪجهه اصول قبول ڪيا ۽ انهن اصولن کي هڪ مٿانهين طريقياتي رٿا وسيلي جائز ثابت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |author1-link= Robert Nola |last2=Sankey |first2=Howard |date=2007 |title=Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction |series=Philosophy and science |volume=2 |location=Montréal |publisher=[[ميڪ گل–ڪوئنز يونيورسٽي پريس]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aKjgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=aKjgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 300] |isbn=978-0-7735-3344-8 |oclc=144602109 |doi=10.4324/9781315711959 |quote=ماڻهن جو هڪ وڏو حلقو اهو سمجهي ٿو ته سائنسي طريقي نالي ڪا اهڙي شيءِ موجود آهي، جنهن کي دليلن سان جائز ثابت ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي ان ڳالهه تي متفق ناهن ته اهو طريقو اصل ۾ ڪهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. پر اهڙن ماڻهن جو انگ پڻ وڌي رهيو آهي، جيڪي سمجهن ٿا ته جائز ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به طريقو موجود ناهي. ڪن لاءِ ته اهو سڄو خيال گذريل زماني جو بحث آهي، جنهن کي جاري رکڻ جو مطلب چوڻيءَ موجب ”مئل گهوڙي کي وڌيڪ چهبڪ هڻڻ“ کان سواءِ ٻيو ڪجهه ناهي. اسان ان سان اختلاف ڪريون ٿا.&nbsp;... اسان اها دعويٰ ڪنداسين ته فيئرابنڊ مختلف سائنسي قدرن جي حمايت ڪئي، طريقي جا اصول قبول ڪيا (انهن اصولن جي هڪ مخصوص سمجهه موجب)، ۽ انهن کي اهڙي مٿانهين طريقيات وسيلي جائز ثابت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جيڪا ڪنهن حد تائين [[عڪس ڪندڙ توازن]] جي اصول سان مشابهت رکي ٿي..}}</ref> اسٽڊن (2017ع) دليل ڏئي ٿو ته ڪنهن حسابي يا مقرر سائنسي طريقي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾ قاعدن جي پوئواري ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش غلطي آهي؛ اهڙي حالت ۾ ”سائنس کي مثالن وسيلي بهتر سمجهي سگهجي ٿو“.<ref name="Staddon 2017 p.">{{cite book |last=Staddon |first=John | title=Scientific Method: How Science Works, Fails to Work, and Pretends to Work | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=New York | date=2017-12-01 | isbn=978-1-315-10070-8 | doi=10.4324/9781315100708 | page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/21425/StaddonHistoryofScienceSept2020.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y| title = Whatever Happened to History of Science?| date = 16 September 2020| access-date = 2021-08-27 | archive-date = 2021-08-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210827092318/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/21425/StaddonHistoryofScienceSept2020.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y| url-status = live| last1 = Staddon| first1 = John|quote="science is best understood through examples"}}</ref> تنهن هوندي به، حسابي طريقا، جهڙوڪ ''تجربي وسيلي موجود نظريي کي غلط ثابت ڪرڻ''، [[ابن الھيثم]] (1027ع) ۽ سندس ''[[بصريات جو ڪتاب]]''،{{efn|name= alhacenCharacterizes}} ۽ گليليو (1638ع) ۽ سندس ''ٻه نيون سائنسون''،{{sfn|Galileo Galilei|1638}} توڙي ''[[آزمائيندڙ]]'' ۾ استعمال ڪيا ويا، ۽ اهي اڄ به سائنسي طريقي جا قائم مثال آهن. ==<span class="anchor" id="Elements of the scientific method"></span><span class="anchor" id="Context"></span>تحقيق جا عنصر== === جائزو === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1|سائنسي طريقي کي اڪثر هڪ لڳاتار جاري رهندڙ عمل طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. هي خاڪو ان جي هڪ نموني جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته ان جا ٻيا به ڪيترائي نمونا موجود آهن.]] '''سائنسي طريقو''' اهو عمل آهي، جنهن وسيلي [[سائنس]] سرانجام ڏني ويندي آهي.<ref name="allTheSciences">{{harvp|Gauch|2003|p=xv}}: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences."</ref> تحقيق جي ٻين شعبن وانگر، سائنس پڻ سائنسي طريقي وسيلي اڳوڻي ڄاڻ تي اڳڀرائي ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ وقت گذرڻ سان پنهنجي مطالعي هيٺ موضوعن بابت سمجھ کي يڪجا ڪري سگهي ٿي.{{efn|name=unification|1= مطالعي جي موضوعن کي، جيئن اهي سائنسدانن جي اصطلاحن ۾ بيان ٿين ٿا، هڪ ”واحد يڪجا طريقي“ وسيلي سمجھيو ويندو آهي.<ref name= cowles />{{rp|pp.8,13,33–35,60}} موضوعن کي اظهار جي هڪ سرشتي ۾ سندن محمولن وسيلي [[يڪجائي (ڪمپيوٽر سائنس)|يڪجا]] ڪيو ويندو آهي. يڪجائيءَ جي عمل کي [[جيڪ هربرانڊ]] 1930ع ۾ رسمي صورت ڏني.<ref name= herbrand >Maribel Fernández [https://nms.kcl.ac.uk/maribel.fernandez/papers/slides-TCS-SOUP.pdf (Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207084211/https://nms.kcl.ac.uk/maribel.fernandez/papers/slides-TCS-SOUP.pdf |date=2024-12-07 }}</ref>}} تاريخي طور سائنسي طريقي جي اوسر [[سائنسي انقلاب]] لاءِ انتهائي اهم هئي.<ref name="lindberg2007">{{harvp|Lindberg|2007|pp=2–3}}: "هڪ اهڙو خطرو آهي، جنهن کان بچڻ لازمي آهي. ... جيڪڏهن اسين تاريخي جاکوڙ سان انصاف ڪرڻ چاهيون ٿا، ته اسان کي ماضيءَ کي اهڙيءَ ريت قبول ڪرڻ گهرجي، جهڙو اهو حقيقت ۾ هو. ۽ ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اسان کي ماضيءَ ۾ جديد سائنس جا مثال يا اڳواٽ اهڃاڻ ڳولڻ جي لالچ جي مزاحمت ڪرڻ گهرجي. ... منهنجو ڌيان سائنسي ''نظرين'' جي شروعات، انهن طريقن تي هوندو جن وسيلي اهي جوڙيا ويا، ۽ انهن استعمالن تي، جن لاءِ اهي ڪتب آندا ويا؛ ... "</ref> هن مجموعي عمل ۾ گمان قائم ڪرڻ ([[مفروضو|مفروضا]])، انهن جا منطقي نتيجا اڳڪٿي ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ انهن اڳڪٿين جي بنياد تي تجربا ڪرڻ شامل آهن، جيئن اهو طئي ڪري سگهجي ته اصل گمان درست هو يا نه.<ref name="NA" /> تنهن هوندي به، طريقي کي ڪنهن مقرر فارمولي ۾ بيان ڪرڻ ۾ ڏکيائيون موجود آهن. سائنسي طريقو ڪنهن مقرر ترتيب بدران عام اصولن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو؛ هر تحقيق ۾ سڀئي مرحلا لازمي طور شامل نه هوندا آهن ۽ نه ئي اهي هميشه ساڳئي ترتيب سان اچن ٿا. ان لاءِ طريقيڪار جي سخت پيرويءَ بدران ذهانت، تصور ۽ تخليقيت جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Gauch|2003|p=3}} ==== سائنسي تحقيق جا جزا ==== سائنسي تحقيق ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ بنيادي طريقي کي بيان ڪرڻ جا مختلف انداز آهن. [[سائنسي برادري]] ۽ [[سائنس جا فلسفي]] عام طور طريقي جي جزن جي هيٺين درجيبنديءَ تي متفق آهن. اهي طريقياتي عنصر ۽ طريقيڪار جي تنظيم [[سماجي سائنسون|سماجي سائنسن]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ [[تجرباتي سائنسون|تجرباتي سائنسن]] جي وڌيڪ خاصيت رکن ٿا. تنهن هوندي به، مفروضا قائم ڪرڻ، انهن جي جاچ ڪرڻ، نتيجن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ نوان مفروضا جوڙڻ وارو چڪر هيٺ بيان ڪيل چڪر سان مشابهت رکي ٿو.{{anchor|epistemicCycle|Process}}سائنسي طريقو هڪ ورجائتو ۽ چڪري عمل آهي، جنهن وسيلي معلومات کي لڳاتار نظرثاني هيٺ آندو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Godfrey-Smith |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k23egtSWrb8C |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |date=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 |location=Chicago |author-link=پيٽر گاڊفري-سمٿ |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112726/https://books.google.com/books?id=k23egtSWrb8C |archive-date=2023-11-29 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brody-1993">{{harvp|Brody|1993|p=10}} ان کي ''[[#epistemicCycle|علمياتي چڪر]]'' سڏي ٿو؛ اهڙا چڪر تجريد جي مٿانهين سطحن تي به ٿي سگهن ٿا.</ref> عام طور مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته ڄاڻ ۾ اڳڀرائي هيٺين عنصرن جي مختلف ميلاپن يا ڀاڱيدارين وسيلي ٿيندي آهي:<ref name="Fixation">{{cite wikisource|title=The Fixation of Belief|first=Charles Sanders|last=Peirce|year=1877|wslink=The Fixation of Belief|volume=12|pages=1–15|journal=Popular Science Monthly}}.</ref><ref name="Vital">پئرس، چارلس ايس.، ''Collected Papers''، جلد 5، پيراگراف 582، 1898ع: ”...&nbsp;هر قسم جي [عقلي] پڇاڳاڇا، جيڪڏهن مڪمل نموني ڪئي وڃي، ته ان ۾ پاڻ کي سڌارڻ ۽ واڌ ويجهه ڪرڻ جي حياتي بخش سگهه هوندي آهي. اها خاصيت ان جي اندروني فطرت ۾ ايتري گهري ريت سمايل آهي، جو سچ پچ چئي سگهجي ٿو ته سچ ڄاڻڻ لاءِ رڳو هڪڙي شيءِ ضروري آهي، ۽ اها آهي—جيڪو سچ آهي، تنهن کي ڄاڻڻ جي دلي ۽ سرگرم خواهش.“"</ref><!--ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuhn |first1=Thomas S.|title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 50th Anniversary Edition|date=2012 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-45811-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eP5Y_OOuzwC|access-date=29 January 2018}}{{pn|date=August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Galison |first1=Peter|title=How Experiments End|date=1987|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-27915-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DN-9m2jSo8YC |access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref>--> * خاصيتن جو تعين: تحقيق هيٺ موضوع جا مشاهدا، وصفون ۽ ماپون * مفروضا: موضوع جي مشاهدن ۽ ماپن جون نظرياتي يا فرضي وضاحتون * اڳڪٿيون: مفروضي يا نظريي مان استقرائي ۽ استنباطي استدلال * تجربا: مٿين سڀني عنصرن جون جاچون سائنسي طريقي جو هر عنصر ممڪن غلطين جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ [[هم منصبي جائزو|هم منصبي جائزي]] هيٺ اچي ٿو. اهي سرگرميون سائنسدانن جي سموري ڪم کي بيان نٿيون ڪن، پر گهڻو ڪري تجرباتي سائنسن، جهڙوڪ طبيعيات، ڪيميا، حياتيات ۽ نفسيات، تي لاڳو ٿين ٿيون. مٿين عنصرن کي [[تعليم|تعليمي سرشتي]] ۾ اڪثر ”سائنسي طريقو“ ڪري پڙهايو ويندو آهي.{{efn-ua|name= aQuestion| [[تحقيق تي ٻڌل سکيا|تحقيق تي ٻڌل تعليم]] جي نموني ۾ ”خاصيتن جي تعين، مشاهدي، وصف، ...“ واري مرحلي کي مختصر طور ”سوال“ جي عنوان هيٺ آندو ويندو آهي. ڪنهن مرحلي تي سوال ايترو بنيادي به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيترو [[پنج بنيادي سوال]]، يا ''ڇا هي جواب درست آهي؟''، يا ''هن بابت ٻيو ڪير ڄاڻي سگهي ٿو؟''، يا ''ڇا مان کانئس پڇي سگهان ٿو؟'' وغيره. تحقيق ڪندڙ جا سوال گول چڪر ۾ اڳتي وڌندا رهن ٿا، جيستائين مقصد حاصل نه ٿئي.}} سائنسي طريقو ڪا هڪڙي تيار ترڪيب نه آهي؛ ان لاءِ ذهانت، تصور ۽ تخليقيت جي ضرورت آهي.<ref>{{harvp|Einstein|Infeld|1938|p=92}}: "نوان سوال اٿارڻ، نوان امڪان پيش ڪرڻ ۽ پراڻن مسئلن کي نئين زاويي کان ڏسڻ لاءِ تخليقي تصور جي ضرورت هوندي آهي، ۽ اهو سائنس ۾ حقيقي اڳڀرائيءَ جي نشاني آهي.."</ref> هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو بنا سوچ جي پيروي ڪرڻ لاءِ معيارن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو مجموعو نه، پر هڪ لڳاتار جاري رهندڙ چڪر آهي، جيڪو هميشه وڌيڪ ڪارائتا، درست ۽ جامع نمونا ۽ طريقا جوڙيندو رهي ٿو. مثال طور، جڏهن آئنسٽائن خاص ۽ عام اضافيت جا نظريا پيش ڪيا، تڏهن هن ڪنهن به طرح نيوٽن جي ''پرنسپيا'' کي رد يا بي قدر نه ڪيو. ان جي ابتڙ، جيڪڏهن آئنسٽائن جي نظرين مان فلڪياتي حد تائين ڳرا، انتهائي هلڪا ۽ تمام تيز رفتار جسم ڪڍي ڇڏجن، يعني اهي سڀئي مظاهر جيڪي نيوٽن مشاهدو نه ڪري سگهيو هو، ته پوءِ باقي نيوٽن جون مساواتون ئي رهن ٿيون. آئنسٽائن جا نظريا نيوٽن جي نظرين جي توسيع ۽ سڌاري واري صورت آهن، تنهنڪري اهي نيوٽن جي ڪم تي ڀروسو وڌائين ٿا. {{anchor|aGuideline}}مٿين چئن نڪتن تي ٻڌل هڪ ورجائتي،<ref name="Brody-1993" /> عملي<ref name="truthSought4sake" /> رٿا ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اڳتي وڌڻ لاءِ رهنمائيءَ طور ڏني ويندي آهي:<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Crawford S, Stucki L |year=1990 |title=Peer review and the changing research record |journal=Journal of the American Society for Information Science |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=223–228 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199004)41:3<223::AID-ASI14>3.0.CO;2-3}}</ref> # هڪ سوال مقرر ڪريو # معلومات ۽ وسيلا گڏ ڪريو، يعني مشاهدو ڪريو # هڪ وضاحتي مفروضو قائم ڪريو # تجربو ڪري ۽ [[ورجاءَ پذيري|ورجاءَ پذير]] طريقي سان انگ اکر گڏ ڪري مفروضي جي جاچ ڪريو # انگن اکرن جو تجزيو ڪريو # انگن اکرن جي تشريح ڪريو ۽ اهڙا نتيجا ڪڍو، جيڪي نئين مفروضي لاءِ شروعاتي نقطو بڻجن # نتيجا شايع ڪريو # ٻيهر جاچ ڪريو، جيڪا گهڻو ڪري ٻيا سائنسدان ڪندا آهن هن مرحليوار طريقي ۾ شامل ورجائتو چڪر ٽئين نڪتي کان ڇهين نڪتي تائين وڃي ٿو ۽ وري ٽئين نڪتي ڏانهن موٽي اچي ٿو. جيتوڻيڪ هيءَ رٿا هڪ عام مفروضي ۽ جاچ واري طريقي کي بيان ڪري ٿي،{{sfn|Gauch|2003|loc=esp. chapters 5–8}} پر سائنس جي ڪيترن فلسفين، مورخن ۽ سماجياتدانن، جن ۾ [[پال فيئرابنڊ]] پڻ شامل آهي،{{efn|name= descartes| ”اهڙي ڪا به راءِ، ڀلي ڪيتري به بي معنيٰ ۽ ناقابل يقين هجي، تصور نٿي ڪري سگهجي، جنهن جي ڪنهن نه ڪنهن فلسفي حمايت نه ڪئي هجي.“ —ڊيڪارٽ<ref name= discourseOnMethod >[[ريني ڊيڪارٽ]] (1637ع) [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method/Part_2 Discourse on the Method/Part 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901150801/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method/Part_2 |date=2021-09-01 }} Part II</ref> }} دعويٰ ڪئي آهي ته سائنسي طريقي جون اهڙيون تشريحون، سائنس جي حقيقي عملي طريقي سان تمام ٿورو لاڳاپو رکن ٿيون. === خاصيتن جو تعين === سائنسي طريقي جا بنيادي عنصر ڊي اين اي جي بناوت جي دريافت بابت هيٺين مثال وسيلي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪو 1944ع کان 1953ع تائين پيش آيو. مثال کي [[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] سان نشان لڳائي اندر ڌڪيل صورت ۾ ڏنو ويو آهي. <blockquote>[[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] 1950ع ۾ اهو معلوم هو ته [[جينياتي وراثت]] جي رياضياتي تشريح موجود آهي، جنهن جي شروعات [[گريگور مينڊل]] جي اڀياسن سان ٿي، ۽ اهو پڻ معلوم هو ته ڊي اين اي ۾ جينياتي معلومات موجود هوندي آهي، جنهن کي اوسوالڊ ايوري جو ''بدلائيندڙ اصول'' چيو ويو.{{sfn|McCarty|1985|page=252}} پر ڊي اين اي ۾ جينياتي معلومات، يعني جينن، جي ذخيري جو طريقيڪار اڃا واضح نه هو. [[وليم لارنس بريگ|بريگ]] جي [[ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي]] واري تجربيگاهه ۾ محققن مختلف [[ماليڪيول|ماليڪيولن]] جون [[ايڪس شعاعون|ايڪس شعاعي]] [[پکيڙ|پکيڙ جون تصويرون]] ٺاهيون. انهن [[لوڻ]] جي [[بلور|بلورن]] کان شروعات ڪئي ۽ پوءِ وڌيڪ پيچيده مادن ڏانهن وڌيا. ان جي ڪيميائي بناوت کان شروعات ڪندي ڪيترن ڏهاڪن دوران وڏي محنت سان گڏ ڪيل نشانين جي بنياد تي اهو طئي ڪيو ويو ته ڊي اين اي جي طبعي بناوت جون خاصيتون معلوم ڪرڻ ممڪن هجڻ گهرجن، ۽ ايڪس شعاعي تصويرون ان ڪم جو وسيلو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون.{{sfn|McElheny|2004|p=34}}</blockquote> سائنسي طريقو تحقيق هيٺ موضوعن جي وڌ کان وڌ نفيس خاصيتن جي تعين تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. ''موضوعن'' کي [[: زمرو:حل نه ٿيل مسئلن جون فهرستون|''حل نه ٿيل مسئلا'']] يا ''اڻڄاتل شيون'' پڻ چئي سگهجي ٿو.{{efn-ua|name= aQuestion}} مثال طور، [[بنيامين فرينڪلن]] درست گمان ڪيو ته [[سينٽ ايلمو جي باهه]] پنهنجي [[فطرت]] ۾ [[بجلي|برقي]] آهي، پر ان ڳالهه کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ تجربن جي هڪ ڊگهي سلسلي ۽ نظرياتي تبديلين جي ضرورت پئي. موضوعن جون لاڳاپيل خاصيتون ڳوليندي، محتاط سوچ ڪجهه وصفن ۽ [[مشاهدو|مشاهدن]] کي منطقي نتيجي طور [[منطقي نتيجو|لازم]] به ڪري سگهي ٿي؛ اهڙن مشاهدن لاءِ اڪثر محتاط [[ماپ]] ۽/يا ڳڻپ گهربل هوندي آهي، جيڪا وسيع [[تجرباتي تحقيق]] جي صورت اختيار ڪري سگهي ٿي. هڪ [[تحقيقي سوال|سائنسي سوال]] ڪنهن مخصوص [[مشاهدو|مشاهدي]] جي وضاحت بابت ٿي سگهي ٿو،{{efn-ua|name= aQuestion}} جيئن ”آسمان نيرو ڇو آهي؟“، پر اهو کليل پڇاڙيءَ وارو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن ”مان هن مخصوص بيماري جي علاج لاءِ [[دوائن جي جوڙجڪ|دوا ڪيئن جوڙي سگهان ٿو؟]]“ هن مرحلي ۾ اڳوڻن تجربن مان مليل ثبوتن، ذاتي سائنسي مشاهدن يا دعوائن، ۽ ٻين سائنسدانن جي ڪم کي ڳولڻ ۽ پرکڻ شامل هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن جواب اڳ ئي معلوم هجي ته موجود ثبوتن تي ٻڌل ڪو ٻيو سوال اٿاري سگهجي ٿو. تحقيق ۾ سائنسي طريقو لاڳو ڪندي سٺو سوال مقرر ڪرڻ تمام ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ اهو تحقيق جي نتيجي تي اثرانداز ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC |title=Translational and Experimental Clinical Research |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7817-5565-8 |editor-last1=Schuster |editor-first1=Daniel P. |chapter=Ch. 1 |access-date=2021-11-27 |editor-last2=Powers |editor-first2=William J. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112636/https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC |archive-date=2023-11-29 |url-status=live}} هن باب ۾ تحقيقي سوالن جي مختلف قسمن ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ بابت پڻ بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.</ref> لاڳاپيل مقدارن جي ماپن يا ڳڻپ جي منظم ۽ محتاط گڏجاڻي اڪثر [[ڪوڙي سائنس|ڪوڙين سائنسن]]، جهڙوڪ ڪيمياگري، ۽ حقيقي سائنسن، جهڙوڪ ڪيميا يا حياتيات، وچ ۾ بنيادي فرق هوندي آهي. سائنسي ماپن کي عام طور جدولن، گرافن يا نقشن جي صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ انهن تي شمارياتي ڪارروايون، جهڙوڪ [[لاڳاپو]] ۽ [[رجعت تجزيو]]، ڪيون وينديون آهن. ماپون ڪنهن ضابطي هيٺ ماحول، جهڙوڪ تجربيگاهه، ۾ وٺي سگهجن ٿيون يا اهڙن شين تي ڪيون وڃن ٿيون، جن تائين پهچڻ يا جن کي بدلائڻ ڏکيو هجي، جهڙوڪ تارا يا انساني آباديون. ماپن لاءِ اڪثر خاص [[سائنسي اوزار]]، جهڙوڪ [[ٿرماميٽر]]، [[طيف پيما]]، [[ذرڙن جو تيزڪار]] يا [[وولٽ ميٽر]]، گهربل هوندا آهن، ۽ ڪنهن سائنسي شعبي جي اڳڀرائي عام طور اهڙن اوزارن جي ايجاد ۽ سڌاري سان ويجهي نموني ڳنڍيل هوندي آهي. {{Blockquote|text=مون کي رڳو هڪ يا ٻن مشاهدن کان پوءِ ڪنهن ڳالهه کي يقيني نموني بيان ڪرڻ جي عادت ناهي.|author=[[آندرياس ويساليوس]] (1546ع)<ref>Andreas Vesalius, ''Epistola, Rationem, Modumque Propinandi Radicis Chynae Decocti'' (1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated in C.D. O'Malley, ''Andreas Vesalius of Brussels'', (1964), p. 116. As quoted by {{harvp|Bynum|Porter|2005|p=597}}: "Andreas Vesalius"</ref>}} ==== وصف ==== ڪنهن اصطلاح جي سائنسي وصف ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] واري استعمال کان گهڻي مختلف هوندي آهي. مثال طور، عام گفتگوءَ ۾ [[ڪمیت]] ۽ [[وزن]] جون معنائون هڪ ٻئي سان ملي وڃن ٿيون، پر [[مڪينيات]] ۾ انهن جون الڳ معنائون آهن. سائنسي مقدارن جون خاصيتون اڪثر سندن [[ماپ جا ايڪا|ماپي ايڪن]] وسيلي بيان ڪيون وينديون آهن، جن کي پوءِ ڪم بابت ڄاڻ ڏيندي روايتي طبعي ايڪن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. نوان نظريا ڪڏهن ڪڏهن تڏهن جوڙيا ويندا آهن، جڏهن اهو محسوس ٿئي ته ڪي اصطلاح اڳ ۾ ڪافي چٽائيءَ سان بيان نه ڪيا ويا آهن. مثال طور، [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن]] جو [[خاص اضافيت|اضافيت]] بابت پهريون مقالو [[هم وقتيت جي اضافيت|هم وقتيت]] ۽ [[ڊيگهه]] طئي ڪرڻ جي وسيلن جي وصف سان شروع ٿئي ٿو. [[آئزڪ نيوٽن]] انهن خيالن کي هن چوڻ سان نظرانداز ڪيو هو: ”مان [[طبيعيات ۾ وقت#گليليو: وقت جو وهڪرو|وقت]]، وٿي، جاءِ ۽ [[حرڪت (طبيعيات)|حرڪت]] جي وصف نٿو ڏيان، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي سڀني کي چڱيءَ طرح معلوم آهن.“ پوءِ آئنسٽائن جو مقالو ڏيکاري ٿو ته اهي تصور، يعني مطلق وقت ۽ حرڪت کان آزاد ڊيگهه، رڳو لڳ ڀڳ درست تصور هئا. [[فرانسس ڪرڪ]] خبردار ڪري ٿو ته ڪنهن موضوع جون خاصيتون طئي ڪندي اهڙي شيءِ جي وصف وقت کان اڳ ڏيڻ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا اڃا پوريءَ طرح سمجھ ۾ نه آئي هجي.<ref>Crick, Francis (1994), ''The Astonishing Hypothesis'' {{ISBN|0-684-19431-7}} p. 20 </ref> [[شعور]] بابت پنهنجي اڀياس ۾ ڪرڪ ڏٺو ته، مثال طور، [[آزاد ارادو|آزاد ارادي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ [[بصري سرشتو|بصري سرشتي]] اندر [[سجاڳي]] جو اڀياس ڪرڻ وڌيڪ آسان هو. سندس خبرداريءَ وارو مثال جين هو؛ واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ جي ڊي اين اي جي بناوت بابت بنيادي دريافت کان اڳ جين تمام گهٽ سمجھيل هو، تنهنڪري ان کان اڳ جين جي وصف تي گهڻو وقت خرچ ڪرڻ ابتڙ نتيجا ڏئي سگهي ها. === مفروضي جي جوڙجڪ === {{Main|مفروضي جي جوڙجڪ}} <blockquote>{{Anchor|DNA-hypotheses}}[[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] [[لينس پالنگ]] تجويز پيش ڪئي ته ڊي اين اي شايد [[ٽهري سرپل]] تي ٻڌل هجي.<ref>{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=40}}: آڪٽوبر 1951ع — ”سرپل کي اهڙو ئي ڏسڻ گهرجي!“ ڪرڪ خوشيءَ مان چيو. (هيءَ سرپل جي ڦيرڦار بابت ڪوڪرن-ڪرڪ-وينڊ-اسٽوڪس نظريو آهي.)</ref><ref> {{harvp|Judson|1979|p=157}}. {{"'}}اسان جيڪا بناوت تجويز ڪريون ٿا، اها ٽن زنجيرن واري بناوت آهي، جنهن ۾ هر زنجير هڪ سرپل آهي“ — لينس پالنگ</ref> هن مفروضي تي [[فرانسس ڪرڪ]] ۽ [[جيمس ڊي. واٽسن]] پڻ غور ڪيو، پر پوءِ ان کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. جڏهن واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ کي پالنگ جي مفروضي بابت ڄاڻ پئي ته موجود انگن اکرن مان هنن سمجھي ورتو ته پالنگ غلط هو.<ref> {{harvp|McElheny|2004|pp=49–50}}: 28 جنوري 1953ع — واٽسن پالنگ جو ڇپائيءَ کان اڳ وارو مسودو پڙهيو ۽ محسوس ڪيو ته پالنگ جي نموني ۾ ڊي اين اي جا فاسفيٽ گروهه غير آئنيل هجڻ گهرجن ها. پر ڊي اين اي هڪ تيزاب آهي، جيڪا ڳالهه پالنگ جي نموني جي ابتڙ هئي. </ref> ۽ پالنگ جلد ئي ان بناوت سان لاڳاپيل پنهنجين ڏکيائين کي تسليم ڪرڻ وارو هو.</blockquote> {{Anchor|Hypothesis}}[[مفروضو]] ڪنهن مظاهري جي تجويز ڪيل وضاحت، يا متبادل طور اهڙي دليل تي ٻڌل تجويز آهي، جيڪا مظاهرن جي هڪ مجموعي جي ٻن يا وڌيڪ جزن وچ ۾ ممڪن لاڳاپي جو اظهار ڪري. عام طور مفروضا [[رياضياتي نمونو|رياضياتي نموني]] جي صورت رکن ٿا. ڪڏهن، پر هميشه نه، اهي [[وجودي سورڻ|وجودي بيانن]] جي صورت ۾ پڻ جوڙي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ چيو ويندو آهي ته مطالعي هيٺ مظاهري جي ڪنهن مخصوص مثال ۾ ڪا خاصيت يا ڪارڻ واري وضاحت موجود آهي؛ جڏهن ته انهن جون عام صورتون [[عالمگير سورڻ|عالمگير بيانن]] تي ٻڌل هونديون آهن، جن ۾ چيو ويندو آهي ته مظاهري جي هر مثال ۾ ڪا مخصوص خاصيت موجود آهي. سائنسدان مطالعي هيٺ ڪنهن مظاهري جي ممڪن وضاحت جو تصور ڪرڻ لاءِ وٽن موجود ڪنهن به وسيلي کي استعمال ڪرڻ ۾ آزاد آهن، جهڙوڪ پنهنجي تخليقيت، ٻين شعبن مان ورتل خيال، [[استقرائي استدلال]]، [[بيزي استنباط]] وغيره. البرٽ آئنسٽائن هڪ ڀيرو چيو هو ته ”مظاهرن ۽ انهن جي نظرياتي اصولن وچ ۾ ڪا منطقي پُل موجود ناهي.“<ref>{{cite book |last1=Einstein |first1=Albert |title=The World as I See It |date=1949 |publisher=Philosophical Library |location=New York |pages=24–28}}</ref>{{efn|name= leapIsInvolved |”هر سوچ ۾ هڪ ٽپو شامل هوندو آهي“ — جان ڊيوئي<ref>{{harvp|Dewey|1910|p=26}}</ref> }} [[چارلس سينڊرز پيرس]]، [[ارسطو]] جي ''[[اڳوڻو تجزيو]]''، [[تحقيق#افضل قياس|2.25]] مان خيال وٺندي،<ref name="aristotleAbduction">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Organon_(Owen)/Prior_Analytics/Book_2#Chapter_25 Aristotle (trans. 1853) ''Prior Analytics'' 2.25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910034741/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Organon_(Owen)/Prior_Analytics/Book_2#Chapter_25 |date=2021-09-10 }} via Wikisource</ref> [[تحقيق]] جي شروعاتي مرحلن کي، جيڪي ”شڪ جي بيچيني“ سبب ممڪن گمان ڏانهن وڌن ٿا، ''[[افضل استدلال]]'' طور بيان ڪيو.<ref name="How">{{cite wikisource|title=How to Make Our Ideas Clear|first=Charles Sanders|last=Peirce|year=1877|wslink=How to Make Our Ideas Clear|volume=12|pages=286–302|journal=Popular Science Monthly}}</ref>{{rp|II, p.290}} سائنس جي تاريخ اهڙين ڪهاڻين سان ڀريل آهي، جن ۾ سائنسدانن ”اوچتي وحيءَ“ يا ڪنهن اندروني سوجھه جي دعويٰ ڪئي، جنهن پوءِ کين پنهنجي خيال جي حمايت يا ترديد لاءِ ثبوت ڳولڻ تي آماده ڪيو. [[مائيڪل پولاني]] اهڙي تخليقيت کي پنهنجي طريقيات بابت بحث جو مرڪزي نڪتو بڻايو. [[وليم گلين (ارضياتدان ۽ مورخ)|وليم گلين]] لکي ٿو ته{{sfn|Glen|1994|pp=37–38}} {{Blockquote|text=ڪنهن مفروضي جي ڪاميابي، يا سائنس لاءِ ان جي خدمتي اهميت، رڳو ان جي ظاهري ”سچائي“ يا اڳئين خيال کي هٽائڻ، پاڻ ۾ سمائڻ يا محدود ڪرڻ جي سگهه ۾ نه، پر شايد وڌيڪ ان جي انهيءَ صلاحيت ۾ آهي، جيڪا اهڙي تحقيق کي اتساهي ٿي، جيڪا&nbsp;... اڻسڌريل گمانن ۽ اڻچٽائيءَ وارن علائقن کي روشن ڪري.|author= وليم گلين|title= ''وڏي پيماني واري فنا بابت بحث'' }} عام طور سائنسدان اهڙا نظريا ڳولڻ ڏانهن مائل هوندا آهن، جيڪي ”[[سادگي ۽ نفاست|نفيس]]“ يا ”[[حسن|سهڻا]]“ هجن. سائنسدان اهي اصطلاح اڪثر اهڙي نظريي لاءِ استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيڪو ڄاتل حقيقتن سان ٺهڪي اچي، پر ساڳئي وقت نسبتاً سادو ۽ استعمال ۾ آسان هجي. [[اوڪم جو استرو]] هڪجهڙي وضاحتي سگهه رکندڙ مفروضن جي مجموعي مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ موزون مفروضو چونڊڻ لاءِ عملي اصول طور ڪم اچي ٿو. هڪڙي مفروضي تي ڀاڙڻ سبب پيدا ٿيندڙ [[تصديقي لاڙو|تصديقي لاڙي]] کي گھٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ، [[مضبوط استنباط]] ڪيترن متبادل مفروضن تي غور ڪرڻ جي ضرورت تي زور ڏئي ٿو،<ref name="platt">{{cite journal |last=Platt |first=John R. |author-link=جان آر. پليٽ |date=16 October 1964 |title=Strong Inference |journal=Science |volume=146 |issue=3642 |pages=347– |doi=10.1126/science.146.3642.347|pmid=17739513 |bibcode=1964Sci...146..347P }}</ref> ۽ اوزاري يا طريقياتي مصنوعي اثرن کان پاسو ڪرڻ جي هدايت ڪري ٿو.<ref name= sn1987a>[[ليون ليڊرمين]]، [[طبيعيات پهرين پڙهائڻ]] جي مثال ۾، تصديقي لاڙي کان بچڻ جي وضاحت ڪري ٿو: چلي ۾ [[ايئن شيلٽن]] شروع ۾ شڪ ظاهر ڪيو ته [[سپرنووا 1987اي]] حقيقي آهي يا شايد اوزارن سبب پيدا ٿيل مصنوعي اثر آهي، يعني صفري مفروضو. تنهنڪري هو ٻاهر نڪتو ۽ ايس اين 1987اي کي اگھاڙي اک سان ڏسي پنهنجي صفري مفروضي کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. جاپان ۾ [[ڪاميوڪانڊي تجربو|ڪاميوڪانڊي تجربي]] ساڳئي وقت [[ايس اين 1987اي]] مان ايندڙ [[نيوٽرينو|نيوٽرينن]] جو آزاد مشاهدو ڪيو.</ref> === مفروضي مان اڳڪٿيون === {{Further|اڳڪٿي#سائنس}} <blockquote>{{Anchor|DNA-predictions}}[[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] [[جيمس ڊي. واٽسن]]، [[فرانسس ڪرڪ]] ۽ ٻين مفروضو قائم ڪيو ته ڊي اين اي جي بناوت سرپلي هئي. ان مان اهو نتيجو نڪتو ته ڊي اين اي جو ايڪس شعاعي پکيڙ وارو نمونو ”ايڪس“ جهڙي شڪل وارو هجڻ گهرجي.<ref name="Crick pp. 137–138">{{harvp|Judson|1979|pp=137–138}}: ”واٽسن [[تمباڪو موزيڪ وائرس]] تي ايترو ڪم ڪيو، جو ڪرڪ جي سرپل جي ڦيرڦار بابت ڪم موجب هڪ سرپلي پکيڙ وارو نمونو تيار ڪري سگهيو.“</ref><ref name="McElheny 2004 43">{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=43}}: جون 1952ع — واٽسن تمباڪو موزيڪ وائرس جون اهڙيون ايڪس شعاعي تصويرون حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيو، جيڪي سرپل جي ڦيرڦار سان ٺهڪندڙ پکيڙ وارو نمونو ڏيکارين ٿيون.</ref> هيءَ اڳڪٿي ڪوڪرن، ڪرڪ ۽ وينڊ<ref name="HelixTransform">Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix", ''[[ايڪٽا ڪرسٽلوگرافيڪا|Acta Crystallogr.]]'', '''5''', 581–586.</ref>، ۽ الڳ نموني اسٽوڪس، جي ڪم مان نڪتي. ڪوڪرن-ڪرڪ-وينڊ-اسٽوڪس قضيي ان تجرباتي مشاهدي جي رياضياتي وضاحت ڏني ته سرپلي بناوتن مان پکيڙ ”ايڪس“ جهڙا نمونا پيدا ڪري ٿي. پنهنجي پهرئين مقالي ۾ واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ اهو پڻ نوٽ ڪيو ته سندن تجويز ڪيل [[ٻٽو سرپل]]، [[ڊي اين اي جي نقل سازي]] لاءِ هڪ سادو طريقيڪار مهيا ڪري ٿو. هنن لکيو: ”اسان جي نظر کان اها ڳالهه نه بچي آهي ته اسان جي مفروض ڪيل مخصوص جوڙجڪ فوراً جينياتي مادي جي ممڪن نقل سازيءَ واري طريقيڪار ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿي.“<ref>{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=68}}: ''نيچر''، 25 اپريل 1953ع.</ref></blockquote> {{Anchor|Prediction}}هر ڪارائتو مفروضو [[استدلال]]، جنهن ۾ [[استنباطي استدلال]] پڻ شامل آهي، وسيلي [[اڳڪٿي|اڳڪٿيون]] ڪرڻ جي قابل هوندو.{{efn|1= مفروضي مان صحيح منطقي صورتون [[استنباطي استدلال#مُثبت مقدم|مُثبت مقدم]] يا [[استنباطي استدلال#نافي نتيجو|نافي نتيجي]] وسيلي ڪڍجن. [[نتيجي جي تصديق]] جهڙين غلط صورتن کان پاسو ڪيو وڃي.}} اهو ڪنهن تجربيگاهه ۾ تجربي جي نتيجي يا فطرت ۾ ڪنهن مظاهري جي مشاهدي بابت اڳڪٿي ڪري سگهي ٿو. اڳڪٿي شمارياتي پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي ۽ رڳو امڪانن سان واسطو رکي سگهي ٿي. اهڙي اڳڪٿي جي جاچ جو نتيجو اڳواٽ اڻڄاتل هجڻ ضروري آهي. رڳو اهڙي حالت ۾ ڪامياب نتيجو ان امڪان کي وڌائي ٿو ته مفروضو درست آهي. جيڪڏهن نتيجو اڳ ئي معلوم هجي ته ان کي منطقي نتيجو چيو ويندو آهي، ۽ مفروضو جوڙڻ وقت ان تي اڳ ئي غور ٿيڻ گهرجي ها. جيڪڏهن اڳڪٿيون مشاهدي يا تجربي جي پهچ کان ٻاهر هجن ته مفروضو اڃا [[جاچ پذيري|جاچ پذير]] نه هوندو ۽ سخت معنيٰ ۾ ان حد تائين غير سائنسي رهندو. ڪا نئين ٽيڪنالاجي يا نظريو گهربل تجربن کي ممڪن بڻائي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، ٻين ذهين جيوت وارين قسمن جي وجود بابت مفروضو سائنسي بنياد تي معقول اندازو ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر هن وقت ڪو ڄاتل تجربو ان مفروضي جي جاچ نٿو ڪري سگهي. تنهنڪري سائنس پاڻ هن امڪان بابت گھڻو ڪجهه نٿي چئي سگهي. مستقبل ۾ ڪا نئين ٽيڪنڪ تجرباتي جاچ ممڪن بڻائي سگهي ٿي، جنهن کان پوءِ اهو اندازو قبوليل سائنس جو حصو بڻجي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، آئنسٽائن جو [[عام اضافيت]] وارو نظريو مشاهدي لائق [[زمان-مڪان]] جي بناوت بابت ڪيتريون ئي مخصوص اڳڪٿيون ڪري ٿو؛ جهڙوڪ [[روشني]] [[ثقلي ميدان]] ۾ مڙي ٿي، ۽ مڙڻ جي مقدار جو ثقلي ميدان جي سگهه سان ٺيڪ ٺاڪ لاڳاپو آهي. [[آرٿر ايڊنگٽن]] جي [[ايڊنگٽن تجربو|1919ع واري سج گرهڻ دوران ڪيل مشاهدن]] نيوٽني [[ڪشش ثقل]] بدران عام اضافيت جي حمايت ڪئي.<ref>مارچ 1917ع ۾ [[شاهي فلڪياتي سوسائٽي]] اعلان ڪيو ته 29 مئي 1919ع تي ٿيندڙ [[مڪمل سج گرهڻ]] آئنسٽائن جي [[عام اضافيت جو نظريو|عام اضافيت واري نظريي]] جي جاچ لاءِ موزون حالتون مهيا ڪندو. هڪ مهم [[سوبرال، سيئارا]]، [[برازيل]] ڏانهن، ۽ ايڊنگٽن جي مهم [[پرنسيپي]] ٻيٽ ڏانهن وئي. اتان ورتل تصويرن کي سوبرال ۽ [[گرينچ مشاهديگاهه]] ۾ ورتل تصويرن سان ڀيٽڻ کان پوءِ روشنيءَ جو انحراف 1.69 [[قوسي سيڪنڊ]] ماپيو ويو، جڏهن ته آئنسٽائن جي حسابي اڳڪٿي 1.75 قوسي سيڪنڊ هئي. — Antonina Vallentin (1954)، ''Einstein''، جيئن Samuel Rapport ۽ Helen Wright (1965)، ''Physics''، نيو يارڪ: Washington Square Press، ص 294–295 ۾ ڏنل آهي.</ref> === تجربا === {{Main|تجربو}} <blockquote>{{Anchor|DNA-experiments}}[[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ ڊي اين اي جي بناوت بابت پنهنجي شروعاتي، ۽ غلط، تجويز [[ڪنگز ڪاليج لنڊن]] جي هڪ ٽولي، يعني [[روزالينڊ فرينڪلن]]، [[موريس ولڪنز]] ۽ [[ريمنڊ گوسلنگ]]، آڏو پيش ڪئي. فرينڪلن پاڻيءَ جي مقدار سان لاڳاپيل خاميون فوراً سڃاڻي ورتيون. پوءِ واٽسن فرينڪلن جي [[فوٽو 51]] ڏٺي، جيڪا ايڪس شعاعي پکيڙ جي هڪ تفصيلي تصوير هئي ۽ ”ايڪس“ جهڙي شڪل ڏيکاريندي هئي،<ref>{{cite web |title=The Secret of Photo 51 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831201252/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/ |archive-date=2017-08-31 |access-date=2017-09-11 |work=NOVA |publisher=PBS}}</ref><ref name=photo51Explained >[[سنٿيا وولبرگر]] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tMuMRY1oDo (2021) Photograph 51 explained]</ref> جنهن وسيلي هو تصديق ڪري سگهيو ته بناوت سرپلي هئي.<ref name="TeaTime">{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=52}}: جمعو، 30 جنوري 1953ع، چانهه جو وقت — فرينڪلن واٽسن ۽ پالنگ جي مقالي بابت سندس سامهون اعتراض رکي ٿي: ”يقيناً اهو غلط آهي. ڊي اين اي سرپل ناهي.“ تنهن هوندي به، واٽسن پوءِ ولڪنز جي آفيس ۾ وڃي ٿو، [[فوٽو 51]] ڏسي ٿو ۽ هڪدم سرپلي بناوت جي پکيڙ وارو نمونو سڃاڻي وٺي ٿو. پر ٻيا سوال اڃا باقي هئا، جن لاءِ تحقيق جي وڌيڪ ورجاءَ جي ضرورت هئي. مثال طور، سرپل جي پٺيءَ ۾ زنجيرن جو انگ، جنهن بابت ڪرڪ کي شڪ هو ته ٻه زنجيرون آهن، پر هن واٽسن کي وڌيڪ تنقيدي جاچ جي صلاح ڏني؛ بنيادي جوڙن جو هنڌ، يعني پٺيءَ جي اندر يا ٻاهر، وغيره. هڪ اهم ڳالهه اها هئي ته هنن سمجھي ورتو ته نتيجي تي جلد پهچڻ جو بهترين طريقو رياضياتي تجزيو جاري رکڻ نه، پر هڪ طبعي نمونو ٺاهڻ هو. ان ئي شام واٽسن ولڪنز کي فوراً نمونو ٺاهڻ شروع ڪرڻ لاءِ زور ڏئي ٿو، پر ولڪنز فرينڪلن جي روانگيءَ کان پوءِ ئي ائين ڪرڻ تي راضي ٿئي ٿو.</ref><ref name="Watson 1968 167">{{harvp|Watson|1968|p=167}}: ”جنهن لمحي مون اها تصوير ڏٺي، منهنجو وات کلي ويو ۽ منهنجي نبض تيز ٿي وئي.“ صفحو 168 [[ڊي اين اي]] جي بي-صورت جو ”ايڪس“ جهڙو نمونو ڏيکاري ٿو، جيڪو واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ لاءِ ان جي سرپلي بناوت جا اهم تفصيل چٽي نموني ظاهر ڪري ٿو.</ref>{{efn|name= nextItemToSettle| مقصد بدلجي وڃي ٿو: ڊي اين اي جي ايڪس شعاعي پکيڙ واري نموني جي مشاهدي کان پوءِ،<ref name=TeaTime /><ref name=photo51Explained /> ۽ وقت جي اهميت سبب،<ref name=econ/> واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ سمجھي وٺن ٿا ته ڊي اين اي جي بناوت معلوم ڪرڻ جو تيز ترين طريقو رياضياتي تجزيو نه،<ref name= reasonsFirstRule /> پر [[#DNA-iterations|طبعي نمونا ٺاهڻ]] هو.<ref name= SameShape />}}</blockquote> {{anchor|suitableTest|Testing|Crucial experiment}}جڏهن اڳڪٿيون تيار ٿي وڃن ته تجربن وسيلي انهن جي ڳولا يا جاچ ڪري سگهجي ٿي. جيڪڏهن جاچ جا نتيجا اڳڪٿين جي ابتڙ هجن ته انهن اڳڪٿين تي ٻڌل مفروضن تي سوال اٿن ٿا ۽ اهي گھٽ قابل قبول بڻجي وڃن ٿا. ڪڏهن تجربا غلط نموني ڪيا ويندا آهن يا [[فيصلائتو تجربو|فيصلائتي تجربي]] جي ڀيٽ ۾ مناسب نموني جوڙيل نه هوندا آهن. جيڪڏهن تجرباتي نتيجا اڳڪٿين جي تصديق ڪن ته مفروضن کي وڌيڪ درست سمجهيو ويندو آهي، پر اهي اڃا به غلط ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ وڌيڪ جاچ هيٺ رهندا آهن. [[تجرباتي ضابطو]] مشاهدي جي غلطيءَ کي منهن ڏيڻ جي هڪ ٽيڪنڪ آهي. هن ٽيڪنڪ ۾ مختلف حالتن هيٺ ڪيترن نمونن، مشاهدن يا آبادين جي ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيئن ڏسي سگهجي ته ڇا بدلجي ٿو ۽ ڇا ساڳيو رهي ٿو. ماپ جي عملن جون حالتون تبديل ڪيون وڃن ٿيون، جيئن تبديل ٿيل عامل کي الڳ ڪري سگهجي. پوءِ [[مل جا اصول]] اهم عامل سڃاڻڻ ۾ مدد ڪري سگهن ٿا.<ref>[[جان اسٽورٽ مل|مل، جان اسٽورٽ]]، "A System of Logic"، University Press of the Pacific، Honolulu، 2002، {{ISBN|1-4102-0252-6}}.</ref> [[عاملي تجزيو]] ڪنهن اثر ۾ اهم عامل معلوم ڪرڻ جي هڪ ٽيڪنڪ آهي. اڳڪٿين جي نوعيت موجب تجربن جون صورتون مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. اهو تجربيگاهه ۾ روايتي تجربو، [[ٻٽو انڌو مطالعو]] يا آثار قديمه جي [[کوٽائي (آثار قديمه)|کوٽائي]] ٿي سگهي ٿو. [[نيو يارڪ شهر|نيو يارڪ]] کان [[پيرس]] تائين جهاز ۾ سفر ڪرڻ به هڪ تجربو آهي، جيڪو جهاز جي تعمير ۾ استعمال ڪيل [[هوائي حرڪيات|هوائي حرڪياتي]] مفروضن جي جاچ ڪري ٿو. اهي ادارا اهڙيءَ طرح تحقيقي عمل کي لاڳت ۽ فائدي جي حساب تائين محدود ڪن ٿا،<ref name="conjugatePairs" /> جيڪو پئسي، ۽ محققن جي خرچ ٿيڻ واري وقت ۽ ڌيان جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿئي ٿو،<ref name="conjugatePairs" /> ۽ ان جي بدلي ۾ سندن لاڳاپيل ڌرين کي رپورٽ مهيا ڪئي وڃي ٿي.<ref name="nsf">National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021) [https://www.nsf.gov/oig/reports/ NSF Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817165231/https://www.nsf.gov/oig/reports/|date=2021-08-17}} and [https://www.nsf.gov/news/ News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820162008/https://www.nsf.gov/news/|date=2021-08-20}}</ref> موجوده دور جا وڏا اوزار، جهڙوڪ سرن جو [[وڏو هيڊرون ٽڪرائيندڙ]]،<ref name="lhc">{{Cite web |title=LHC long term schedule |url=https://lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch/lhc-commissioning/schedule/LHC-long-term.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425105121/https://lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch/lhc-commissioning/schedule/LHC-long-term.htm |archive-date=2020-04-25 |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch}} (2021)</ref> [[ليگو]]،<ref name="ligo">{{cite web |title=ligo.caltech.edu (1999) Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory |url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901125538/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/ |archive-date=2021-09-01 |access-date=2021-08-30}}</ref> [[قومي اشتعال سهولت]]،<ref name="nif">{{cite web |title=NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility? |url=https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/what-is-nif |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731064919/https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/what-is-nif |archive-date=2017-07-31 |access-date=2021-08-22}}</ref> [[بين الاقوامي خلائي اسٽيشن]]،<ref name="iss">{{cite web |date=12 January 2015 |title=ISS (2021) International Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050907073730/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html |archive-date=2005-09-07 |access-date=2021-08-22}}</ref> يا [[جيمس ويب خلائي دوربين]]،<ref name="jwst">{{cite web |title=JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope |url=https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104225155/http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/ |archive-date=2012-01-04 |access-date=2021-08-22}}</ref><ref name="jwstDeploymentSeq">جيمس ويب خلائي دوربين [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzGLKQ7_KZQ (12 Nov 2021) James Webb Space Telescope Deployment Sequence (Nominal)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223035530/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzGLKQ7_KZQ|date=2021-12-23}}، روانگيءَ کان 29هين ڏينهن تائين اڳڪٿين کي نمايان ڪري ٿي.</ref> اربين ڊالرن جي متوقع لاڳت ۽ ڏهاڪن تائين پکڙيل وقتي مدتن سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي قسم جا ادارا قومي يا بين الاقوامي سطح تي عوامي پاليسي تي اثر وجهن ٿا، ۽ محققن کي اهڙين مشينن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل مددگار ڍانچي تائين گڏيل رسائي گهربل هوندي آهي.{{efn-lg|name= feedTheMachinery| ذهن جي مشين رڳو ڄاڻ کي بدلائي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ان کي پيدا نٿي ڪري سگهي، جيستائين ان کي مشاهدي جي حقيقتن سان خوراڪ نه ڏني وڃي. — [[چارلس سينڊرز پيرس]]<ref name= How/>}}<ref name="Crutchfield" >{{cite web|url=http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~chaos/chaos/talks/CSTheorySFIRetreat.pdf|title=James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?"|access-date=2018-05-27 |archive-date=2021-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418204840/http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~chaos/chaos/talks/CSTheorySFIRetreat.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> سائنسدان تجربا ڪندڙن کان کليل رويي ۽ جوابدهيءَ جي اميد رکن ٿا. تفصيلي رڪارڊ رکڻ لازمي آهي، جيئن تجرباتي نتيجن جي درج ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽ ڏيڻ ۾ مدد ملي ۽ طريقيڪار جي اثرائتي هجڻ ۽ ديانتداري برقرار رهي. اهڙا رڪارڊ، شايد ٻين محققن وسيلي، تجرباتي نتيجن جي ٻيهر حاصل ٿيڻ ۾ پڻ مدد ڏين ٿا. هن طريقي جا نشان [[هيپارخس]] (190–120 ق.م.) جي ڪم ۾ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا، جڏهن هن زمين جي محوري اڳڀرائيءَ جي قدر طئي ڪئي؛ جڏهن ته [[سائنسي ضابطو|ضابطي هيٺ تجربا]] [[محمد بن جابر الحراني البتاني|البتاني]] (853–929ع)<ref>[[محمد بن جابر الحراني البتاني|البتاني]]، ''ڊي موتو اسٽيلرم''، [[ٻارهين صديءَ جا لاطيني ترجما|1116ع ۾ عربيءَ مان لاطيني ترجمو]]، جيئن E. S. Kennedy، ''A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables''، (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2)، Philadelphia، 1956، ص 10–11، 32–34 ۾ حوالو ڏنل آهي.</ref> ۽ [[ابن الھيثم]] (965–1039ع) جي ڪمن ۾ ڏسي سگهجن ٿا.{{sfn|Smith|2001b}}{{efn|''[[ڪتاب المناظر]]''، ڪتاب ٻيون، [3.52] کان [3.66]؛ رنگ بابت ابن الهيثم جي تجربن لاءِ خلاصو ص 444، ۽ اک بابت سندس فعلياتي تجربن لاءِ ص 343–394 ڏسو.{{sfn|Smith|2001b}} }}{{efn|name= straightLinesOnly |''[[ڪتاب المناظر]]''، ڪتاب ستون، باب ٻيون [2.1]، ص 220: روشني شفاف جسمن، جهڙوڪ هوا، پاڻي، شيشي ۽ شفاف پٿرن مان سڌين ليڪن ۾ گذري ٿي. ”بيشڪ، اها ڳالهه تجربي وسيلي مشاهدو ڪري سگهجي ٿي.“<ref name= smith2010 >{{harvp|Smith|2010|p=220}} ڪتاب ستون ۾ انڪسار تي بحث ٿيل آهي.</ref> }} === رابطو ۽ ورجاءَ === {{See also|سائنسي ادب|علمي رابطو}} <blockquote> [[File:DNA icon.svg|frameless|22x22px|link=|alt=ڊي اين اي نشان]] پوءِ واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ هن ڄاڻ کي ڊي اين اي جي بناوت بابت اڳ ئي ڄاتل معلومات، خاص طور [[چارگاف جا اصول|چارگاف جي بنيادي جوڙن وارن اصولن]]، سان گڏ استعمال ڪندي پنهنجو نمونو تيار ڪيو.<ref name="SameShape">{{harvp|McElheny|2004|pp=57–59}}: ڇنڇر، 28 فيبروري 1953ع — واٽسن پنهنجي گتي مان تيار ڪيل نمونن وسيلي بنيادي جوڙن جو اهو طريقيڪار ڳولي لڌو، جنهن [[چارگاف جا اصول]] واضح ڪيا.</ref> وڏي عرصي تائين بي نتيجا تجربا ڪرڻ، پنهنجي مٿئين عملدار پاران ڪم جاري رکڻ کان روڪجڻ، ۽ ڪيترين ناڪام شروعاتن کان پوءِ،<ref>{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=53}}: هفتي جي پڄاڻي، 31 جنوري–1 فيبروري — فوٽو 51 ڏسڻ کان پوءِ واٽسن بريگ کي بي-صورت ڊي اين اي جي ايڪس شعاعي پکيڙ واري تصوير بابت ٻڌايو. بريگ کين ڊي اين اي تي پنهنجي تحقيق، يعني نمونو ٺاهڻ، ٻيهر شروع ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني.</ref><ref>{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=54}}: آچر، 8 فيبروري 1953ع — موريس ولڪس واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ کي نمونن تي ڪم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ولڪس پاڻ فرينڪلن جي ڊي اين اي بابت تحقيق ڇڏڻ تائين نمونا ٺاهڻ وارو نه هو.</ref><ref>{{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=56}}: [[جيري ڊونوهو]]، جيڪو پالنگ جي تجربيگاهه مان موڪل تي ڪيمبرج آيل هو، واٽسن کي ٻڌايو ته درسي ڪتابن ۾ ڏنل بنيادي جوڙن جي صورت ڊي اين اي جي بنيادي جوڙن لاءِ غلط هئي؛ ان بدران بنيادي جوڙن جي ڪيٽو صورت استعمال ٿيڻ گهرجي. هن صورت سان بنيادن جا هائڊروجن بند ”ساڳي سان ساڳي“ بدران ”مختلف سان مختلف“ ڳنڍجي سگهيا، جڏهن ته واٽسن درسي بيانن جي بنياد تي ساڳي سان ساڳي جوڙڻ ڏانهن مائل هو. 27 فيبروري 1953ع تي واٽسن ايترو مطمئن ٿي ويو جو هن نيوڪليوٽائيڊن جا ڪيٽو صورت وارا گتي جا نمونا ٺاهيا.</ref> واٽسن ۽ ڪرڪ ان کي جوڙيندڙ [[نيوڪليوٽائيڊ|نيوڪليوٽائيڊن]] جي [[ڊي اين اي#تاريخ|طبعي شڪلين]] جي ٺوس [[نمونو (تجريد)|نمونه سازي]] وسيلي [[ڊي اين اي]] جي بنيادي بناوت اخذ ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا.<ref name="SameShape" /><ref> {{harvp|Watson|1968|pp=194–197}}: ”اوچتو مون کي احساس ٿيو ته ٻن [[هائڊروجن بند|هائڊروجن بندن]] سان ڳنڍيل [[ايڊينين]]–[[ٿائيمين]] جوڙو شڪل ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ ٻن هائڊروجن بندن سان ڳنڍيل [[گوانين]]–[[سائٽوسين]] جوڙي جهڙو ئي هو.&nbsp;...“</ref><ref> {{harvp|McElheny|2004|p=57}}: ڇنڇر، 28 فيبروري 1953ع — واٽسن ”ساڳي سان ساڳي“ جوڙڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ۽ تسليم ڪيو ته انهن بنيادي جوڙن جا هائڊروجن بند هڪ قطار ۾ نٿا اچن. پر ”مختلف سان مختلف“ جوڙڻ جي ڪوشش ۽ [[جيري ڊونوهو]] جي منظوري حاصل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، بنيادي جوڙا شڪل ۾ هڪجهڙا نڪتا، جيئن واٽسن پنهنجي 1968ع واري يادگيرين ''ٻٽو سرپل'' ۾ مٿي بيان ڪيو آهي. واٽسن هاڻي ايترو پراعتماد هو جو ڪرڪ کي ان بابت ٻڌائي سگهي. يقيناً، جيڪڏهن هيءَ رٿا [[جينياتي رمز]] هجي ها ته ”مختلف سان مختلف“ جوڙڻ ممڪن [[ڪوڊون|ڪوڊونن]] جو انگ وڌائي ڇڏي ها. </ref> هنن کي [[لينس پالنگ]] پاران اخذ ڪيل بندن جي ڊيگهن ۽ [[روزالينڊ فرينڪلن]] جي ايڪس شعاعي پکيڙ وارين تصويرن مان رهنمائي ملي. </blockquote> سائنسي طريقو ورجائتو هوندو آهي. ڪنهن به مرحلي تي ان جي [[درستگي ۽ صحت]] کي وڌيڪ سڌارڻ ممڪن آهي، جنهن سبب ڪنهن ڳالهه تي غور سائنسدان کي عمل جي اڳئين حصي کي ٻيهر ورجائڻ ڏانهن وٺي وڃي سگهي ٿو. ڪو دلچسپ مفروضو جوڙڻ ۾ ناڪامي سائنسدان کي مطالعي هيٺ موضوع جي نئين سر وصف طئي ڪرڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪنهن مفروضي جو دلچسپ ۽ جاچ پذير اڳڪٿيون پيدا نه ڪرڻ، مفروضي يا موضوع جي وصف تي ٻيهر غور ڪرڻ جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو. ڪنهن تجربي مان دلچسپ نتيجا نه نڪرڻ سبب سائنسدان تجرباتي طريقي، مفروضي يا موضوع جي وصف تي ٻيهر غور ڪري سگهي ٿو. اهڙي قسم جو ورجاءُ ڏهاڪن، ۽ ڪڏهن صدين تائين پکڙجي سگهي ٿو. [[علمي اشاعت#علمي مقالن جا قسم|ڇپيل مقالن]] تي اڳتي ڪم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، 1027ع تائين [[ابن الهيثم]] روشنيءَ جي [[انڪسار]] بابت پنهنجين ماپن جي بنياد تي اهو اخذ ڪري سگهيو ته [[ٻاهرين خلا]] جي ڪثافت [[هوا]] کان گھٽ آهي، يعني ”آسماني جسم هوا جي جسم کان وڌيڪ لطيف آهي“.<ref name="alhacenOnRefraction4.28">{{harvp|Smith|2010}} ڪتاب 7، [4.28] ص 270</ref> 1079ع ۾ [[ابن معاذ الجياني]] جي ''شفق بابت رسالي'' سج جي ڪرڻن جي [[فضائي انڪسار]] جي بنياد تي اهو اخذ ڪيو ته ڌرتيءَ جو وايومنڊل 50 ميل ٿلهو هو.{{efn|name= crepusculis|1= فضائي انڪسار سبب صبح ۽ شام جي [[شفق]] دوران سج جون ڪرڻون تڏهن به نظر اچن ٿيون، جڏهن سج افق کان 18° هيٺ هجي.<ref name= brGoldstein >Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977) [[ابن معاذ الجياني]] جو "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133483 (1079) Treatise On Twilight and the Height of the Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921011840/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133483 |date=2022-09-21 }}" ''[[Archive for History of Exact Sciences]]''، جلد '''17'''، شمارو 2، 21 جولاءِ 1977ع، ص 97–118. ''شفق بابت رسالو'' ايف. ريزنر پاران ''Opticae Thesaurus'' (1572ع) ۾ ''Liber de crepusculis'' جي نالي سان ڇپايو ويو، پر ان کي ابن معاذ بدران ابن الهيثم ڏانهن منسوب ڪيو ويو.</ref> }} اهو ئي سبب آهي جو سائنسي طريقي کي اڪثر دائروي صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي: نئين معلومات نئين خاصيتن جي تعين ڏانهن وٺي وڃي ٿي ۽ سائنس جو چڪر جاري رهي ٿو. گڏ ڪيل ماپون [[تحقيقي انگن اکرن جو محفوظ ذخيرو|محفوظ ڪري سگهجن ٿيون]]، ٻين ڏانهن منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿيون ۽ ٻيا ماڻهو به انهن کي استعمال ڪري سگهن ٿا. ٻيا سائنسدان پنهنجي تحقيق شروع ڪري سگهن ٿا ۽ ڪنهن به مرحلي تي هن عمل ۾ داخل ٿي سگهن ٿا. اهي موجود خاصيتن جو تعين قبول ڪري پنهنجو مفروضو جوڙي سگهن ٿا، يا موجود مفروضو قبول ڪري پنهنجون اڳڪٿيون اخذ ڪري سگهن ٿا. اڪثر تجربو اهو شخص نٿو ڪري، جنهن اڳڪٿي ڪئي هجي، ۽ خاصيتن جو تعين ڪنهن ٻئي شخص جي ڪيل تجربن تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي. تجربن جا ڇپيل نتيجا پڻ اهڙي مفروضي طور ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪو پنهنجي ئي ورجاءَ پذيري جي اڳڪٿي ڪري. === تصديق=== {{Main|ورجاءَ پذيري}} سائنس هڪ سماجي سرگرمي آهي، ۽ سائنسي ڪم کي سائنسي برادري عام طور تڏهن قبول ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ان جي تصديق ٿي وڃي. سڀ کان اهم ڳالهه اها آهي ته تجرباتي ۽ نظرياتي نتيجن کي سائنسي برادريءَ جا ٻيا فرد ٻيهر حاصل ڪري سگهن. محققن هن تصور لاءِ پنهنجون جانيون به قربان ڪيون آهن؛ [[گيورگ ولهيلم ريخمان]]، [[بجليءَ جو گولو|بجليءَ جي گولي]] سبب 1753ع ۾ ان وقت مارجي ويو، جڏهن هو [[بنيامين فرينڪلن]] جي 1752ع واري لغڙ اڏائڻ واري تجربي کي ورجائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري رهيو هو.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krider |first=E. Philip |date=Jan 2006 |title=Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods |journal=Physics Today |volume=59 |issue=1 |page=42 |doi=10.1063/1.2180176 |bibcode=2006PhT....59a..42K |s2cid=110623159 |quote=On 6 August 1753, the Swedish scientist Georg Wilhelm Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg ...|doi-access=free }}</ref> جيڪڏهن ڪنهن تجربي کي [[ورجاءَ پذيري|ٻيهر ورجائي]] ساڳيا نتيجا حاصل نه ڪري سگهجن، ته ان مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته اصل نتيجا شايد غلط هئا. ان ڪري هڪڙي تجربي کي ڪيترائي ڀيرا ورجائڻ عام ڳالهه آهي، خاص طور جڏهن ڪي اڻضابطي هيٺ ڦرندڙ عنصر موجود هجن يا [[مشاهداتي غلطي|تجرباتي غلطيءَ]] جا ٻيا آثار ملن. اهم يا حيران ڪندڙ نتيجن جي صورت ۾ ٻيا سائنسدان به انهن نتيجن کي پاڻ ٻيهر حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري سگهن ٿا، خاص طور جڏهن اهي نتيجا سندن پنهنجي ڪم لاءِ اهم هجن.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment – the inclined plane |url=http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Reconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429075745/http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Reconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf |archive-date=2014-04-29 |access-date=2014-04-28}}</ref> سماجي ۽ حياتياتي طب جي سائنسن ۾ ورجاءَ پذيري تڪراري مسئلو بڻجي چڪي آهي، جتي علاج ماڻهن جي ٽولين کي ڏنا ويندا آهن. عام طور ''تجرباتي ٽولي'' کي علاج، جهڙوڪ ڪا دوا، ڏني ويندي آهي ۽ ''ضابطي واري ٽولي'' کي [[پليسيبو]] ڏنو ويندو آهي. [[جان آئيونيدس]] 2005ع ۾ نشاندهي ڪئي ته استعمال ٿيندڙ طريقي سبب ڪيترائي اهڙا نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جيڪي ٻيهر حاصل نٿا ڪري سگهجن.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ioannidis |first=John P. A. |date=August 2005 |title=Why most published research findings are false |journal=[[پلوس ميڊيسن]] |volume=2 |issue=8 |article-number=e124 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 |pmc=1182327 |pmid=16060722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[هم منصبي جائزو]]، يعني تحقيق جو گمنام ماهراڻو جائزو، درست هجڻ جي حتمي تصديق ڪرڻ بدران تجربي جي سائنسي پختگيءَ جو جائزو وٺندو آهي. ڪي [[علمي رسالو|علمي رسالا]] تجربي ڪندڙ کان ممڪن هم منصبي جائزو وٺندڙن جون فهرستون گھرندا آهن، خاص طور جڏهن شعبو تمام گهڻو مخصوص هجي. ماهر طريقيڪار ۽ جوڙجڪ جو جائزو وٺندا آهن؛ جيڪڏهن ڪم منظور ٿي وڃي، جنهن لاءِ ڪڏهن وڌيڪ تجربا به گھربل هوندا آهن، ته پوءِ جنهن رسالي ۾ اهو ڪم ڇپجي ٿو، ان رسالي جي ساک ڪم جي محسوس ڪيل معيار ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿي.{{efn|''ٻه نوان علم'' ۾ ٽي ”جائزو وٺندڙ“ آهن: سمپليچيو، ساگريڊو ۽ سالوياٽي، جيڪي ترتيبوار مقابلي لاءِ پسمنظر، مخالف ۽ حامي جو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا. گليليو پاڻ رڳو ٿوري وقت لاءِ ڳالهائي ٿو. پر آئنسٽائن جا 1905ع وارا مقالا ڇپجڻ کان اڳ هم منصبي جائزي هيٺ نه آيا هئا.}} سائنسدان عام طور پنهنجا انگ اکر تمام احتياط سان درج ڪندا آهن؛ اها گهرج [[لوڊوڪ فليڪ]] (1896–1961ع) ۽ ٻين اڳتي وڌائي.{{sfn|Fleck|1979|pp=xxvii–xxviii}} جيتوڻيڪ عام طور اهو لازمي نه هوندو آهي، پر کين پنهنجا اصل نتيجا، يا انهن جا ڪي حصا، ٻيهر حاصل ڪرڻ چاهيندڙ ٻين سائنسدانن کي [[انگن اکرن جي ونڊ|اهي انگ اکر مهيا ڪرڻ]] لاءِ چيو وڃي سگهي ٿو؛ ان ۾ اهڙن تجرباتي نمونن جي ونڊ پڻ شامل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪي حاصل ڪرڻ ڏکيا هجن.<ref>"[https://sharing.nih.gov/data-management-and-sharing-policy/about-data-management-and-sharing-policies/data-management-and-sharing-policy-overview NIH Data Sharing Policy] ."</ref> ناقص سائنس ۽ ٺڳيءَ تي ٻڌل انگن اکرن کان بچاءَ لاءِ سرڪاري تحقيقي امداد ڏيندڙ ادارا، جهڙوڪ [[قومي سائنس فائونڊيشن]]، ۽ ''نيچر'' ۽ ''سائنس'' سميت سائنسي رسالا اهڙي پاليسي رکن ٿا، جنهن تحت محققن کي پنهنجا انگ اکر ۽ طريقا محفوظ رکڻا پون ٿا، جيئن ٻيا محقق انهن انگن اکرن ۽ طريقن جي جاچ ڪري سگهن ۽ اڳوڻي تحقيق تي وڌيڪ ڪم اڏي سگهن. [[سائنسي انگن اکرن جي محفوظ ذخيري]] جو ڪم آمريڪا جي ڪيترن قومي ذخيرن يا [[عالمي انگن اکرن جو مرڪز|عالمي انگن اکرن جي مرڪز]] ۾ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. == بنيادي اصول == === ديانتداري، کليل پڻو ۽ ترديد پذيري === {{See also|سائنسي ديانتداري|کليل سائنس}} سائنس جا بي روڪ اصول درستگيءَ لاءِ جاکوڙڻ ۽ ديانتداريءَ جي اصول تي قائم رهڻ آهن؛ جڏهن ته کليل پڻو اڳ ئي درجن جو معاملو آهي. کليل پڻي کي شڪ پرستيءَ جي عام سختي محدود ڪري ٿي. ۽ يقيناً غير سائنس جو معاملو پڻ موجود آهي. سمولن 2013ع ۾ تحقيق جي قاعدن جي ڪا ممڪن طور محدود وصف ڏيڻ بدران اخلاقي اصولن جي حمايت ڪئي.{{efn-lg|name= ethicalPosition}} سندس خيال انگن اکرن تي ٻڌل ۽ [[وڏي سائنس]] جي پيماني واري پسمنظر ۾ اچن ٿا، جتي ديانتداري ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ [[ورجاءَ پذيري]] جي اهميت وڌي آهي. سندس خيال موجب سائنس اهڙن سند يافته ماڻهن جي گڏيل برادريائي ڪوشش آهي، جيڪي [[سائنسي برادري|سائنسي برادريءَ]] اندر ڪم ڪن ٿا. هو حد کان وڌيڪ سادگي پسنديءَ کان پڻ خبردار ڪري ٿو. پوپر ان کان اڳ اخلاقي اصولن کي اڃا وڌيڪ اڳتي وڌايو ۽ ايستائين ويو جو هن رڳو انهن نظرين کي قدر جوڳو قرار ڏنو، جيڪي ترديد پذير هجن. پوپر [[ترديد پذيري]] جي معيار کي سائنسي نظريي ۽ نجوم جهڙي نظريي وچ ۾ حد مقرر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو: ٻئي مشاهدن جي ”وضاحت“ ڪن ٿا، پر سائنسي نظريو اهڙيون اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جو جوکو کڻي ٿو، جيڪي اهو فيصلو ڪن ٿيون ته اهو صحيح آهي يا غلط:<ref name=Popper0> {{cite book |author=Karl Raimund Popper |title=The logic of scientific discovery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T76Zd20IYlgC&q=%22It+must+be+possible+for+an+empirical+scientific+system+to+be+refuted+by+experience%22&pg=PA18 |pages= 18, 280 |isbn=0-415-27843-0|publisher=Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group |year=2002 |edition=Reprint of translation of 1935 ''Logik der Forschung''}} </ref><ref name=Popper1>{{cite web |title=Science: Conjectures and refutations |author=Karl Popper |url=http://worthylab.tamu.edu/courses_files/popper_conjecturesandrefutations.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909021911/http://worthylab.tamu.edu/courses_files/popper_conjecturesandrefutations.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-09 |publisher=Texas A&M University The motivation & cognition interface lab |access-date=2013-01-22 }} پوپر جو هيءُ ليڪچر پهريون ڀيرو ''گمان ۽ ترديدون'' ڪتاب جي هڪ حصي طور ڇپيو ۽ [http://worthylab.tamu.edu/Courses.html هتي] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606063421/http://worthylab.tamu.edu/Courses.html |date=2017-06-06 }} ڳنڍيل آهي.</ref> {{blockquote|”اسان مان جيڪي ماڻهو پنهنجن خيالن کي ترديد جي جوکي آڏو آڻڻ لاءِ تيار ناهن، سي سائنس جي راند ۾ حصو نٿا وٺن.“ |ڪارل پوپر|''سائنسي دريافت جي منطق (2002ع [1935ع])''}} === مشاهدي سان نظريي جو لاڳاپو === سائنس جون حدون آهن. انهن حدن کي عام طور اهڙن سوالن جا جواب سمجھيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي سائنس جي دائري ۾ نٿا اچن، جهڙوڪ ايمان. سائنس جون ٻيون حدون به آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها حقيقت بابت سچا بيان ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Gauch Jr|2002|loc=ch. 1}} [[سچ]] جي نوعيت ۽ سائنسي بيانن جي حقيقت سان لاڳاپي بابت بحث کي [[سائنس جو فلسفو|سائنس جي فلسفي]] واري مضمون لاءِ ڇڏڻ وڌيڪ مناسب آهي. وڌيڪ سڌيون ۽ موضوع سان لاڳاپيل حدون حقيقت جي مشاهدي ۾ ظاهر ٿين ٿيون. [[File:PositronDiscovery.png|thumb|220px|هيءَ [[ڪڪر خانو|ڪڪر خاني]] جي تصوير 2 آگسٽ 1932ع تي [[پوزيٽرون|پوزيٽرونن]] جي پهرين مشاهدياتي شاهدي آهي؛ جنهن جي تشريح رڳو اڳوڻي نظريي جي روشنيءَ ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي.<ref name="Anderson 1933 pp. 491–494">{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=Carl D. | title=The Positive Electron | journal=Physical Review | volume=43 | issue=6 | date=15 March 1933 | issn=0031-899X | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.43.491 | pages=491–494| bibcode=1933PhRv...43..491A }}<!--credit:[[c:File:PositronDiscovery.png]]--></ref>]] سائنسي تحقيق جي فطري حد اها آهي ته ڪو به خالص مشاهدو موجود ناهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تجرباتي انگن اکرن جي تشريح لاءِ نظريو گهربل هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري مشاهدو ڏسندڙ جي تصوراتي ڍانچي کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. جيئن ته سائنس هڪ اڻپورو منصوبو آهي، تنهنڪري ان مان ڏکيائيون پيدا ٿين ٿيون؛ خاص طور محدود معلومات سبب غلط نتيجا ڪڍيا وڃن ٿا. هتي ڪيپلر ۽ براهي جا تجربا هڪ مثال آهن، جن کي هينسن هن تصور جي وضاحت لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. ساڳيو سج اڀرڻ ڏسڻ باوجود ٻنهي سائنسدانن مختلف نتيجا ڪڍيا؛ سندن [[بين الاذهاني|بين الاذهانيت]] کين مختلف نتيجن ڏانهن وٺي وئي. [[يوهانس ڪيپلر]] [[ٽائيڪو براهي]] جو مشاهدي وارو طريقو استعمال ڪيو، جنهن ۾ سج ڏانهن سڌو ڏسڻ بدران هڪ ننڍڙي سوراخ مان سج جي تصوير ڪاغذ تي وڌي ويندي هئي. هن براهي جي ان نتيجي سان اختلاف ڪيو ته سج جا مڪمل گرهڻ ناممڪن آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ براهي جي ابتڙ کيس مڪمل گرهڻن جي تاريخي احوالن جي ڄاڻ هئي. ان بدران هن اهو اخذ ڪيو ته جيئن جيئن سوراخ وڏو ٿيندو، تيئن ورتل تصويرون وڌيڪ درست ٿينديون؛ اها حقيقت هاڻي بصري سرشتن جي جوڙجڪ لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. هتي هڪ ٻيو تاريخي مثال [[نيپچون جي دريافت]] آهي، جنهن کي رياضيات وسيلي ٿيل دريافت جو درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اڳين مشاهدو ڪندڙن کي خبر نه هئي ته هو ڇا ڏسي رهيا هئا.<ref name="Lequeux 2021 pp. 159–183">{{cite book | last=Lequeux | first=James | title=Neptune: From Grand Discovery to a World Revealed | chapter=Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier: Predictions Leading to Discovery | series=Historical & Cultural Astronomy | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | year=2021 | isbn=978-3-030-54217-7 | issn=2509-310X | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-54218-4_5 | pages=159–183}}</ref> === تجربيت، عقليت ۽ وڌيڪ عملي نظريا === سائنسي جاکوڙ کي فطري دنيا بابت سچائين جي ڳولا، يا ان بابت شڪ جي خاتمي جي ڪوشش طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. پهرئين صورت ۾ تجرباتي انگن اکرن ۽ منطق مان سڌيءَ طرح وضاحتون جوڙيون وڃن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ٻيءَ صورت ۾ ممڪن وضاحتن جو دائرو گھٽايو وڃي ٿو.{{efn-lg|”سائنس جي مرڪز ۾ ٻن بظاهر هڪ ٻئي جي ابتڙ روين وچ ۾ هڪ لازمي توازن موجود آهي—نون خيالن لاءِ کليل پڻو، ڀلي اهي ڪيترا به عجيب يا عام سمجھ جي ابتڙ هجن، ۽ سڀني پراڻن توڙي نون خيالن جي نهايت سخت شڪ پرستاڻي جاچ. اهڙيءَ طرح گهريون سچايون گهري بي معنائپ کان ڇاڻجي نڪرنديون آهن.“ — [[ڪارل سيگن]]<ref>{{cite book | last=Sagan | first=Carl | title=The Demon-Haunted World | date=1995 | author-link=ڪارل سيگن | title-link=ڀوتن جي وڪڙيل دنيا}}<!--credit to q:Science--></ref>}} [[#th-v-obs|مٿي]] واضح ڪيو ويو آهي ته تجرباتي انگن اکرن جي تشريح نظريي سان ڀريل هوندي آهي، تنهنڪري ٻنهي مان ڪو به طريقو سادو يا پاڻمرادو نه آهي. سائنسي طريقي جو هر هنڌ موجود بنيادي عنصر [[تجربيت]] آهي، جنهن موجب ڄاڻ اهڙي عمل وسيلي پيدا ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدو شامل هجي؛ سائنسي نظريا مشاهدن مان عام اصول اخذ ڪن ٿا. هيءُ موقف [[عقليت]] جي سخت صورتن جي ابتڙ آهي، جن موجب ڄاڻ انساني عقل وسيلي پيدا ٿئي ٿي؛ پوپر پوءِ وڌيڪ چٽو ڪيو ته اها اڳوڻي نظريي تي اڏيل هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Godfrey-Smith|2003|pp=19-74}} سائنسي طريقو اهو موقف اختيار ڪري ٿو ته رڳو عقل ڪنهن مخصوص سائنسي مسئلي کي حل نٿو ڪري سگهي؛ اهو بنا ڪنهن ابهام جي انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ٿو ته [[وحي]]، سياسي يا مذهبي [[جامد عقيدو]]، روايت ڏانهن اپيل، عام طور مڃيل عقيدا، عام سمجھ يا موجوده نظريا ئي سچائي ثابت ڪرڻ جا واحد ممڪن وسيلا آهن.<ref name= truthSought4sake /><ref name="reasonsFirstRule">{{cite book |last=Peirce |first=Charles S. |title=Collected Papers |year=1899 |series=v. 1 |at=paragraphs 135–140 |chapter=F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic] |quote=...&nbsp;in order to learn, one must desire to learn&nbsp;... |access-date=2012-01-06 |chapter-url=http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106071421/http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm |archive-date=January 6, 2012 }}</ref> 1877ع ۾،<ref name="Fixation" /> [[چارلس سينڊرز پيرس]] عام تحقيق کي ''پنهنجي ذات ۾'' سچ جي ڳولا بدران اهڙي جدوجهد طور بيان ڪيو، جنهن ۾ حيرت، اختلاف ۽ اهڙين ٻين حالتن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ بي آرام ڪندڙ ۽ روڪيندڙ شڪن کان نڪري هڪ پختي عقيدي تائين پهچڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وڃي ٿي؛ اهڙو عقيدو، جنهن جي بنياد تي ماڻهو عمل ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار هجي. سندس [[عمليت|عملي]] خيالن سائنسي تحقيق کي هڪ وڌيڪ وسيع دائري جو حصو بڻايو ۽ عام تحقيق وانگر ان کي به حقيقي شڪ مان پيدا ٿيندڙ عمل قرار ڏنو، نه رڳو لفظي يا ”مبالغي واري شڪ“ مان، جنهن کي هو بي نتيجو سمجھندو هو.{{efn|1=پيرس پنهنجي مختصر ذهني سوانح ۾ چيو: ”جنهن ڳالهه تي ڪو ماڻهو ذرو به شڪ نٿو ڪري، ان تي شڪ ڪرڻ جو ڏيکاءُ نه ڪرڻ گهرجي؛ پر ماڻهوءَ کي پاڻ کي شڪ ڪرڻ جي سکيا ڏيڻ گهرجي.“<ref>{{cite book |contributor-last=Ketner |contributor-first=Kenneth Laine |year=2009 |contribution=Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist |last=Peirce |first=Charles S. |editor-last=Bisanz |editor-first=Elize |title=The Logic of Interdisciplinarity |publisher=Akademie Verlag |place=Berlin}}</ref> پيرس جو خيال هو ته حقيقي ۽ سچو شڪ ٻاهرين سببن مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو، عام طور حيرت مان؛ پر ان کي ڳولڻ ۽ وڌائڻ پڻ گهرجي، ”رڳو ان شرط تي ته اهو پاڻ وزندار ۽ قيمتي ڌاتو هجي، نه ڪو نقلي يا ڪاغذي متبادل“.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Peirce |first=Charles S. |date=October 1905 |title=Issues of Pragmaticism |magazine=The Monist |volume=XV |number=4 |pages=481–499, see [https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/484/mode/1up p. 484], and [https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/491/mode/1up p. 491]}} ''Collected Papers''، جلد 5، پيراگراف 438–463 ۾ ٻيهر ڇپيل؛ خاص طور 443 ۽ 451 ڏسو.</ref>}} هيءُ ”مبالغي وارو شڪ“، جنهن جي پيرس هتي مخالفت ڪري ٿو، اصل ۾ [[ريني ڊيڪارٽ]] سان لاڳاپيل [[ڊيڪارٽي شڪ]] جو ئي ٻيو نالو آهي. اهو اهڙي شيءِ جي سڃاڻپ وسيلي يقيني ڄاڻ تائين پهچڻ جو طريقياتي رستو آهي، جنهن تي شڪ نه ڪري سگهجي. سائنسي طريقي جي مضبوط صورت هميشه [[تجربيت]] جي اهڙي شڪل سان ٺهڪندڙ نه هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ تجرباتي انگ اکر تجربي يا ڄاڻ جي ٻين تجريدي صورتن ۾ پيش ڪيا وڃن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هاڻوڪي سائنسي عمل ۾ [[سائنسي نمونه سازي]] جو استعمال ۽ تجريدي قسمن ۽ نظرين تي ڀاڙڻ عام طور قبوليل آهي. 2010ع ۾ [[اسٽيفن هاڪنگ|هاڪنگ]] تجويز ڪيو ته حقيقت بابت طبيعيات جا نمونا تڏهن قبول ڪرڻ گهرجن، جڏهن اهي ڪارائتيون اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿين. هن ان تصور کي [[نموني تي دارومدار رکندڙ حقيقت پسندي]] سڏيو.<ref name="Hawking"/> == عقليت == هيٺيون ڀاڱو پهرين عقيدن ۽ لاڙن جو جائزو وٺندو ۽ پوءِ ان عقلي استدلال ڏانهن ايندو، جيڪو سائنسن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ لاڳاپيل آهي.{{sfn|Gauch Jr|2002|pp=29-31}} === عقيدا ۽ لاڙا === {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 220 | image1 = Jean Louis Théodore Géricault 001.jpg | caption1 = هن چتر ۾ ڏيکاريل اڏامندڙ سرپٽ ([[ٿيئوڊور جيريڪو]]، 1821ع) [[ترديد پذيري|ترديد ٿيل]] آهي؛ هيٺ ڏسو. | image2 = The Horse in Motion high res.jpg | caption2 = ''حرڪت ۾ گهوڙو'' بابت [[سيلي گارڊنر سرپٽ ڊوڙندي|مائيبرج جون تصويرون]]، 1878ع، ان سوال جو جواب ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيون ويون ته ڇا سرپٽ ڊوڙندڙ گهوڙي جا چارئي پير ڪڏهن هڪ ئي وقت زمين کان مٿي هوندا آهن. هيءَ ڳالهه سائنس ۾ تصويرڪشيءَ جي تجرباتي اوزار طور استعمال کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي. }} سائنسي طريقيات اڪثر هدايت ڪري ٿي ته [[مفروضو|مفروضن]] جي، جتي به ممڪن هجي، [[سائنسي ضابطو|ضابطي هيٺ]] حالتن ۾ جاچ ڪئي وڃي. اهو حياتياتي سائنسن جهڙن ڪن شعبن ۾ گھڻو ڪري ممڪن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته فلڪيات جهڙن ٻين شعبن ۾ وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. تجرباتي ضابطي ۽ ورجاءَ پذيريءَ جو عمل حالتن جي ممڪن نقصانڪار اثرن ۽ ڪنهن حد تائين ذاتي لاڙي کي گھٽائي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، اڳواٽ موجود عقيدا نتيجن جي تشريح بدلائي سگهن ٿا، جيئن [[تصديقي لاڙو|تصديقي لاڙي]] ۾ ٿيندو آهي؛ هيءُ هڪ [[ذهني مختصر رستو]] آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن مخصوص عقيدي رکندڙ شخص کي شيون پنهنجي عقيدي جي پٺڀرائي ڪندڙ ڏسڻ ڏانهن مائل ڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ ڪو ٻيو ڏسندڙ اختلاف ڪري سگهي ٿو؛ ٻين لفظن ۾، ماڻهو عام طور اهو ئي ڏسن ٿا، جنهن جي ڏسڻ جي اميد رکن ٿا.<ref name="beliefCreatesReality">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X | doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X | chapter=When Belief Creates Reality | title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18 | date=1984 | last1=Snyder | first1=Mark | volume=18 | pages=247–305 | isbn=978-0-12-015218-6 }}</ref> {{Blockquote|text=سوچ جو عمل شڪ جي بي آراميءَ سان جاڳي ٿو، ۽ عقيدو حاصل ٿيڻ سان ختم ٿي وڃي ٿو.|author=[[چارلس سينڊرز پيرس]]|source=''اسان جي خيالن کي چٽو ڪيئن بڻائجي'' (1877ع)<ref name= How/>}} هڪ تاريخي مثال اهو عقيدو آهي ته [[گهوڙي جي سرپٽ|سرپٽ ڊوڙندڙ]] گهوڙي جا پير ان وقت پکيڙيل هوندا آهن، جڏهن ان جو ڪو به پير زمين کي نٿو ڇهي؛ هن تصور جا حامي ان تصوير کي [[چترڪاري|چترن]] ۾ پڻ شامل ڪندا هئا. تنهن هوندي به، [[ايڊورڊ مائيبرج]] پاران سرپٽ ڊوڙندڙ گهوڙي جون پهريون حرڪت روڪ تصويرون ڏيکاريو ته اهو تصور غلط هو ۽ گهوڙي جا پير دراصل پاڻ ۾ سُڪڙيل هوندا آهن.<ref>{{harvp|Needham |Wang|1954|p=166}} ڏيکاري ٿو ته ”اڏامندڙ سرپٽ“ واري تصوير چين کان اولهه تائين ڪيئن پکڙي.</ref> هڪ ٻيو اهم انساني لاڙو، جيڪو هتي ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿو، نون ۽ حيران ڪندڙ بيانن کي ترجيح ڏيڻ آهي؛ ڏسو ''[[نواڻ ڏانهن اپيل]]''. ان جي نتيجي ۾ اهڙي ثبوت جي ڳولا ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪو نئين ڳالهه کي سچ ثابت ڪري.{{sfn|Goldhaber|Nieto|2010|page=940}} گھٽ شاهدي رکندڙ عقيدا ڪنهن گھٽ سخت ذهني مختصر رستي وسيلي قبول ڪري ۽ انهن تي عمل ڪري سگهجن ٿا.<ref name= mythIsAbelief >Ronald R. Sims (2003). ''Ethics and corporate social responsibility: Why giants fall.'' p. 21: {{"'}}A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ...' – Weiss, ''Business Ethics'' p. 15."</ref> گولڊهيبر ۽ نيٽو 2010ع ۾ مشاهدو ڇپايو ته جيڪڏهن ”هڪ ٻئي جي تمام ويجھو ڪيترن موضوعن کي نظرياتي تصورن سان ڳنڍي بيان ڪيو وڃي، ته نظرياتي ڍانچي کي اهڙي پختگي حاصل ٿي وڃي ٿي، جنهن سبب ان کي ڊاهڻ آهستي آهستي وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿيندو وڃي ٿو{{snd}}جيتوڻيڪ يقيناً ڪڏهن به ناممڪن نه هوندو آهي{{snd}}“.{{sfn|Goldhaber|Nieto|2010|page=942}} جڏهن ڪو بيانيو جوڙيو وڃي ٿو ته ان جا عنصر وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان مڃڻ جوڳا بڻجي وڃن ٿا.{{sfn|Lakatos|1976|pp=1—19}}<ref name= narrativeFallacy >{{harvp|Taleb|2007|p=72}} بياني مغالطي ۽ تصديقي لاڙي کان بچڻ جا طريقا بيان ڪري ٿو؛ بياني مغالطو وضاحت جي جاءِ وٺندڙ متبادل آهي.</ref> {{harvp|Fleck|1979|p=27}} لکي ٿو: ”لفظ ۽ خيال شروعات ۾ انهن سان گڏ پيش ايندڙ تجربن جا آوازي ۽ ذهني هم ارز هوندا آهن. ... اهڙا ابتدائي خيال شروع ۾ هميشه حد کان وڌيڪ وسيع ۽ ناڪافي نموني مخصوص هوندا آهن. ... جڏهن ڪيترن تفصيلن ۽ لاڳاپن تي ٻڌل راين جو هڪ بناوتي طرح مڪمل ۽ بند سرشتو ٺهي وڃي ٿو، ته اهو پنهنجي ابتڙ هر شيءِ خلاف ڊگھي مزاحمت پيش ڪري ٿو.“ ڪڏهن انهن لاڳاپن جا عنصر ''[[مقدم ۽ مؤخر ڄاڻ|مقدم طور]]'' مڃيا ويندا آهن، يا انهن کي پيدا ڪندڙ عمل ۾ ڪا ٻي منطقي يا طريقياتي خامي شامل هوندي آهي. [[ڊونالڊ ايم. ميڪي]] انهن عنصرن جو تجزيو ماپ جي درستگيءَ جي حدن جي حوالي سان ڪيو ۽ انهن کي ماپ جي هڪ درجي اندر اوزاري عنصرن سان ڳنڍيو.{{efn-lg|name= macKay|1=سائنسي طريقو خيالن جي قبول ٿيڻ کان اڳ [[تجرباتي شاهدي|''مؤخر تجرباتي'']] جاچ ۽ تصديق گھري ٿو.<ref name= conjugatePairs>{{cite book |quote=هميشه ماپ جي درستگيءَ جي بنيادي طبعي حدن سان منهن پوندو هو. ... طبعي ماپ جو فن ڄڻ ته ٺاهه جو معاملو هو، جنهن ۾ هڪٻئي سان متقابل لاڳاپيل غيريقينيتن مان چونڊ ڪرڻي پوندي هئي. ... پر جڏهن مون ڄاڻايل غيريقينيت جي حدن جي مزدوج جوڙن کي پاڻ ۾ ضرب ڏني، تڏهن مون ڏٺو ته انهن مان هڪ نه، پر ٻن الڳ قسمن جا اڻبدل حاصل ضرب ٺهندا هئا. ... حدن جي پهرئين گروهه کي اوزار جي وصف جي بنياد تي ''پيشگي'' ڳڻي سگهجي پيو. ٻئي گروهه کي رڳو ان وصف جي بنياد تي ''پڇاڙيءَ کان پوءِ'' ڳڻي سگهجي پيو ته اوزار سان ڇا ''ڪيو ويو'' هو. ... پهرئين حالت ۾ [معلومات] جو هر ايڪو هڪ وڌيڪ ''بُعد'' (تصوراتي زمرو) وڌائيندو، جڏهن ته ٻيءَ حالت ۾ هر ايڪو هڪ وڌيڪ ''ايٽمي حقيقت'' وڌائيندو.''. |pages=1–4 |last=MacKay |first=Donald M. |year=1969 |title=Information, Mechanism, and Meaning |place=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-63032-X}} </ref>}} === استنباطي ۽ استقرائي استدلال === {{anchor|i&d}} {{Main|استنباطي استدلال|استقرائي استدلال}} سچائيءَ لاءِ ٻن هڪ ٻئي جي ابتڙ دليلن جو تصور سائنسي طريقي جي سڄي تاريخ ۾ تجزيي ۽ ترڪيب، غير واڌاري ۽ واڌاري، يا ايتري قدر تصديق ۽ توثيق جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ٻيا استدلالي قسم پڻ موجود آهن. هڪ طريقي ۾ مشاهدي ڪيل شين کي استعمال ڪري بنيادي سچائين ڏانهن وڌيو وڃي ٿو، جڏهن ته ٻئي ۾ انهن بنيادي سچائين مان وڌيڪ مخصوص اصول اخذ ڪيا وڃن ٿا.<ref name="SEP_SM">{{cite web | last1=Hepburn | first1=Brian | last2=Andersen | first2=Hanne | title=Scientific Method | website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=13 November 2015 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/scientific-method | access-date=21 April 2024}}</ref> استنباطي استدلال مڃيل عام اصولن مان مخصوص نتيجا اخذ ڪري ٿو؛ جيڪڏهن مقدم صحيح هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور صحيح هوندو. استقرائي استدلال مشاهدن مان عام اصول جوڙي ٿو؛ ان جا نتيجا امڪاني هوندا آهن، پر ضمانت ٿيل نه هوندا آهن. سائنسي تحقيق ٻنهي کي استعمال ڪري ٿي: استقراءُ مشاهدن مان مفروضا پيدا ڪري ٿو ۽ استنباط جاچ پذير نتيجن جي اڳڪٿي ڪري ٿو. هن عمل ۾ مشاهدو ڪيل مظاهرن بابت سخت شڪ پرستي ضروري آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ذهني مفروضا شروعاتي ادراڪن جي تشريح کي بگاڙي سگهن ٿا.<ref name="Gauch Jr 2002 p30/ch4"/> [[File:Perihelio.svg|right|thumb|[[اوجي اڳڀرائي|اڳڀرائي]]، [[حضیض ۽ اوج|حضیض]] جي{{snd}}عطارد جي حالت ۾ وڌائي ڏيکاريل، پر [[قوس اي]] جي چوڌاري [[ايس 2 (تارو)|ايس 2]] جي [[اوجي اڳڀرائي]] ۾ مشاهدو ڪيل.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 April 2020 |title=ESO Telescope Sees Star Dance Around Supermassive Black Hole, Proves Einstein Right |url=https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2006/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515210420/https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2006/ |archive-date=2020-05-15 |access-date=2020-04-17 |work=Science Release |publisher=[[يورپي ڏاکڻي مشاهديگاهه]]}}</ref>]] [[File:Inductive Deductive Reasoning.svg|thumb|استقرائي ۽ استنباطي استدلال]] استقرائي ۽ استنباطي استدلال جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو هڪ مثال [[ڪشش ثقل واري نظريي جي تاريخ]] ۾ ملي ٿو.{{efn|مشاهدي وسيلي پيدا ٿيندڙ ڄاڻ جي فلسفي کي [[استقرائيت]] پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو. هن ڄاڻ واري طريقي جو هڪ سخت حامي [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]] هو، جنهن موجب سموري ڄاڻ، ايتري قدر رياضياتي ڄاڻ پڻ، تجربي مان استقراءَ وسيلي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. استقرائي طريقو اڄ به عام آهي، جيتوڻيڪ مل جا انتهائي خيال هاڻي پراڻا سمجھيا وڃن ٿا.<ref name="Psillos 2013">{{cite book | last=Psillos | first=Stathis | title=Reason and Rationality | chapter=1. Reason and Science | publisher=DE GRUYTER | date=2013-12-31 | isbn=978-3-11-032514-0 | doi=10.1515/9783110325867.33 | pages=33–52}}</ref>{{rp|35}}}} [[ڪلديائي|ڪلديائي]]، [[هندستاني ماڻهو|هندستاني]]، [[ايران جي تاريخ|فارسي]]، [[يوناني ماڻهو|يوناني]]، [[عرب]] ۽ [[يورپ جا نسلي گروهه|يورپي]] فلڪياتدانن کي سيارو [[ڌرتي]] جي حرڪت مڪمل نموني درج ڪرڻ لاءِ هزارين سالن جون ماپون گھربل ٿيون.{{efn|name=Astronomy101|1=[[هيپارخس]] ڌرتيءَ جي اڳڀرائيءَ جو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ پنهنجي تارن وارن مشاهدن سان گڏ ڪلديائي ۽ بابلي فلڪياتدانن جا مشاهدا پڻ استعمال ڪيا.<ref name=astron101 >Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages [https://astro101.wwu.edu/a101_precession.html ( Precession of the Equinox]</ref>}} پوءِ [[يوهانس ڪيپلر|ڪيپلر]] ۽ ٻيا گڏ ڪيل انگن اکرن کي [[استقرائي استدلال#استقرائي عام ڪرڻ|استقرائي نموني عام ڪري]] پنهنجا شروعاتي نظريا جوڙي سگهيا، ۽ [[آئزڪ نيوٽن|نيوٽن]] 1727ع ۾ اڳوڻن نظرين ۽ ماپن کي پنهنجي [[نيوٽن جا حرڪت جا قانون|حرڪت جي قانونن]] جي نتيجن ۾ يڪجا ڪري سگهيو.{{efn|name= keplerNewton|1=آئزڪ نيوٽن (1727ع) جي ''[[فلسفيا نيچرلِس پرنسپيا ميٿيميٽيڪا#ڪتاب 3، دنيا جو سرشتو|دنيا جي سرشتي بابت]]'' مريخ جي سياروي حرڪت بابت ڪيپلر جي قانون، ڪري پوندڙ جسمن بابت گليليو جي قانون، شمسي سرشتي جي سيارن جي حرڪت وغيره کي پنهنجي ٽن حرڪتي قانونن جي نتيجن ۾ سمويو.<ref name= systOfWorld >[[آئزڪ نيوٽن]] (1727ع) ''[[فلسفيا نيچرلِس پرنسپيا ميٿيميٽيڪا#ڪتاب 3، دنيا جو سرشتو|دنيا جي سرشتي بابت]]''</ref> ''موٽ جو ترجمو ڏسو ([https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Principles_of_Natural_Philosophy_(1846)/The_System_of_the_World 1846ع])''}} استقرائي استدلال جو هڪ ٻيو عام مثال موجوده نظريي خلاف [[جوابي مثال]] جو مشاهدو آهي، جيڪو نون خيالن جي ضرورت پيدا ڪري ٿو. [[اربين لو ويريئر|لو ويريئر]] 1859ع ۾ [[عطارد (سيارو)|عطارد]] جي [[حضیض ۽ اوج|حضیض]] بابت اهڙن مسئلن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، جن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته نيوٽن جو نظريو گھٽ ۾ گھٽ اڻپورو هو. نيوٽني نظريي ۽ مشاهدي وچ ۾ عطارد جي [[اوجي اڳڀرائي|اڳڀرائيءَ]] جو ڏٺو ويل فرق انهن ڳالهين مان هڪ هو، جيڪي [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|آئنسٽائن]] کي پنهنجي [[اضافيت جو نظريو|اضافيت واري نظريي]] جي ممڪن شروعاتي جاچ طور ذهن ۾ آيون. سندس اضافيتي حساب نيوٽني نظريي جي ڀيٽ ۾ مشاهدي سان گھڻو وڌيڪ ٺهڪندڙ هئا.{{efn|name=LeVerrier1859|1=فرق لڳ ڀڳ 43 قوسي سيڪنڊ في صدي آهي. عطارد جي مدار جي اڳڀرائيءَ جو حوالو [[عام اضافيت جون جاچون]] ۾ پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي: U. Le Verrier (1859)، فرانسيسيءَ ۾، [https://archive.org/stream/comptesrendusheb49acad#page/378/mode/2up "Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète"]، ''Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences''، پيرس، جلد 49، 1859ع، ص 379–383.}} جيتوڻيڪ اڄ جو طبيعيات وارو [[معياري نمونو]] ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته اسان اڃا به آئنسٽائن جي نظريي سان لاڳاپيل گھٽ ۾ گھٽ ڪي تصور پوريءَ طرح نٿا ڄاڻون، تنهن هوندي به اهو نظريو اڄ تائين قائم آهي ۽ ان تي استنباطي نموني وڌيڪ ڪم ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ڪنهن نظريي کي صحيح فرض ڪري ان تي وڌيڪ ڪم ڪرڻ استنباطي استدلال جو هڪ عام مثال آهي. آئنسٽائن جي حاصلات تي ٻڌل نظريو سادي نموني چئي سگهي ٿو ته ”اسان ڏيکاريو آهي ته هيءَ حالت انهن شرطن کي پورو ڪري ٿي، جن هيٺ عام يا خاص اضافيت لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، تنهنڪري ان جا نتيجا هن حالت تي پڻ لاڳو ٿين ٿا.“ جيڪڏهن صحيح نموني ثابت ڪيو ويو هجي ته ”هيءَ حالت“ اهي شرط پوري ڪري ٿي، ته نتيجو لازمي طور ان مان نڪري ٿو. ان جي هڪ واڌ کليل مسئلي جي ڪنهن حل کي فرض ڪرڻ آهي. استنباطي استدلال جو هيءُ ڪمزور قسم هاڻوڪي تحقيق ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ڪيترائي سائنسدان يا محققن جون ٽوليون ڪنهن وڏي نظريي کي ثابت ڪرڻ ڏانهن وڌندي آهستي آهستي مخصوص حالتون حل ڪري رهيون هجن. نئين ثبوت جي سامهون اچڻ سان اهڙي عمل ۾ مفروضا اڪثر بار بار نظرثاني هيٺ اچن ٿا. استقرائي ۽ استنباطي استدلال کي هن نموني پيش ڪرڻ مان جزوي طور سمجھ ۾ اچي ٿو ته سائنس کي اڪثر ورجاءَ واري چڪر طور ڇو پيش ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ذهن ۾ رکڻ ضروري آهي ته ان چڪر جا بنياد استدلال ۾ آهن، نه رڳو طريقيڪار جي پيرويءَ ۾. === يقين، امڪان ۽ شمارياتي قياس === سائنسي سچائيءَ جي دعوائن جي ٽن طريقن سان مخالفت ڪري سگهجي ٿي: انهن کي ترديد ڪري، انهن جي يقيني هجڻ تي سوال اٿاري، يا خود دعويٰ کي بي ربط قرار ڏئي.{{efn|... سادگي ڪيل ۽ جديديت کان پوءِ واري فلسفي جي باوجود.{{harvp|Gauch Jr|2002|p=33}}}} هتي بي ربط هجڻ مان مراد منطق جون اندروني غلطيون آهن، جهڙوڪ ٻن ابتڙ ڳالهين کي ساڳئي وقت سچ چوڻ؛ ترديد اها شيءِ آهي، جنهن کي پوپر گمان ۽ ترديد جو ديانتدار ڪم سڏيو ها،<ref name= trialAndErr/> جڏهن ته يقين شايد اهو هنڌ آهي، جتي سچ ۽ غير سچ وچ ۾ فرق ڪرڻ جون ڏکيائيون سڀ کان آسانيءَ سان پيدا ٿين ٿيون. سائنسي ماپن ۾ [[غير يقيني]] جا اندازا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي بار بار ماپن، بنيادي مقدارن مان غلطيءَ جي واڌ، يا نمونو وٺڻ جي حدن وسيلي ڳڻيا ويندا آهن.<ref name="conjugatePairs" /> شين جي ڳڻپ گهربل مقدارن جي هڪ نموني جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جي غير يقيني استعمال ڪيل [[نمونو وٺڻ جو طريقو|نمونو وٺڻ واري طريقي]] ۽ ورتل نمونن جي انگ تي دارومدار رکندي آهي. ماپ جي اڻچٽائيءَ جي حالت ۾ مطالعي جي نتيجن ۾ رڳو هڪ ”امڪاني انحراف“ ظاهر ٿيندو. شماريات ان کان مختلف آهي. [[استقرائي استدلال#شمارياتي عام ڪرڻ|استقرائي شمارياتي عام ڪرڻ]] نموني جي انگن اکرن مان وڌيڪ عام نتيجا ڪڍندو آهي، جنهن کي دليل سان جائز ثابت ڪرڻ ۽ سخت جاچ هيٺ آڻڻ ضروري هوندو آهي. ايتري قدر چئي سگهجي ٿو ته شمارياتي نمونا رڳو ڪارائتا هوندا آهن، [[سڀ نمونا غلط آهن|پر حالتن جي ڪڏهن به مڪمل نمائندگي نٿا ڪن]]. شمارياتي تجزيي ۾ متوقع ۽ غير متوقع لاڙو هڪ وڏو عامل آهي.<ref name="Welsby Weatherall 2022 pp. 793–798">{{cite journal | last1=Welsby | first1=Philip D | last2=Weatherall | first2=Mark | title=Statistics: an introduction to basic principles | journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume=98 | issue=1164 | date=2022-10-01 | issn=0032-5473 | doi=10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139446 | pages=793–798| pmid=34039698 }}</ref> [[تحقيقي سوال]]، انگن اکرن جي گڏجاڻي، يا نتيجن جي تشريح، سڀئي خالص منطقي حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ سخت جاچ هيٺ اچن ٿا. شمارياتي نمونا [[شمارياتي نموني جي تصديق|تصديق جي عمل]] مان گذرن ٿا، جنهن بابت اهو به چئي سگهجي ٿو ته ممڪن لاڙن جي ڄاڻ سخت منطق کان وڌيڪ اهم هوندي آهي؛ آخرڪار، منطق جون غلطيون [[هم منصبي جائزو|هم منصبي جائزي]] ۾ وڌيڪ آسانيءَ سان ملي سگهن ٿيون.{{efn|... ۽ [[جان آئيونيدس]] 2005ع ۾<ref name="mostRwrong" /> ڏيکاريو ته هر ماڻهو شمارياتي تجزيي جي اصولن جو احترام نٿو ڪري، ڀلي اهي استنباط جا اصول هجن يا ٻيا.شماريات سان لاڳاپو وڌيڪ عام طور، عقلي ڄاڻ جون دعوائون، خاص طور شمارياتي دعوائون، پنهنجي مناسب پسمنظر ۾ رکڻ ضروري آهن.<ref name="Gauch Jr 2002 p30/ch4">{{harvp|Gauch Jr|2002|loc=Quotes انهن بيانن بابت، جن کي هو ”عقلي-علمي دعويٰ“ سڏي ٿو. اها يا ته هيئن هوندي آهي: ”مان سببن R جي بنياد تي، اعتماد جي سطح C سان، عقيدي X کي مڃان ٿو، جتي X بابت پڇاڳاڇا طريقي M جي اهليت واري دائري اندر آهي، جيڪو حقيقت جي لاڳاپيل پهلوئن تائين رسائي حاصل ڪري ٿو“ (استقرائي استدلال)، يا: ”مان اڳواٽ مفروضن P جي ڪري عقيدي X کي مڃان ٿو.“ (استخراجي استدلال)</ref> تنهنڪري ”ڏهن مان نَو ڊاڪٽر صلاح ڏين ٿا“ جهڙا سادا بيان اڻڄاتل معيار جا هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي پنهنجي طريقيات جو جواز پيش نٿا ڪن. شمارياتي طريقن سان اڻواقف هجڻ غلط نتيجن جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو. سادي مثال کي پاسيرو رکندي،{{efn|مثال طور، هڪڙي سائنسي مشاهدي مان وسيع نتيجو ڪڍڻ، جهڙوڪ ”هن تجربي هي نتيجا ڏنا، تنهنڪري اهو هر هنڌ لاڳو ٿيڻ گهرجي“، استقرائي خواهشي سوچ جو مثال آهي. [[استقرائي استدلال#شمارياتي عام ڪرڻ|شمارياتي عام ڪرڻ]] استقرائي استدلال جو هڪ قسم آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، ڪيترن تجربن ۾ ڏٺل عام لاڙن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن مخصوص نتيجي جي پيش اچڻ کي يقيني سمجھڻ، جهڙوڪ ”گھڻن تجربن ۾ هيءُ نمونو ڏٺو ويو آهي، تنهنڪري هن حالت ۾ به شايد ائين ٿيندو“، ناقص [[قياسي استدلال#امڪاني منطق|قياسي امڪاني منطق]] کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.}} ڪيترن امڪانن جي پاڻ ۾ لاڳاپي واري جاءِ تي، مثال طور طبي ماهرن ۾،<ref name="Gigerenzer 2015">{{cite book | last=Gigerenzer | first=Gerd | title=Risk Savvy | publisher=Penguin | publication-place=New York, New York | date=2015-03-31 | isbn=978-0-14-312710-9 | page=}} leads: (n=1000) only 21% of [[زناني بيمارين جا ماهر|زناني بيمارين جي ماهرن]] [[بيز جو قضيو|بيز جي قضيي]] بابت هڪ مثالي سوال جو صحيح جواب ڏنو. ڪتاب ۽ اها دعويٰ هن ۾ متعارف ڪرايل آهن: {{cite web | last=Kremer | first=William | title=Do doctors understand test results? | website=BBC News | date=6 July 2014 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28166019 | access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref> مناسب سمجھ جي کوٽ ڏٺي وئي آهي. [[بيز جو قضيو]] اهو رياضياتي اصول آهي، جيڪو بيان ڪري ٿو ته نئين معلومات اچڻ سان موجود امڪان ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. [[ڇوڪرو يا ڇوڪري وارو متناقضو]] هڪ عام مثال آهي. ڄاڻ جي نمائندگيءَ ۾، [[گڏيل معلومات#گڏيل معلومات جو بيزي اندازو|گڏيل معلومات جو بيزي اندازو]] [[بي ترتيب ڦرندڙ مقدار|بي ترتيب ڦرندڙ مقدارن]] وچ ۾ جاچ هيٺ معلومات جي انحصار، آزادي يا گڏيل انحصار کي ماپڻ جو هڪ طريقو آهي.<ref name= prml >{{cite book |first1=Christopher M. |last1=Bishop |url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/uploads/prod/2006/01/Bishop-Pattern-Recognition-and-Machine-Learning-2006.pdf |date=2006 |title=Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning |pages=21, 30, 55, 152, 161, 277, 360, 448, 580 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media |via=Microsoft }}</ref> [[ميداني تحقيق]] سان عام طور لاڳاپيل [[سروي طريقيات]] کان اڳتي، هيءُ تصور [[امڪاني استدلال]] سان گڏ انهن سائنسي شعبن کي اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو، جتي تحقيق هيٺ شين جون ڪا قطعي حالتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. مثال طور، [[شمارياتي مڪينيات]] ۾. == تحقيق جا طريقا == === مفروضي-قياسي طريقو === [[مفروضي-قياسي نمونو]]، يا مفروضي جي جاچ وارو طريقو، يا ”روايتي“ سائنسي طريقو، جيئن نالي مان ظاهر آهي، [[مفروضو|مفروضن]] جي جوڙجڪ ۽ انهن جي [[قياسي استدلال]] وسيلي جاچ تي ٻڌل آهي. هتي اهڙو مفروضو مرڪزي اهميت رکي ٿو، جيڪو اهڙا نتيجا بيان ڪري، جن کي اڪثر [[اڳڪٿي|اڳڪٿيون]] چيو ويندو آهي ۽ جيڪي تجربي وسيلي ترديد پذير هجن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جاچ خود مفروضي جي نه، پر ان مان نڪرندڙ نتيجن جي ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} بنيادي طور سائنسدان ڪنهن ممڪن [[نظريو|نظريي]] مان نڪرندڙ مفروضي نتيجن کي ڏسندا ۽ خود نظريي بدران انهن کي ثابت يا رد ڪندا آهن. جيڪڏهن انهن مفروضي نتيجن جي [[تجربو|تجرباتي]] جاچ ڏيکاري ته اهي غلط آهن، ته منطقي طور ان مان نڪري ٿو ته نظريي جو اهو حصو به غلط هو، جنهن مان اهي نتيجا نڪتا هئا. پر جيڪڏهن اهي نتيجا درست ثابت ٿين ته ان سان نظريو قطعي طور ثابت نٿو ٿئي. هن جاچ جي [[منطق]] سبب ئي هن تحقيقي طريقي ۾ قياسي استدلال ممڪن ٿئي ٿو. جوڙيل مفروضي کي عارضي طور ”سچو“ فرض ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ۽ ان ”سچي“ بيان مان نتيجا اخذ ڪيا وڃن ٿا. جيڪڏهن پوءِ ڪيل جاچون ڏيکارين ته اهي نتيجا غلط آهن، ته ان مان نڪري ٿو ته مفروضو پڻ غلط هو. جيڪڏهن جاچون نتيجن کي درست ڏيکارين ته نئين ڄاڻ حاصل ٿيندي. هتي اهو سمجھڻ ضروري آهي ته هاڪاري جاچ وڌ ۾ وڌ جاچيل مفروضي جي مضبوط پٺڀرائي ڪري سگهي ٿي، پر ان کي قطعي طور ثابت نٿي ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ قياسي نتيجو (A ⇒ B) اهڙيءَ طرح ٻه طرفو نه هوندو آهي؛ رڳو (¬B ⇒ ¬A) صحيح منطقي صورت آهي. تنهن هوندي به، هيمپل جي لفظن ۾، هاڪاري نتيجا مفروضي لاءِ ”گهٽ ۾ گھٽ ڪجهه پٺڀرائي، ڪجهه توثيق يا تصديق“ مهيا ڪن ٿا.<ref name="Hempel 1966">{{cite book | title=Philosophy Of Natural Science | date=1966 | first=Carl Gustav | last=Hempel | author-link=ڪارل گستاف هيمپل | page=7 | url=https://archive.org/stream/1966PhilosophyOfNaturalScienceCarlGHempel1/1966--Philosophy-of-Natural-Science--Carl-G-Hempel%20%281%29_djvu.txt | access-date=30 April 2024}} هيمپل هن ڳالهه کي [[اگناز سيميلوائس|سيميلوائس]] جي زچگي واري بخار بابت تجربن وسيلي واضح ڪري ٿو.</ref> اهو ئي سبب آهي جو [[ڪارل پوپر|پوپر]] پيش ڪيل مفروضن جي ترديد پذير هجڻ تي زور ڏنو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کان سواءِ ڪامياب جاچون تمام ٿورو ثابت ڪن ٿيون. جيئن [[ڊونالڊ اي. گليز|گليز]] چيو، ”ڪامياب نظريا اهي آهن، جيڪي ترديد وسيلي ڇنڊڇاڻ کان بچي وڃن ٿا.“{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} هن تحقيقي طريقي ۾ قياسي استدلال جي جاءِ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[افضل استدلال]] وٺندو آهي، يعني منطقي نتيجي وسيلي سڀ کان وڌيڪ معقول وضاحت جي ڳولا. مثال طور حياتيات ۾، جتي عام قانون گھٽ آهن،{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح قياس مضبوط اڳواٽ مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.<ref name="Gauch Jr 2002 p30/ch4"/> === استقرائي طريقو === سائنسي سچائي اخذ ڪرڻ وارو [[استقرائيت|استقرائي طريقو]] پهريون ڀيرو [[فرانسس بيڪن]] ۽ خاص طور [[آئزڪ نيوٽن]] ۽ سندس پوئلڳن سان نمايان ٿيو.<ref name= novOrganon >[[فرانسس بيڪن]]، ''[[نووم اورگينم]]''</ref> [[مفروضي-استنباطي نمونو|مفروضي-استنباطي طريقي]] جي قائم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، ان کي اڪثر ڪنهن حد تائين ”اڻسڌي ڳولا“ سمجھي پاسيرو ڪيو ويو.{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} تنهن هوندي به، اهو اڄ به ڪنهن حد تائين صحيح آهي، پر هاڻوڪو استقرائي طريقو اڪثر تاريخي طريقي کان گھڻو مختلف آهي؛ گڏ ڪيل انگن اکرن جي وڏي پيماني هن طريقي کي نئين اثرائتي سگهه ڏني آهي. اهو سڀ کان وڌيڪ انگن اکرن جي کوٽائي وارن منصوبن يا وڏي پيماني جي مشاهدي وارن منصوبن سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ٻنهي حالتن ۾ اڪثر اڳواٽ چٽو نه هوندو آهي ته تجويز ڪيل تجربن جا نتيجا ڇا نڪرندا، تنهنڪري ڄاڻ انگن اکرن جي گڏجاڻي کان پوءِ استقرائي استدلال وسيلي پيدا ٿيندي آهي.{{efn| name= keplerNewton }} جتي روايتي تحقيقي طريقو مفروضو به جوڙي ٿو ۽ جاچي ٿو، اتي استقرائي طريقو عام طور رڳو هڪ [[تحقيقي سوال]] جوڙي ٿو، مفروضو نه. شروعاتي سوال کان پوءِ انگن اکرن جي گڏجاڻي لاءِ مناسب ”وڏي گنجائش وارو طريقو“ طئي ڪيو ويندو آهي، حاصل ٿيل انگن اکرن کي عمل هيٺ آڻي ”صاف“ ڪيو ويندو آهي، ۽ پوءِ نتيجا ڪڍيا ويندا آهن. ”ڌيان جي هن تبديلي سان انگن اکرن کي پاڻ نئين ڄاڻ ظاهر ڪرڻ جو سڀ کان مٿانهون ڪردار ملي ٿو.“{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} مفروضو جوڙيندڙ طريقن جي ڀيٽ ۾ استقرائي طريقي جو فائدو اهو آهي ته اهو بنيادي طور محقق جي موضوع بابت ”اڳواٽ قائم ڪيل خيالن“ کان آزاد هوندو آهي. پر ٻئي پاسي، استقرائي استدلال هميشه يقين جي ڪنهن نه ڪنهن درجي سان ڳنڍيل هوندو آهي، جيئن سڀ استقرائي نتيجا هوندا آهن.{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} اهو يقين ڪڏهن تمام مٿانهين درجي تائين پهچي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، وڏن [[اول عدد|اول عددن]] جي تعين ۾، جيڪي [[رمزنگاري سافٽ ويئر]] ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿا.{{sfnp|Gauch|2003|p=159}} === رياضياتي نمونه سازي === [[رياضياتي نمونه سازي]]، يا ٻاهرين سرشتي تي ٻڌل استدلال، عام طور هڪ مفروضي جي جوڙجڪ کان پوءِ اهڙن رياضياتي ڍانچن جي تعمير تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي، جن کي طبعي تجربيگاهي تجربن بدران جاچي سگهجي. هن طريقي جا ٻه بنيادي جزا آهن: پهريون سادگي يا تجريد، ۽ ٻيو هم آهنگيءَ جي قاعدن جو مجموعو. هم آهنگيءَ جا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جوڙيل نمونو حقيقت سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل هوندو ۽ سچائي ڪيئن اخذ ڪئي ويندي؛ جڏهن ته ڏنل سرشتي کي تجريدي بڻائڻ دوران کنيل سادگيءَ وارا قدم اهڙن عاملن کي گھٽائڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن، جيڪي لاڳاپيل نه هجن، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح اڻڄاتل غلطين کي گھٽايو ويندو آهي.{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} اهي قدم محقق کي سرشتي جا اهم عامل سمجھڻ ۾ پڻ مدد ڏئي سگهن ٿا ۽ اهو ڄاڻڻ ۾ به ته سادگيءَ کي ڪيتري حد تائين وڌائي سگهجي ٿو، جيستائين سرشتو گھٽ تبديل پذير ۽ ان ڪري وڌيڪ مستحڪم نه بڻجي وڃي. سادگي ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل اصولن تي [[#Confirmation theory|هيٺ]] وڌيڪ بحث ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن حقيقت کي رياضيات ۾ بدلائڻ جو هي عمل مڪمل ٿي وڃي، ته نتيجي ۾ ٺهيل نموني جو، اصل سرشتي جي جاءِ تي، خالص رياضياتي ۽ حسابي طريقن وسيلي تجزيو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن تجزيي جا نتيجا پڻ فطري طور خالص رياضياتي هوندا آهن ۽ پوءِ اڳواٽ مقرر ڪيل هم آهنگيءَ جي قاعدن وسيلي ٻيهر حقيقي سرشتي ڏانهن منتقل ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نتيجن جي جائزي ۽ تشريح کان پوءِ عمل ٻيهر ورجايو ويندو آهي. اهڙن نمونن ۾ استدلال اڪثر رياضياتي استنباطي هوندو آهي، پر لازمي نه آهي. هتي [[مونٽي ڪارلو طريقو|مونٽي ڪارلو نقلون]] هڪ مثال آهن. اهي ”بي ترتيبيءَ سان“ تجرباتي انگ اکر پيدا ڪن ٿيون، ۽ جيتوڻيڪ اهي عالمگير اصول ظاهر نه ڪري سگهن، تنهن هوندي به ڪارائتيون ٿي سگهن ٿيون.{{sfn | Voit | 2019}} == سائنسي تحقيق == سائنسي تحقيق جو عام مقصد [[ڄاڻ]] کي [[#suitableTest|جاچ پذير وضاحتن]] جي صورت ۾ حاصل ڪرڻ آهي،<ref name="SuitableTest">Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902), ''New Elements of Mathematics'' v. 4, pp. 37–38: "ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رڳو ايترو ڪافي ناهي ته ڪو مفروضو دليل سان جائز ثابت ڪري سگهجي. حقيقتن جي وضاحت ڪندڙ هر مفروضو تنقيدي لحاظ کان جائز هوندو آهي. پر جائز مفروضن مان اسان کي اهو مفروضو چونڊڻو پوندو، جيڪو تجربي وسيلي جاچڻ لاءِ موزون هجي.."</ref><ref name="econ">Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from [http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v1-08.htm#m27 Draft D] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524021101/http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v1-08.htm#m27|date=2011-05-24}} of Memoir 27: "تنهنڪري، دريافت ڪرڻ جو مطلب رڳو اهڙي واقعي کي جلد آڻڻ آهي، جيڪو دير يا سوير هونئن به پيش اچي ها، جيڪڏهن اسان دريافت ڪرڻ جي تڪليف نه ڪريون ها. تنهنڪري دريافت جو فن خالصتاً وسيلن جي ڪفائتي استعمال جو سوال آهي. منطق جي لحاظ کان، تحقيق جي ڪفائت دريافت جي فن بابت بنيادي اصول آهي. تنهنڪري افضل استدلال جي عمل کي، جيڪو بنيادي طور دريافت جي طريقي جو سوال ۽ ان طريقي جو پهريون سوال آهي، ڪفائتي ويچارن جي تابع هجڻ گهرجي."</ref> جن کي سائنسدان ايندڙ تجربن جي نتيجن جي [[اڳڪٿي پذيري|اڳڪٿي]] ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهن. ان سان سائنسدانن کي تحقيق هيٺ موضوع جي وڌيڪ سٺي سمجھ حاصل ٿئي ٿي، ۽ پوءِ ان سمجھ کي ان جي سببي طريقيڪار ۾ مداخلت ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيئن ڪنهن بيماريءَ جو علاج ڪرڻ. ڪا وضاحت اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ ۾ جيتري وڌيڪ سٺي هوندي، اوتري ئي اها اڪثر وڌيڪ ڪارائتي هوندي، ۽ اوترو ئي وڌيڪ امڪان هوندو ته اها شاهدين جي ڪنهن مجموعي کي پنهنجي متبادل وضاحتن کان بهتر نموني بيان ڪندي رهندي. سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڪامياب وضاحتون، يعني جيڪي گھڻين مختلف حالتن ۾ وضاحتون ڪن ۽ درست اڳڪٿيون ڪن، اڪثر [[سائنسي نظريو|سائنسي نظريا]] سڏجن ٿيون.{{efn-ua|name= aQuestion}} گھڻا تجرباتي نتيجا انساني سمجھ ۾ وڏيون تبديليون پيدا نٿا ڪن؛ نظرياتي سائنسي سمجھ ۾ بهتري عام طور وقت سان گڏ تدريجي ترقيءَ جي عمل مان پيدا ٿئي ٿي، ۽ ڪڏهن اها سائنس جي مختلف شعبن تائين پکڙيل هوندي آهي.<ref>Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). ''How to Think Straight About Psychology''. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123</ref> سائنسي نمونا ان لحاظ کان مختلف هوندا آهن ته انهن جي ڪيتري حد تائين ۽ ڪيتري عرصي تائين تجرباتي جاچ ڪئي وئي آهي، ۽ سائنسي برادريءَ ۾ انهن جي قبوليت ڪيتري آهي. عام طور ڪنهن موضوع بابت شاهدي گڏ ٿيندي رهڻ سان وضاحتون وقت سان گڏ قبول ٿينديون وڃن ٿيون، ۽ لاڳاپيل وضاحت شاهدين کي بيان ڪرڻ ۾ پنهنجي متبادل وضاحتن کان وڌيڪ سگھاري ثابت ٿئي ٿي. اڪثر پوءِ ايندڙ محقق وقت سان گڏ وضاحتن کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيندا آهن، يا مختلف وضاحتن کي گڏ ڪري نيون وضاحتون جوڙيندا آهن. === سائنسي تحقيق جون خاصيتون === سائنسي ڄاڻ [[تجرباتي شاهدي|تجرباتي نتيجن]] سان ويجھي نموني ڳنڍيل آهي ۽ جيڪڏهن نوان تجرباتي مشاهدا اڳ ۾ حاصل ٿيل نتيجن سان نه ٺهڪن ته اها [[ترديد پذيري|ترديد]] جي تابع رهي سگهي ٿي. يعني ڪنهن به نظريي کي ڪڏهن به آخري نٿو سمجھي سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين مسئلو پيدا ڪندڙ شاهدي دريافت ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن اهڙي شاهدي ملي ته نئون نظريو پيش ڪري سگهجي ٿو، يا، جيئن وڌيڪ عام طور ٿيندو آهي، اهو معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته اڳوڻي نظريي ۾ ترميمون نئين شاهديءَ جي وضاحت لاءِ ڪافي آهن. ڪنهن نظريي جي سگھ جو تعلق ان ڳالهه سان هوندو آهي ته اهو پنهنجي بنيادي اصولن ۾ وڏي تبديليءَ کان سواءِ ڪيتري عرصي تائين قائم رهيو آهي. نظريا ٻين نظرين ۾ پڻ سمائجي سگهن ٿا. مثال طور، نيوٽن جي قانونن سيارن بابت هزارين سالن جي سائنسي مشاهدن جي لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل وضاحت ڪئي. تنهن هوندي به، پوءِ اهو طئي ٿيو ته اهي قانون هڪ وڌيڪ عام نظريي، يعني [[اضافيت جو نظريو|اضافيت]]، جون خاص حالتون آهن؛ جنهن نيوٽن جي قانونن مان اڳ ۾ اڻسمجھايل استثنائن جي وضاحت ڪئي ۽ [[ڪشش ثقل]] سبب [[روشني]] جي مڙڻ جهڙن ٻين مشاهدن جي اڳڪٿي ۽ وضاحت پڻ ڪئي. اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪن حالتن ۾ آزاد ۽ هڪ ٻئي سان اڻڳنڍيل سائنسي مشاهدن کي وڌندڙ وضاحتي سگھ وارن اصولن وسيلي ڳنڍي ۽ يڪجا ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Brody|1993 |pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Goldhaber|Nieto|2010|page=942}} جيئن ته نوان نظريا پنهنجن اڳوڻن نظرين کان وڌيڪ جامع ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ تنهنڪري اڳوڻن نظرين کان وڌيڪ شين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهن ٿا، ان ڪري جانشين نظريا پنهنجن اڳوڻن کان وڌيڪ وڏي مشاهدياتي مجموعي جي وضاحت ڪري هڪ مٿانهون معيار پورو ڪري سگهن ٿا.{{sfn|Brody|1993|pp=44–45}} مثال طور، [[ارتقا]] جو نظريو ڌرتيءَ تي [[حياتيائي گوناگوني|زندگيءَ جي گوناگوني]]، جنسن جو پنهنجي ماحول سان ٺهڪڻ، ۽ فطري دنيا ۾ ڏٺل ٻين ڪيترن [[نمونو|نمونن]] جي وضاحت ڪري ٿو؛<ref name="Hall08">{{cite book |editor1-last = Hall |editor1-first = B.K. |editor2-last = Hallgrímsson |editor2-first = B. |title = Strickberger's Evolution |year = 2008 |edition = 4th |publisher = Jones & Bartlett |isbn = 978-0-7637-0066-9 |url = https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall/page/762 |page = [https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall/page/762 762] }}</ref><ref name="Cracraft05">{{cite book | editor1-last = Cracraft | editor1-first = J. | editor2-last = Donoghue | editor2-first = M.J. | title = Assembling the tree of life | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | page = 592 | isbn = 978-0-19-517234-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&q=Assembling+the+tree+of+life | access-date = 2020-10-20 | archive-date = 2023-11-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112730/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&q=Assembling+the+tree+of+life#v=snippet&q=Assembling%20the%20tree%20of%20life&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref> ان جي سڀ کان تازي وڏي ترميم [[جينيات]] سان يڪجائي هئي، جنهن سان [[توسيع ٿيل ارتقائي ترڪيب|جديد ارتقائي ترڪيب]] وجود ۾ آئي. پوءِ ٿيندڙ ترميمن ۾ ان [[حياتيائي ڪيميا]] ۽ [[ماليڪيولي حياتيات]] جهڙن ٻين ڪيترن شعبن جا پهلو پڻ پاڻ ۾ سمويا آهن. <!--(لڪايل؛ سبب: مڪمل طور بي حوالو (ارسطو جو ترجمو ”سائنسي تحقيق جو ڪلاسيڪي نمونو ارسطو مان نڪتل آهي“ لاءِ ڪنهن به طرح حوالو نٿو ٿي سگهي.) === سائنسي تحقيق جا نمونا === {{Main|سائنسي تحقيق جا نمونا}} سائنسي تحقيق جو ڪلاسيڪي نمونو [[سائنسي طريقي جي تاريخ#ارسطو|ارسطو مان نڪتل آهي]]،<ref> {{cite book |author=[[ارسطو]] |chapter=[[اڳيون تجزيا]] |translator=Hugh Tredennick |pages=181–531 |title=Aristotle, Volume&nbsp;1 |series=[[لوئب ڪلاسيڪي لائبريري]] |publisher=William Heinemann |place=London |year=1938}} </ref> جنهن تقريبي ۽ ٺيڪ استدلال جي صورتن ۾ فرق ڪيو، [[افضل استدلال|افضل]]، [[استنباطي استدلال|استنباطي]] ۽ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي]] [[استنباط]] جو ٽه رخو خاڪو پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[تمثيل]] وسيلي استدلال جهڙين گڏيل صورتن تي پڻ بحث ڪيو. [[مفروضي-استنباطي نمونو]] يا طريقو سائنسي طريقي جي هڪ تجويز ڪيل وضاحت آهي. هتي مفروضي مان نڪرندڙ اڳڪٿيون مرڪزي اهميت رکن ٿيون: جيڪڏهن مفروضي کي سچو فرض ڪجي ته ان مان ڪهڙا نتيجا نڪرن ٿا؟ جيڪڏهن پوءِ ٿيندڙ تجرباتي تحقيق اهو ظاهر نه ڪري ته اهي نتيجا يا اڳڪٿيون مشاهدي لائق دنيا سان ٺهڪن ٿيون، ته مفروضي کي غلط قرار ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. --> == رهنما اصول == === تصديقي نظريو === تاريخ جي گذر دوران، هڪ نظريي جي جاءِ ٻئي نظريي والاري آهي، ۽ ڪن نظرين وڌيڪ تحقيق جي راهه هموار ڪئي آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيا رڳو مظاهرن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ تائين محدود نظر آيا آهن. هڪ نظريي جي جاءِ ٻئي نظريي ڇو ورتي، ان جا سبب هميشه پڌرا يا سادا ناهن هوندا. سائنس جي فلسفي ۾ هي سوال شامل آهي: ''هڪ ’سٺي‘ نظريي کي ڪهڙا معيار پورا ڪرڻ گهرجن؟'' هن سوال جي هڪ ڊگھي تاريخ آهي، ۽ ڪيترن سائنسدانن توڙي فلسفين ان تي ويچار ڪيو آهي. مقصد اهو آهي ته [[ادراڪي تعصب]] کي شامل ڪرڻ کان سواءِ هڪ نظريي کي ٻئي کان وڌيڪ ترجيح جوڳو چونڊي سگهجي.<ref name=Kuhn> [[ٿامس ڪون]] هن ضرورت کي باقاعدي طور ”عقلي نظرياتي چونڊ جا معيار“ قرار ڏنو. سندس هڪ بحث ٻيهر هن ڪتاب ۾ ڇپيو آهي: {{cite book |title=The Road since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970–1993 |author=Thomas S Kuhn |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXufWLnPp94C&pg=PA208 |pages=208 ''ff'' |chapter=Chapter 9: Rationality and Theory Choice |editor=James Conant, John Haugeland |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-45799-0 |date=2002-11-01}} </ref> جيتوڻيڪ مختلف مفڪر مختلف پهلوئن تي زور ڏين ٿا،{{efn-lg|هڪ ''سٺي نظريي'' جا جزا ڪهڙا آهن، تنهن بابت مختلف رايا: * ڪون (1977) هي جزا ڄاڻايا: درستي؛ مطابقت (اندروني توڙي ٻين لاڳاپيل ۽ ان وقت قبوليل نظرين سان)؛ دائرو (ان جا نتيجا انهن انگن اکرن کان اڳتي وڌڻ گهرجن، جن جي وضاحت ان کان گھربل آهي)؛ سادگي (ٻي صورت ۾ منجھيل ۽ ڌار ڌار مظاهرن کي منظم ڪرڻ)؛ ثمربخشي (وڌيڪ تحقيق لاءِ)؛<ref>Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential Tension—Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 320–339.</ref> * ڪوليڦن (2001) سادگي/ڪفائت، يڪجائيءَ واري/وضاحتي سگھ، جرئت/ثمربخشي، ۽ سونهن کي ڳڻايو؛<ref name=Colyvan> {{cite book |title=The Indispensability of Mathematics |author=Mark Colyvan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBs-TSFopLkC&pg=PA78 |pages=78–79 |isbn=0-19-516661-2 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} </ref> * وائنرٽ (2004) اڻڦيرائپ جي بار بار ورجائجندڙ موضوع کي ڄاڻايو؛{{efn-lg|name=invariantTheme|فريڊل وائنرٽ پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The Scientist as Philosopher'' (2004) ۾ اڻڦيرائپ جي موضوع کي لڳ ڀڳ 1900ع کان پوءِ ڪيترين لکڻين ۾ حقيقت جي سائنسي بيان جو هڪ بنيادي پهلو قرار ڏنو، جن ۾ [[آنري پوانڪاري]] (1902)، [[ارنسٽ ڪاسيرر]] (1920)، [[ميڪس بورن]] (1949 ۽ 1953)، [[پال ڊيراڪ]] (1958)، [[اوليڦيئر ڪوسٽا ڊي بيوريگارڊ]] (1966)، [[يوجين وگنر]] (1967)، [[لارنس اسڪلر]] (1974)، [[مائيڪل فريڊمين (فلسفي)|مائيڪل فريڊمين]] (1983)، [[جان ڊي. نارٽن]] (1992)، [[نڪولس ميڪسويل]] (1993)، [[ايلن ڪڪ (طبعياتدان)|ايلن ڪڪ]] (1994)، [[اليسٽيئر ڪيمرون ڪرامبي]] (1994)، [[مارگريٽ موريسن (فلسفي)|مارگريٽ موريسن]] (1995)، [[رچرڊ فائنمين]] (1997)، [[رابرٽ نوزڪ]] (2001)، ۽ [[ٽم موڊلن]] (2002) جون لکڻيون شامل آهن.<ref name="Weinert 2004">{{Cite book |last=Weinert |first=Friedel |title=The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries |date=2004 |publisher=[[اسپرنگر-ڦيرلاگ]] |isbn=3-540-20580-2 |location=Berlin; New York |pages=62–74 (72) |chapter=Invariance and reality |doi=10.1007/b138529 |oclc=53434974|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/828852 }}</ref> — [[ڊيوڊ ڊوئچ|ڊوئچ]] 2009ع جي هڪ ٽيڊ تقرير ۾ چيو ته ”ڦيرائڻ ۾ ڏکين وضاحتن جي ڳولا سموري ترقيءَ جو سرچشمو آهي“.<ref name="DD_TED" />}} * [[اسٽيفن هاڪنگ|هاڪنگ]] (2010): سادگي/ڪفائت، يڪجائيءَ واري/وضاحتي سگھ، ۽ سونهن؛ پر هن ثمربخشيءَ جو ذڪر نه ڪيو.<ref name=Hawking> {{cite book |title=The Grand Design |pages=51–52 |chapter=What is reality? |isbn=978-0-553-90707-0 |year=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoO9jkV-yzIC&pg=PA51 |author1=Stephen Hawking |author2=Leonard Mlodinow }} پڻ ڏسو: [[نموني تي دارومدار رکندڙ حقيقت پسندي]]. </ref> }} سٺا نظريا درست، اندروني طور هڪجهڙا، گھربل انگن اکرن کان اڳتي وضاحت ڪندڙ، ڌار ڌار مظاهرن کي يڪجا ڪندڙ، ۽ تحقيق لاءِ ثمربخش هوندا آهن. جڏهن تجرباتي شاهدي محدود هجي ته سائنسدان [[اوڪم جو پاڪي|ڪفائت]] ۽ اڻڦرندڙ مشاهدن کي ترجيح ڏيندا آهن. سائنسدان ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ”صوري سونهن“ جهڙي انتهائي موضوعي معيار کي به ڳڻيندا آهن، جنهن جا ڪيترائي مختلف مطلب ٿي سگهن ٿا. هتي مقصد نظرين وچ ۾ چونڊ کي گھٽ من ماني بڻائڻ آهي. تنهن هوندي به، انهن معيارن ۾ موضوعي جزا شامل آهن، ۽ انهن کي قطعي معيار بدران [[رهنما اصول]] سمجھڻ گهرجي.{{efn-lg|name=Pars_and_El|...سٺي نظريي جي معيارن بابت هاڪنگ ۽ ملودينو: ”مٿي ڏنل معيار ظاهر آهي ته موضوعي آهن. مثال طور، سونهن اهڙي شيءِ ناهي جنهن کي آسانيءَ سان ماپي سگهجي، پر سائنسدانن وٽ ان جي وڏي قدر آهي.“ ’حد کان وڌيڪ سينگاريل‘ هجڻ جو خيال ’سادگيءَ‘ سان ڳنڍيل آهي: ”هڪ نظريو، جيڪو هٿرادو جوڙجڪن سان ڀريل هجي، گھڻو سهڻو ناهي. آئن اسٽائن جي ڳالهه کي ٻئي نموني چئجي ته، هڪ نظريو جيترو ممڪن هجي اوترو سادو هجڻ گهرجي، پر ان کان وڌيڪ سادو نه.“<ref name=Hawking/> پڻ ڏسو:<ref name=Baker/>}} اهڙي قسم جا معيار لازمي طور متبادل نظرين وچ ۾ فيصلو به نٿا ڪن. [[اليگزينڊر برڊ|برڊ]] جي لفظن ۾:<ref name=Bird> {{cite encyclopedia |date= Aug 11, 2011 |author=Bird, Alexander |title=§4.1 Methodological Incommensurability |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition) |editor=Edward N. Zalta |url= http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/#4.1}} </ref> {{blockquote|”[اهڙا معيار] سائنسي چونڊ جو تعين نٿا ڪري سگهن. پهريون، ڪنهن نظريي جون ڪهڙيون خاصيتون اهي معيار پورا ڪن ٿيون، ان تي اختلاف ٿي سگهي ٿو (''مثال طور''، ڇا سادگيءَ جو تعلق نظريي جي وجودياتي وابستگين سان آهي يا ان جي رياضياتي صورت سان؟). ٻيو، اهي معيار اڻچٽا آهن، تنهنڪري ان درجي بابت اختلاف جي گنجائش رهي ٿي، جنهن تائين اهي پورا ٿين ٿا. ٽيون، خاص ڪري جڏهن اهي هڪ ٻئي سان ٽڪراءَ ۾ هجن، تڏهن ان بابت اختلاف ٿي سگهي ٿو ته هڪ ٻئي جي ڀيٽ ۾ انهن کي ڪيترو وزن ڏنو وڃي.“}} اهو پڻ بحث جوڳو آهي ته موجوده سائنسي نظريا اهي سڀ معيار پورا ڪن ٿا يا نه، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي معيار شايد اهڙن مقصدن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جيڪي اڃا حاصل نه ٿيا آهن. مثال طور، هن وقت ڪو به هڪ نظريو سڀني موجوده مشاهدن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ جي سگھ نٿو رکي.<ref name=Realism> ڏسو {{cite book |title=The Grand Design |author1=Stephen Hawking |author2=Leonard Mlodinow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoO9jkV-yzIC&pg=PA9 |page=8 |quote=اهو مختلف نظرين جو هڪ سڄو خاندان آهي، جن مان هر هڪ رڳو طبعي حالتن جي ڪنهن مخصوص دائري اندر مشاهدن جي سٺي وضاحت ڪري ٿو... پر جيئن ڪو به اهڙو نقشو ڪونهي، جيڪو ڌرتيءَ جي سڄي سطح جي سٺي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي، تيئن ڪو به اهڙو واحد نظريو ڪونهي، جيڪو سڀني حالتن ۾ مشاهدن جي سٺي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي.. |isbn=978-0-553-90707-0 |year=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc}} </ref><ref name=Davies> {{cite web |title=Epistemological pluralism |author=E Brian Davies |url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/3083/1/EP3single.doc |work=PhilSci Archive |year=2006 | page=4 | quote=ڪجهه سائنسدانن جا آخري مقصد ڀلي ڪهڙا به هجن، پر سائنس، جيئن هن وقت عمل ۾ آندي وڃي ٿي، دنيا جي ڪيترين هڪٻئي سان چڙهندڙ وضاحتن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، جن مان هر هڪ جو پنهنجو لاڳو ٿيڻ جو دائرو آهي. ڪن حالتن ۾ اهو دائرو تمام وسيع هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾ نهايت ننڍو..}} </ref> ==== ڪفائت ==== هڪ ”سٺي“ نظريي جي [[wikt:گھربل خاصيتون|گھربل خاصيتن]] تي صدين کان بحث ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جيڪو شايد [[اوڪم جو پاڪو]] کان به اڳ جو آهي،{{efn|اوڪم جو پاڪو، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ”وجودياتي ڪفائت“ به چيو ويندو آهي، ٿلهي ليکي هن ريت بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو: ٻن نظرين وچ ۾ چونڊ ڪرڻي هجي ته سڀ کان سادو نظريو بهترين آهي. هي تجويز عام طور 14هين صديءَ جي وليم آف اوڪم ڏانهن منسوب ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ شايد اها هن کان به اڳ جي هجي.<ref name=Baker/>}} ۽ ان کي اڪثر سٺي نظريي جي هڪ خاصيت سمجھيو ويندو آهي. سائنس سادگيءَ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿي. جڏهن گڏ ڪيل انگ اکر گھڻين وضاحتن جي پٺڀرائي ڪن، تڏهن ڪفائت جو اصول مظاهرن جي سڀ کان سادي وضاحت يا نظريي جي سڀ کان سادي جوڙجڪ جي سفارش ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Gauch|2003|p=269}} سائنسدان ته پيچيده بيانن جي سادن ثبوتن کي ''سهڻو'' به سڏيندا آهن. {{Blockquote| quote=اسان کي فطري شين جا انهن کان وڌيڪ سبب قبول نه ڪرڻ گهرجن، جيڪي انهن جي ظاهر ٿيندڙ صورتن جي وضاحت ڪرڻ لاءِ سچا ۽ ڪافي هجن.|source=آئزڪ نيوٽن، ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1723 [3rd ed.])''<ref name="principia" />}} ڪفائت جي تصور مان اهو مطلب نه وٺڻ گهرجي ته سائنسي سچ جي ڳولا ۾ مڪمل گھٽ خرچي اختيار ڪئي وڃي. عام عمل جي شروعات ان جي ابتڙ، ممڪن وضاحتن جي وڏي انگ ۽ عام بي ترتيبيءَ کان ٿيندي آهي. ان جو مثال [[پال ڪرگمين]] جي طريقي ۾ ڏسي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو کليءَ طرح ”بيوقوفاڻو ٿيڻ جي همٿ ڪريو“ چوي ٿو. هو لکي ٿو ته بين الاقوامي واپار جي نون نظرين تي ڪم ڪندي هن [[ادبي جائزو|اڳوڻي ڪم جو جائزو]] کليل ذهن سان ورتو ۽ پنهنجي شروعاتي نقطه نظر کي اڻٿيڻين طرفن ڏانهن به وڌايو. جڏهن وٽس خيالن جو ڪافي ذخيرو گڏ ٿي ويندو هو، تڏهن هو انهن کي سادو ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو هو ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح اهو معلوم ڪندو هو ته ڪهڙو خيال ڪارگر آهي ۽ ڪهڙو ناهي. ڪرگمين جي حوالي سان هڪ خاص اصول ”سوال تي سوال اٿاريو“ هو. هن سڃاتو ته اڳوڻي ڪم ۾ اڳ ئي موجود شاهديءَ تي غلط نمونا لاڳو ڪيا ويا هئا، ۽ تبصرو ڪيو ته ”سمجھ ڀري تبصري کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو.“{{refn | name=Krugman|{{cite journal | last=Krugman | first=Paul | title=How I Work | journal=The American Economist | publisher=Sage Publications, Inc. | volume=37 | issue=2 | year=1993 | issn=0569-4345 | jstor=25603965 | pages=25–31 | doi=10.1177/056943459303700204 }} ...I have already implicitly given my four basic rules for research. Let me now state them explicitly, then explain. Here are the rules: # ٻين حلقن جي ماڻهن کي ٻڌو # سوال تي سوال اٿاريو # بيوقوفاڻو ٿيڻ جي همٿ ڪريو # سادو ڪريو، سادو ڪريو <!--credit to q:Science-->}} اهڙيءَ طرح هن فڪر جي ٻين حلقن خلاف عام تعصب کي پار ڪرڻ جي ضرورت کي ڇهيو.{{sfn | Fleck | 1979 | p=27}} ==== سونهن ==== اوڪم جو پاڪو ”سادي سونهن“ جي زمري ۾ اچي سگهي ٿو، پر اهو دليل ڏئي سگهجي ٿو ته ''ڪفائت'' ۽ ''سونهن'' مختلف طرفن ڏانهن ڇڪين ٿيون. وڌيڪ جزا شامل ڪرڻ سان نظريي جي جوڙجڪ سادي ٿي سگهي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪنهن نظريي جي وجوديات کي سادو ڪرڻ سان نحوي پيچيدگي وڌي سگهي ٿي.<ref name=Baker> {{cite encyclopedia |author=Baker, Alan |title=Simplicity |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition) |editor=Edward N. Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/simplicity/ |date=Feb 25, 2010}} </ref> ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ناڪام ٿيندڙ خيال ۾ ڪيل وقتي ۽ خاص مقصد واريون ترميمون به ”صوري سونهن“ کان وانجھيل هجڻ سبب رد ڪيون وينديون آهن. جنهن شيءِ کي ”جمالياتي“ چئي سگهجي ٿو، تنهن ڏانهن هي اپيل بيان ڪرڻ ڏکي آهي، پر بنيادي طور اها هڪ قسم جي واقفيت سان لاڳاپيل آهي. تنهن هوندي به، ”سونهن“ تي ٻڌل دليل تڪراري آهي ۽ واقفيت تي حد کان وڌيڪ ڀاڙڻ جمود پيدا ڪندو.<ref name=Colyvan/> ==== اڻڦيرائپ ==== اڻڦيرائپ جا اصول گھٽ ۾ گھٽ 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان سائنسي لکڻين، خاص ڪري طبعيات، جو هڪ اهم موضوع رهيا آهن.{{efn-lg|name=invariantTheme}} هتي بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته ڳولڻ لاءِ سٺيون جوڙجڪون اهي آهن، جيڪي نقطه نظر کان آزاد هجن. هي خيال يقيناً اڳ به موجود رهيو آهي، مثال طور [[مل جا طريقا|مل جي اختلاف ۽ اتفاق وارن طريقن]] ۾—اهي طريقا، جن ڏانهن تضاد ۽ اڻڦيرائپ جي حوالي سان ٻيهر رجوع ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref name="O&H 1995">{{cite journal | last1=van Overwalle | first1=Frank J. | last2=Heylighen | first2=Francis P. | title=Relating covariation information to causal dimensions through principles of contrast and invariance | journal=European Journal of Social Psychology | volume=25 | issue=4 | date=1995 | issn=0046-2772 | doi=10.1002/ejsp.2420250407 | pages=435–455 | url=http://pcp.vub.ac.be/Papers/Contrast&Invariance.html | url-access=subscription }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207092221/http://pcp.vub.ac.be/Papers/Contrast%26Invariance.html |date=2024-12-07 }}</ref> پر جيئن عام طور ٿيندو آهي، ڪنهن شيءِ جي بنيادي ويچار هجڻ ۽ ان کي وزن ڏيڻ ۾ فرق هوندو آهي. اڻڦيرائپ جي اصولن کي اصل وزن آئن اسٽائن جي اضافيت جي نظرين کان پوءِ مليو، جن هر شيءِ کي لاڳاپن تائين محدود ڪيو ۽ ان ڪري اهي بنيادي طور اڻڦرندڙ ۽ بدلائڻ کان ٻاهر هئا.<ref name="Wigner1967"/>{{efn |name=WeinertEddingtonEinstein}} جيئن [[ڊيوڊ ڊوئچ]] 2009ع ۾ چيو: ”ڦيرائڻ ۾ ڏکين وضاحتن جي ڳولا سموري ترقيءَ جو سرچشمو آهي“.<ref name="DD_TED">{{Cite AV media | time=15:05min | url=https://www.ted.com/talks/david_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation | title=A new way to explain explanation |date=October 2009 | last=Deutsch | first=David | publisher=TED talk | access-date=16 September 2018 | archive-date=4 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104012430/https://www.ted.com/talks/david_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation |url-status=live }} يوٽيوب تي پڻ موجود: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=folTvNDL08A YouTube] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108112725/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=folTvNDL08A |date=8 November 2022 }}.</ref> ان جو هڪ مثال [[آئن اسٽائن جا خيالي تجربا#ڪرندڙ رنگساز ۽ تيز ٿيندڙ لفٽون|آئن اسٽائن جي خيالي تجربن]] مان ملي ٿو. خالي خلاءَ ۾ لٽڪندڙ تجربيگاهه وارو تجربو هڪ ڪارائتي اڻڦرندڙ مشاهدي جو مثال آهي. هن ڪشش ثقل جي غيرموجودگيءَ ۽ تجربيگاهه ۾ آزاديءَ سان ترندڙ تجربي ڪندڙ جو تصور ڪيو. — هاڻي جيڪڏهن ڪا هستي تجربيگاهه کي مٿي ڇڪي ۽ هڪجهڙي تيزيءَ سان ان جي رفتار وڌائي، ته تجربي ڪندڙ پيدا ٿيندڙ قوت کي ڪشش ثقل طور محسوس ڪندو. پر اها هستي تجربيگاهه کي لاڳيتو تيز ڪرڻ لاءِ گھربل ڪم محسوس ڪندي.{{efn| name=WeinertEddingtonEinstein |[[آرٿر ايڊنگٽن]]، 1920: ”طبعيات جو اضافيتي نظريو هر شيءِ کي لاڳاپن تائين محدود ڪري ٿو؛ يعني مادي بدران جوڙجڪ اهميت رکي ٿي.“ — وائنرٽ، آئن اسٽائن جو مثال ڏيندي ۽ هي حوالو ڏيندي: ”Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920), 197“<ref name="Weinert 2004"/>}} هن تجربي وسيلي آئن اسٽائن ڪشش ثقلي ۽ جمودي ڪميت کي برابر قرار ڏئي سگهيو؛ اها ڳالهه نيوٽن جي قانونن ۾ اڻوضاحتيل هئي ۽ اضافيت جي هڪ عام ڪيل مفروضي لاءِ هڪ شروعاتي پر ”سگھارو دليل“ هئي.<ref name="Einstein1916">{{cite book|last1=Einstein|first1=Albert|title=Relativity: The Special and the General Theory|date=1961|publisher=Crown Publishers, Inc.|location=New York <!-- |isbn=978-0-517-88441-6 --> |edition=15th|pages=75–79}}</ref> {{Blockquote|quote=اها خاصيت، جيڪا حقيقت ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿي، هميشه ڪنهن نه ڪنهن اهڙي جوڙجڪ جي اڻڦيرائپ هوندي آهي، جيڪا پهلو يا پيشڪش کان آزاد هجي.|source=[[ميڪس بورن]]، 'Physical Reality' (1953)، 149 — جيئن وائنرٽ (2004) ۾ حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي<ref name="Weinert 2004"/>}} طبعيات ۾ [[اڻڦيرائپ (طبعيات)|اڻڦيرائپ]] تي بحث اڪثر [[هم آهنگي (طبعيات)|هم آهنگي]] جي وڌيڪ مخصوص حوالي سان ٿيندو آهي.<ref name="Wigner1967">{{cite book | last=Wigner | first=Eugene Paul | date=1967 | title=Symmetries and reflections | publisher=Indiana University Press | page=15}} : Wigner also differentiates between geometrical invariance principles, and the "new" ones that arose in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity that he calls dynamic invariance principles.</ref> مٿي ڏنل آئن اسٽائن جو مثال، مل جي اصطلاحن ۾، ٻن قدرن وچ ۾ اتفاق هوندو. اڻڦيرائپ جي حوالي سان، اهو اهڙو متغير آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن تبديلي يا نقطه نظر جي ڦيرڦار دوران اڻبدليل رهي ٿو. ۽ هم آهنگيءَ تي مرڪوز بحث ٻنهي نقطه نظرن کي اهڙن نظامن طور ڏسندو، جيڪي ڪو لاڳاپيل پهلو گڏيل رکن ٿا ۽ ان ڪري هڪ ٻئي سان هم آهنگ آهن. هتي لاڳاپيل اصول [[ترديد پذيري]] ۽ [[جاچ پذيري]] آهن. ڪنهن شيءِ جي ''ڦيرائڻ ۾ ڏکي'' هجڻ جي ابتڙ اهي نظريا آهن، جيڪي ترديد جي مزاحمت ڪن ٿا—اهڙي مايوسيءَ کي [[وولف گانگ پائولي]] رنگين لفظن ۾ ”[[غلط به نه]]“ چئي ظاهر ڪيو. سائنسي نظرين جي ترديد پذير هجڻ جي اهميت تي ڪارل پوپر جي فلسفي ۾ خاص زور ڏنو ويو آهي. هتي وڌيڪ وسيع تصور جاچ پذيري آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ اڳيون تصور به شامل آهي ۽ اهو وڌيڪ عملي ويچارن جي گنجائش به ڏئي ٿو.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keuth |first=Herbert |author-link=:de:Herbert Keuth |chapter=From falsifiability to testability |title=The philosophy of Karl Popper |date=2004 |orig-date=Published in German 2000 |edition=1st English |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |publisher=[[ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wxzoBfQYhYAC&pg=PA48 48–49] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxzoBfQYhYAC&pg=PA48 |isbn=978-0-521-54830-4 |oclc=54503549 |quote=تنهنڪري، اهي ''آفاقي بيان''، جن جي بنيادي بيانن سان ترديد ٿئي ٿي، ''سخت معنيٰ ۾ رد ٿيڻ جوڳا ناهن''. واحد بيانن ۽ امڪاني بيانن وانگر، اهي تجربي جي بنياد تي پرکڻ جوڳا آهن، پر انهن جي پرک جا نتيجا يقيني ۽ قطعي ناهن هوندا؛ اهي نه سخت تصديق ۽ نه ئي ترديد تي پهچائين ٿا، پر رڳو عارضي قبوليت يا رد ڪرڻ تي..}}</ref><ref name="l921">{{cite book | last=Krantz | first=S.G. | title=Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical | publisher=Mathematical Association of America | series=MAA spectrum | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-88385-554-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mBdvAjk_gQC | access-date=29 August 2024 | page=194}}</ref> == فلسفو ۽ بحث ==<!--هي ڀاڱو ”ڪارائتي هجڻ“ کي اهڙي پسمنظر ۾ رکڻ لاءِ ترتيب ڏنو ويو آهي، جيڪو بحث کي اڳتي وڌائيندڙ نظرين جي همٿ افزائي ڪري؛ رڳو پسمنظر کان سواءِ تنقيد نه. ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته ”ڪارائتو“ هجڻ اوهان جي ماخذ جو ويچار هئڻ گهرجي، نه ان جي ڪا پنهنجي تشريح.--> {{See also|سائنس جو فلسفو|سائنسي ڄاڻ جي سماجيات}} سائنس جو فلسفو سائنسي طريقي جي [[#polyaFirstUnderstand|بنيادي منطق]]، [[حدبنديءَ جو مسئلو|سائنس ۽ غير سائنس وچ ۾ فرق]]، ۽ سائنس ۾ شامل [[تحقيقي اخلاقيات|اخلاقي اصولن]] جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. گھٽ ۾ گھٽ هڪ نامور سائنسدان پاران فلسفي مان اخذ ڪيل ڪي بنيادي مفروضا آهن،{{efn-ua|name= introspection| [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3APopular_Science_Monthly_Volume_12.djvu/300 ڪنهن خيال کي سڃاڻڻ ۾ ڪڏهن به ناڪام نه ٿيو]... .— سي. ايس. پيرس، ''سائنس جي منطق جون وضاحتون، ٻيون مقالو—پنهنجن خيالن کي چٽو ڪيئن بڻائجي''. ''پاپولر سائنس منٿلي''، جلد '''12'''، جنوري 1878ع، ص 286<ref name= How/>}}<ref name=comprehensibility/> جيڪي سائنسي طريقي جو بنياد بڻجن ٿا؛ يعني حقيقت معروضي ۽ هڪجهڙي آهي، انسان حقيقت کي درست نموني سمجھڻ جي صلاحيت رکن ٿا، ۽ حقيقي دنيا جي جزن لاءِ عقلي وضاحتون موجود آهن.<ref name=comprehensibility>Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in ''Out of My Later Years'' (1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.'</ref> [[فطرت پسندي (فلسفو)|طريقياتي فطرت پسنديءَ]] مان نڪتل اهي مفروضا اهڙو بنياد بڻجن ٿا، جنهن تي سائنس قائم ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[منطقي اثباتيت|منطقي اثباتيت پسند]]، [[تجربيت|تجربيت پسند]]، [[ترديد پذيري|ترديد پسند]] ۽ ٻين نظرين انهن مفروضن تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ سائنس جي منطق جون متبادل تشريحون ڏنيون آهن، پر انهن مان هر هڪ تي پڻ تنقيد ٿي آهي. سائنسي طريقي بابت جديد فلسفياڻين تصور سازين ۽ وصفن جي ڪوششن جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.{{efn-lg|سائنسي طريقي جي ڪا به عالمگير طور مڃيل وصف موجود ناهي. اها ڳالهه 1913ع ۾ ئي [[نائوراٿ جي ٻيڙي]] وسيلي ظاهر ڪئي وئي هئي. تنهن هوندي به، ان نسبتاً عدم پسند دعويٰ کي ڪنهن تمهيد کان سواءِ ۽ انتهائي اوچتي نموني بيان ڪرڻ کي غير ڪارائتو، منجھائيندڙ ۽ ايتري قدر نقصانڪار سمجھڻ تي اتفاق موجود آهي. ممڪن آهي ته اهڙي هڪڙي وصف ڪڏهن به موجود نه ٿئي. جيئن [[اسٽيون وائنبرگ|وائنبرگ]] 1995ع ۾ بيان ڪيو:<ref name="Weinberg 1995">Weinberg, (1995) "The Methods of Science … And Those By Which We Live", page: 8</ref> {{Blockquote|quote=سائنسي ڪاميابيءَ جا معيار وقت سان بدلجن ٿا؛ اها حقيقت رڳو سائنس جي فلسفي کي ڏکيو نٿي بڻائي، پر سائنس بابت عوامي سمجھ لاءِ به مسئلا پيدا ڪري ٿي. اسان وٽ اهڙو ڪو مقرر سائنسي طريقو ناهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿي ان جو بچاءُ ڪري سگهون.}}}} انهن مان هڪ ڪوشش ''يڪجائيت پسندن'' جي آهي، جيڪي اهڙي يڪجا وصف جي وجود جا حامي آهن، جيڪا ڪارائتي هجي يا گھٽ ۾ گھٽ سائنس جي هر پسمنظر ۾ ”ڪم ڪري“. ''گھڻائيت پسندن'' جو دليل آهي ته سائنس جا درجا ايترا ٽڙيل پکڙيل آهن جو ان جي طريقي جي عالمگير وصف ڪارائتي نٿي ٿي سگهي. جڏهن ته ڪي ماڻهو دليل ڏين ٿا ته وصف قائم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ئي [[معلومات جي آزادي|خيالن جي آزاد وهڪري]] لاءِ نقصانڪار آهي. ان کان سواءِ، ان سماجي ڍانچي بابت پڻ نظريا موجود آهن، جنهن اندر سائنس ڪئي وڃي ٿي، ۽ تحقيق تي سائنس جي سماجي ماحول جي اثرن بابت پڻ بحث ٿئي ٿو. ان سان گڏ ”سائنسي طريقو“ پڻ آهي، جنهن کي ڊيوئي پنهنجي ''اسان ڪيئن سوچيون ٿا'' (1910ع) ۽ ڪارل پيئرسن پنهنجي ''سائنس جو گرامر'' (1892ع) ۾ مقبول بڻايو، ۽ جيڪو تعليم ۾ نسبتاً غير تنقيدي انداز سان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. === گھڻائيت === {{Main|سائنسي گھڻائيت}} سائنسي گھڻائيت [[سائنس جو فلسفو|سائنس جي فلسفي]] اندر اهڙو موقف آهي، جيڪو سائنسي طريقي ۽ موضوع جي تجويز ڪيل مختلف [[سائنس جي يڪجائي|يڪجائين]] کي رد ڪري ٿو. سائنسي گھڻائيت پسندن جو خيال آهي ته سائنس هيٺين مان هڪ يا وڌيڪ صورتن ۾ يڪجا ناهي: ان جي موضوع جي [[مابعد الطبعيات]]، سائنسي ڄاڻ جي [[علميات]]، يا استعمال ٿيڻ گھرجندڙ [[تحقيقي طريقو|تحقيقي طريقن]] ۽ نمونن ۾. ڪي گھڻائيت پسند سمجھن ٿا ته سائنس جي نوعيت سبب گھڻائيت ضروري آهي. ٻيا چون ٿا ته جيئن [[سائنسي شعبو|سائنسي شعبا]] اڳ ئي عملي طور مختلف آهن، تنهنڪري جيستائين ڪنهن مخصوص يڪجائيءَ کي [[تجرباتي طور]] ثابت نه ڪيو وڃي، تيستائين ان اختلاف کي غلط سمجھڻ جو ڪو سبب ناهي. آخرڪار، ڪي ماڻهو دليل ڏين ٿا ته ڀلي نظرياتي طور يڪجائي ممڪن هجي، تڏهن به [[معياري]] سببن جي بنياد تي گھڻائيت جي اجازت هجڻ گهرجي. === يڪجائيت پسندي === {{Main|سائنس جي يڪجائي}} سائنس ۾ يڪجائيت پسندي [[منطقي اثباتيت]] جو هڪ مرڪزي اصول هئي.<ref name="Neurath† Bonk 2011">{{cite book | last1=Neurath† | first1=Otto | author1-link=اوٽو نائوراٿ| last2=Bonk | first2=Thomas | title=Otto Neurath and the Unity of Science | chapter=Unity of Science and Logical Empiricism: A Reply | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | date=2011 | isbn=978-94-007-0142-7 | doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0143-4_2 | pages=15–30}}</ref><ref name="McGill 1937">{{cite journal | last=McGill | first=V. J. | title=Logical Positivism and the Unity of Science | journal=Science & Society | publisher=Guilford Press | volume=1 | issue=4 | year=1937 | issn=0036-8237 | jstor=40399117 | pages=550–561 | doi=10.1177/003682373700100410 }}</ref> مختلف منطقي اثباتيت پسندن هن نظريي کي ڪيترن مختلف طريقن سان سمجھيو؛ مثال طور، [[تحليل پسندي|تحليل پسند]] دعويٰ طور، جنهن موجب [[خاص سائنسون|خاص سائنسن]] ۾ تحقيق هيٺ شيون سائنس جي ڪنهن گڏيل ۽ وڌيڪ بنيادي سمجھيل دائري، عام طور طبعيات، جي شين تائين گھٽجي وڃن ٿيون؛ يا ان دعويٰ طور ته مختلف سائنسن جا سڀئي نظريا ۽ نتيجا ڪنهن گڏيل ٻولي يا ”عالمگير اصطلاحي ٻولي“ ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجن ٿا يا ڪرڻ گھرجن؛ يا ان دعويٰ طور ته سڀئي خاص سائنسون هڪ گڏيل سائنسي طريقو رکن ٿيون.{{efn|name=unifiedMethod|1= مطالعي جي موضوعن کي، جيئن اهي سائنسدانن جي اصطلاحن ۾ بيان ٿين ٿا، هڪ ”واحد يڪجا طريقي“ وسيلي سمجھيو ويندو آهي.<ref name= cowles />{{rp|pp.8,13,33–35,60}} ڪنهن موضوع کي ان جي [[طبعيات ۾ نظرين جي يڪجائي|يڪجائي]] ان جي [[محمولي ڦرندڙ مقدار|محمولن]] وسيلي حاصل ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي رياضياتي [[اظهار (رياضيات)|اظهارن]] جي هڪ [[سرشتو|سرشتي]] کي بيان ڪن ٿا.<ref name=Knight1989 >Kevin Knight (1989) [https://kevincrawfordknight.github.io/papers/unification-knight.pdf Unification: A Multidisciplinary Survey] ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 21, No. 1, March 1989</ref>{{rp|93–94,113–117}} پوءِ اهي قدر، جيڪي ڪنهن [[محمول (رياضياتي منطق)|محمول]] کي ملي سگهن ٿا، محمولي اظهار جي درست هجڻ جا [[شاهد (رياضيات)|شاهد]] بڻجن ٿا؛ يعني ''سچو'' يا ''غلط''، ”اڳڪٿي ڪيل پر اڃا مشاهدو نه ٿيل“، ”توثيق ڪندڙ“ وغيره.}} ٽيڪنالاجيءَ جي تيز رفتار ترقي، جنهن دنيا کي ڏسڻ جا ڪيترائي نوان طريقا کولي ڇڏيا آهن، هن تصور جي اوسر کي ڏکيو بڻايو آهي. {{Blockquote|quote=سائنسي ڪاميابيءَ جا معيار وقت سان بدلجن ٿا؛ اها حقيقت رڳو سائنس جي فلسفي کي ڏکيو نٿي بڻائي، پر سائنس بابت عوامي سمجھ لاءِ به مسئلا پيدا ڪري ٿي. اسان وٽ اهڙو ڪو مقرر سائنسي طريقو ناهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري گڏ ٿي ان جو بچاءُ ڪري سگهون. |source=[[اسٽيون وائنبرگ]]، 1995ع<ref name="Weinberg 1995" />}} === علمياتي انتشار پسندي === {{Main|علمياتي انتشار پسندي}} {{anchor|noMethod}}[[پال فيئرابنڊ]] سائنس جي تاريخ جو جائزو ورتو ۽ ان نتيجي تي پهتو ته سائنس حقيقي معنيٰ ۾ ڪو طريقياتي عمل ناهي. هن پنهنجي 1975ع واري ڪتاب ''[[طريقي جي خلاف]]'' ۾ دليل ڏنو ته سائنسي طريقي جي ڪا به تشريح [[#critiquesOfFeyerabend|ايتري وسيع ٿي نٿي سگهي]]، جو سائنسدانن جي استعمال ڪيل سڀني اندازن ۽ طريقن کي پاڻ ۾ شامل ڪري سگهي، ۽ سائنس جي اڳڀرائيءَ کي هلائڻ لاءِ ڪي به ڪارائتا ۽ استثنا کان پاڪ [[طريقيات|طريقياتي قاعدا]] موجود ناهن. بنيادي طور هن چيو ته سائنس جي ڪنهن به مخصوص طريقي يا معيار لاءِ تاريخ مان اهڙو واقعو ملي سگهي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ان جي ڀڃڪڙي سائنس جي اڳڀرائيءَ ۾ حصو وڌو هجي. هن مذاق طور تجويز ڏني ته جيڪڏهن سائنسي طريقي جا حامي هڪڙو عالمگير طور صحيح قاعدو بيان ڪرڻ چاهين ته اهو ”[[#theTermSci|هر شيءِ هلي ٿي]]“ هجڻ گهرجي.<ref>[[پال فيئرابنڊ|Feyerabend, Paul K.]], ''Against Method, Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge'', 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, 1978. </ref> پر جيئن هن کان اڳ به دليل ڏنو ويو هو، اهو ڪفائتي ناهي؛ [[مسئلو حل ڪرڻ|مسئلو حل ڪندڙن]] ۽ محققن کي تحقيق دوران پنهنجن وسيلن جي محتاط استعمال ڪرڻ گهرجي.{{efn-ua|name= FRL-1.136 |{{harvp|Peirce|1899}} منطق جو پهريون قاعدو (F.R.L)<ref name= reasonsFirstRule /> پيراگراف 1.136: منطق جي پهرئين قاعدي موجب، جيڪڏهن اسان سچ پچ تحقيق جو مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ چاهيون ٿا ته پنهنجا وسيلا ضايع نه ڪرڻ گھرجن.<ref name=econ/><ref name= SuitableTest/> — [[ٽيرنس تائو]] لکيو ته سڀني طريقن کي ”هڪجهڙو موزون ۽ هڪجهڙن وسيلن جو حقدار“ نٿو سمجھي سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙا موقف ”رياضيات مان رخ ۽ مقصد جو احساس ختم ڪري ڇڏيندا“.<ref name= taoTime >{{cite journal | last=Tao | first=Terence | title=What is good mathematics? |url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2007-44-04/S0273-0979-07-01168-8/S0273-0979-07-01168-8.pdf |journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society |series=New Series |volume=44 |issue=4 |date=October 2007 |pages=623–634 | doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-07-01168-8 | arxiv=math/0702396 }}</ref>}} رسمي طريقي خلاف هڪ وڌيڪ عام نتيجو انهن تحقيقن مان پڻ نڪتو آهي، جن ۾ سائنسدانن کان طريقي بابت سندن تصور تي سوال جواب ڪيا ويا. هن تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو ته سائنسدانن کي اڪثر اهو طئي ڪرڻ ۾ ڏکيائي پيش اچي ٿي ته موجود شاهدي سندن مفروضن جي پٺڀرائي ڪري ٿي يا نه. ان مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته وسيع طريقياتي تصورن ۽ تحقيق هلائڻ جي درست حڪمت عملين وچ ۾ ڪي سادا ۽ سڌا لاڳاپا موجود ناهن.<ref name="Schickore Hangel 2019">{{cite journal | last1=Schickore | first1=Jutta | last2=Hangel | first2=Nora | title="It might be this, it should be that…" uncertainty and doubt in day-to-day research practice | journal=European Journal for Philosophy of Science | volume=9 | issue=2 | date=2019 | issn=1879-4912 | doi=10.1007/s13194-019-0253-9 | page=}}</ref> === تعليم === {{See also|تعليم جو فلسفو|سائنسي خواندگي}} [[سائنسي تعليم]] ۾ هڪ عام ۽ عالمگير سائنسي طريقي جو تصور نمايان طور اثرائتو رهيو آهي، ۽ آمريڪا ۾ ٿيل ڪيترين تحقيقن مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته طريقي جي اها صورت شاگردن توڙي استادن جي سائنس بابت تصور جو حصو بڻجندي رهي ٿي.<ref name="Aikenhead 1987 pp. 459–487">{{cite journal | last=Aikenhead | first=Glen S. | title=High-school graduates' beliefs about science-technology-society. III. Characteristics and limitations of scientific knowledge | journal=Science Education | volume=71 | issue=4 | date=1987 | issn=0036-8326 | doi=10.1002/sce.3730710402 | pages=459–487| bibcode=1987SciEd..71..459A }}</ref><ref name="Osborne Simon Collins 2003 pp. 1049–1079">{{cite journal | last1=Osborne | first1=Jonathan | last2=Simon | first2=Shirley | last3=Collins | first3=Sue | title=Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications | journal=International Journal of Science Education | volume=25 | issue=9 | date=2003 | issn=0950-0693 | doi=10.1080/0950069032000032199 | pages=1049–1079| bibcode=2003IJSEd..25.1049O }}</ref> سائنسدانن روايتي تعليم جي هن رواج جي مخالفت ڪئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ڳالهه تي اتفاق موجود آهي ته تعليم جا مرحليوار جزا ۽ سائنسي طريقي جو يڪجا تصور سائنسدانن جي حقيقي ڪم ڪرڻ جي طريقي جي نمائندگي نٿا ڪن.<ref name="Bauer 1992 p.">{{cite book | last=Bauer | first=Henry H. | title=Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method | publisher=University of Illinois Press | date=1992 | isbn=978-0-252-06436-4 | page=}}</ref><ref name="McComas 1996 pp. 10–16">{{cite journal | last=McComas | first=William F. | title=Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature of Science | journal=School Science and Mathematics | volume=96 | issue=1 | date=1996 | issn=0036-6803 | doi=10.1111/j.1949-8594.1996.tb10205.x | pages=10–16}}</ref><ref name="Wivagg 2002 pp. 645–646">{{cite journal | last=Wivagg | first=Dan | title=The Dogma of "The" Scientific Method | journal=The American Biology Teacher | volume=64 | issue=9 | date=2002-11-01 | issn=0002-7685 | doi=10.2307/4451400 | pages=645–646| jstor=4451400 }}</ref> سائنسدانن جون وڏيون تنظيمون، جهڙوڪ [[آمريڪي انجمن براءِ اڳڀرائي سائنس]]، سائنسن کي آزاد فنن واري سکيا جي روايتن جو حصو سمجھن ٿيون، ۽ سائنس جي صحيح سمجھ ۾ رڳو سائنس کي اڪيلو سمجھڻ بدران فلسفي ۽ تاريخ جي سمجھ پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> سائنسون ڄاڻ ڪيئن پيدا ڪن ٿيون، تنهن کي 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان ”سائنسي طريقي“، واحد صورت ۾، پڙهايو ويندو رهيو آهي. آمريڪا سميت مختلف تعليمي سرشتن سائنسي طريقي کي اهڙي عمل يا طريقيڪار طور پڙهايو، جيڪو مقرر مرحلن جي قطعي سلسلي ۾ ترتيب ڏنل هو:{{refn | روايتي طور ڊيوئي جي 1910ع واري ”سوچ جي مڪمل عمل“ واري تصور کان پوءِ پنج مرحلا هئا. سندس خيال ۾ اهو سوچڻ وارو عمل، تعليم لاءِ، سائنس جي بهترين نمائندگي ڪندو هو.<ref name="Rudolph2005">{{cite journal | last=Rudolph | first=John L. | title=Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The Scientific Method" in American Schools | journal=History of Education Quarterly | publisher=[History of Education Society, Wiley] | volume=45 | issue=3 | year=2005 | issn=0018-2680 | jstor=20461985 | pages=341–376, quote on 366 | doi=10.1111/j.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x | quote=ڇهين باب ۾، ڊيوئي ان شيءِ جو تجزيو ڪيو، جنهن کي هن ”سوچ جو مڪمل عمل“ سڏيو. هن لکيو ته اهڙو هر عمل هيٺين پنجن ”منطقي طور الڳ“ مرحلن تي مشتمل هوندو آهي: ”(i) ڪنهن ڏکيائيءَ جو احساس؛ (ii) ان جي جاءِ جي سڃاڻپ ۽ وصف؛ (iii) ممڪن حل جي تجويز؛ (iv) استدلال وسيلي تجويز جي نتيجن جي اوسر؛ [۽] (v) وڌيڪ مشاهدو ۽ تجربو، جيڪو ان جي قبوليت يا رد ٿيڻ ڏانهن وٺي وڃي.“"}}</ref> انهن مرحلن کي پوءِ سادو ۽ ترتيب ڏنو ويو، اڪثر چئن تائين گھٽايو ويو،<ref name="SpieceColosi2000"/> يا مختلف عمل شامل ڪري وڌايو ويو.<ref name="SchusterPowers2005"/>}} مشاهدو، مفروضو، اڳڪٿي، تجربو. سائنسي طريقي جو هي نمونو پرائمري ۽ سيڪنڊري تعليم سان گڏ حياتياتي طب جي سائنسن ۾ به گھڻي عرصي کان قائم معيار رهيو آهي.{{refn | خاص طور، سائنسي طريقو حياتيات،<ref name="SpieceColosi2000">{{cite journal | last1=Spiece | first1=Kelly R. | last2=Colosi | first2=Joseph | title=Redefining the "Scientific Method" | journal=The American Biology Teacher | volume=62 | issue=1 | date=1 January 2000 | issn=0002-7685 | jstor=4450823 | doi=10.2307/4450823 | pages=32–40}}</ref> طب،<ref name="SchusterPowers2005">{{cite book | last1=Schuster | first1=D.P. | last2=Powers | first2=W.J. | title=Translational and Experimental Clinical Research | publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7817-5565-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC&pg=PA3 | access-date=20 May 2024 | page=4}} Schuster & Powers hold that sources for research questions are: attempts to explain the cause of novel observations, verifying the predictions of existing theory, literature sources, and technology.</ref> ۽ نفسيات<ref name="StangorWalinga2014">{{cite book | last1=Stangor | first1=Charles | last2=Walinga | first2=Jennifer | author3=BC Open Textbook Project | author4=BCcampus | title=Introduction to psychology | publisher=BCcampus, BC Open Textbook Project | publication-place=[Victoria] | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-77420-005-6 | oclc=1014457300 | url=https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/2-1-psychologists-use-the-scientific-method-to-guide-their-research/}}</ref> جي تعارفي سائنسي ڪورسن، ۽ عام تعليم ۾ پڻ شامل رهيو آهي.}} گھڻي عرصي کان ان کي ڪن سائنسي تحقيقن جي جوڙجڪ جي هڪ غير درست مثالي صورت سمجھيو ويو آهي.<ref name="Rudolph2005"/> روايتي سائنسي تعليم تي تنقيد ڪئي وئي ته اها هڪ حد کان وڌيڪ سادي، واحد طريقيات پيش ڪري ٿي، تجربي تي ضرورت کان وڌيڪ زور ڏئي ٿي، سماجي پسمنظر کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿي، ۽ اهو تاثر ڏئي ٿي ته طريقياتي مرحلن مان ڄاڻ پاڻمرادو پيدا ٿئي ٿي.<ref name="Emden2021">{{cite journal | last=Emden | first=Markus | title=Reintroducing "the" Scientific Method to Introduce Scientific Inquiry in Schools?: A Cautioning Plea Not to Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater | journal=Science & Education | volume=30 | issue=5 | date=2021 | issn=0926-7220 | doi=10.1007/s11191-021-00235-w | pages=1037–1039| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="BrownKumar2013">{{cite journal | last1=Brown | first1=Ronald A. | last2=Kumar | first2=Alok | title=The Scientific Method: Reality or Myth? | journal=Journal of College Science Teaching | publisher=National Science Teachers Association | volume=42 | issue=4 | year=2013 | issn=0047-231X | jstor=43631913 | pages=10–11}}</ref> سائنسي طريقو هاڻي آمريڪا جي 2013ع وارن تعليمي معيارن، يعني [[ايندڙ نسل جا سائنسي معيار|اين جي ايس ايس]]، ۾ شامل ناهي، جن 1996ع وارن [[قومي سائنسي تعليمي معيار|اين آر سي معيارن]] جي جاءِ ورتي. انهن معيارن پڻ عالمي سائنسي تعليم تي اثر وڌو،<ref name="Emden2021"/> ۽ ماپ جا معيار پوءِ واحد مفروضي-جاچ واري طريقي کان هٽي سائنسي طريقن جي وڌيڪ وسيع تصور ڏانهن منتقل ٿيا آهن.<ref name="IoannidouErduran2021">{{cite journal | last1=Ioannidou | first1=Olga | last2=Erduran | first2=Sibel | title=Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific Methods in Science Teachers' Understanding | journal=Science & Education | volume=30 | issue=2 | date=2021 | issn=0926-7220 | pmid=34720429 | pmc=8550242 | doi=10.1007/s11191-020-00185-9 | pages=345–364}}</ref> اهي سائنسي طريقا، جيڪي علميات بدران سائنسي عملن ۾ پاڙون رکن ٿا، ٽن ''پاسن'' طور بيان ڪيا ويا آهن: سائنسي ۽ انجنيئرنگ عمل، آرپار لاڳو ٿيندڙ تصور يعني بين شعبائي خيال، ۽ شعبي جا بنيادي خيال.<ref name="Emden2021"/> سادو ۽ عالمگير وضاحتن سبب سائنسي طريقي کي اڪثر هڪ قسم جو ڏندڪٿائي درجو حاصل ٿيل سمجھيو وڃي ٿو؛ رابطي جي هڪ اوزار يا وڌ ۾ وڌ هڪ مثالي صورت طور.<ref name="Thurs2015"/><ref name="McComas 1996 pp. 10–16"/> تعليم جي هن طريقي تي جان ڊيوئي جي ''[[اسان ڪيئن سوچيون ٿا]]'' (1910ع) جو وڏو اثر پيو.<ref name="cowles" /> وان ڊر پلوگ (2016) نشاندهي ڪئي ته تعليم بابت ڊيوئي جي خيالن کي گھڻي عرصي کان ”صحتمند تعليم“ کان ڌار شهري تعليم جي تصور کي اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو، ۽ دعويٰ ڪئي ته اهڙن دليلن ۾ ڊيوئي جا حوالا سندس خيالن جون بيجا تشريحون هيون.<ref name="van der Ploeg 2016 pp. 145–159">{{cite journal | last=van der Ploeg | first=Piet | title=Dewey versus 'Dewey' on democracy and education | journal=Education, Citizenship and Social Justice | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=11 | issue=2 | date=8 June 2016 | issn=1746-1979 | doi=10.1177/1746197916648283 | pages=145–159| url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/44567891/1746197916648283.pdf }}</ref> == طريقي جون حدون == === دريافت ۾ اتفاق جو ڪردار === {{Main|سائنسي دريافتن ۾ اتفاق جو ڪردار}} [[File:Sample of penicillin mould presented by Alexander Fleming to Douglas Macleod, 1935 (9672239344).jpg|thumb|alt=کاٻو<!--#lefty anarchy-->|اتفاق سان ٿيل دريافت جو هڪ مشهور مثال [[اليگزينڊر فليمنگ]] جي [[اليگزينڊر فليمنگ#پينسلين جي دريافت|پينسلين جي دريافت]] آهي. سندس بيڪٽيريا جي هڪ ڪلچر ۾ ڦڦوند اچي وئي، جنهن جي چوڌاري بيڪٽيريا مري ويا هئا؛ اهڙيءَ طرح دريافت جو طريقو رڳو اهو ڄاڻڻ هو ته ڪهڙي ڳالهه تي ڌيان ڏيڻو آهي.<ref name="Tan & Tatsumura 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Sy |last2=Tatsumura |first2=Y |date=July 2015 |title=Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin |journal=Singapore Medical Journal |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=366–367 |doi=10.11622/smedj.2015105 |pmc=4520913 |pmid=26243971 |quote=An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores. Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel. He was able to isolate the mould and identified it as a member of the Penicillium genus.}}</ref>]] اندازو لڳايو ويو آهي ته سڀني [[سائنسي دريافت|سائنسي دريافتن]] مان لڳ ڀڳ 33 سيڪڙو کان 50 سيڪڙو دريافتون ڳولي لهڻ بدران اتفاق سان سامهون آيون. شايد اهو ئي سبب آهي جو سائنسدان اڪثر چون ٿا ته هو خوش نصيب هئا.<ref name=DunbarLuck>Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In M. E. Gorman, R.D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (eds.), ''Scientific and Technical Thinking''. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 57–79.</ref> 19هين ۽ 20هين صديءَ جي سائنسدانن پاڻ به دريافتن ۾ خوشگوار اتفاق يا اڻڄاتل خوش نصيبيءَ جي ڪردار کي تسليم ڪيو.<ref name="Serendip" /> [[لوئي پاسچر]] ڏانهن هي مشهور چوڻي منسوب ڪئي وڃي ٿي ته ”قسمت تيار ذهن جو ساٿ ڏئي ٿي“، پر ڪن نفسياتدانن سائنسي پسمنظر ۾ ”قسمت لاءِ تيار“ هجڻ جي معنيٰ جو اڀياس شروع ڪيو آهي. تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته سائنسدانن کي مختلف اهڙا رهنما ذهني طريقا سيکاريا وڃن ٿا، جيڪي اتفاق ۽ اڻڄاتل واقعن مان فائدو وٺڻ ۾ مدد ڪن ٿا.<ref name="DunbarLuck"/><ref name="Oliver, J.E. 1991">{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=J. E. |year=1991 |chapter=Ch. 2: Strategy for Discovery |title=The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery |place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07620-3}}</ref> [[نسيم نڪولس طالب]] هن کي ”ضد-نازڪيت“ سڏي ٿو؛ جتي ڪي تحقيقي سرشتا [[انساني غلطي]]، انساني لاڙي ۽ بي ترتيبيءَ آڏو نازڪ هوندا آهن، اتي سائنسي طريقو رڳو انهن جي مزاحمت ڪندڙ يا مضبوط نه هوندو آهي، پر ڪيترن طريقن سان اهڙي بي ترتيبيءَ مان فائدو به وٺندو آهي، يعني اهو ضد-نازڪ هوندو آهي. طالب جو خيال آهي ته سرشتو جيترو وڌيڪ ضد-نازڪ هوندو، اوترو ئي حقيقي دنيا ۾ وڌيڪ وڌندو ۽ سگهارو ٿيندو.<ref name=Anti-fragility>{{cite web |last=Taleb |first=Nassim N. |title=Antifragility — or — The Property Of Disorder-Loving Systems |url=http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html |archive-date=2013-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507124322/http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html}}</ref> {{anchor|startWithBugs}}نفسياتدان ڪيون ڊنبر جو چوڻ آهي ته دريافت جو عمل اڪثر تڏهن شروع ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن محقق پنهنجن تجربن ۾ خاميون ڳولين ٿا. اهي اڻڄاتل نتيجا محققن کي اها ڳالهه درست ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڏانهن وٺي وڃن ٿا، جنهن کي هو پنهنجي طريقي جي غلطي سمجھندا آهن. آخرڪار، محقق اهو فيصلو ڪري ٿو ته غلطي ايتري لڳاتار ۽ منظم آهي جو ان کي رڳو اتفاق نٿو چئي سگهجي. سائنسي طريقي جون سخت ضابطي هيٺ، محتاط ۽ تجسس ڀريون خاصيتون ئي ان کي اهڙين لڳاتار منظم غلطين جي سڃاڻپ لاءِ موزون بڻائين ٿيون. هن مرحلي تي محقق غلطيءَ جون نظرياتي وضاحتون سوچڻ شروع ڪندو، ۽ اڪثر مختلف ماهراڻن شعبن سان واسطو رکندڙ ساٿين کان مدد وٺندو.<ref name="DunbarLuck"/><ref name="Oliver, J.E. 1991"/> === شماريات سان لاڳاپو === جڏهن سائنسي طريقو شماريات کي پنهنجي اهم اوزارن مان هڪ طور استعمال ڪري ٿو، تڏهن اهڙا رياضياتي ۽ عملي مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي سائنسي طريقن جي نتيجن جي ڀروسي جوڳي هجڻ تي خراب اثر وجهن ٿا. اها ڳالهه 2005ع جي مشهور سائنسي مقالي ”[[ڇو گھڻا ڇپيل تحقيقي نتيجا غلط آهن]]“ ۾ [[جان آئيونيدس]] بيان ڪئي، جنهن کي [[مٿاسائنس]] جي شعبي لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکندڙ سمجھيو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="mostRwrong">{{Cite journal|title = Why Most Published Research Findings Are False|journal = PLOS Medicine|date = 2005-08-01|issn = 1549-1277|pmc = 1182327|pmid = 16060722|volume = 2|issue = 8|article-number = e124|doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124|first = John P.A.|last = Ioannidis | doi-access=free }}</ref> مٿاسائنس ۾ گھڻي تحقيق جو مقصد شماريات جي ناقص استعمال جي سڃاڻپ ۽ ان جي استعمال ۾ سڌارو آڻڻ آهي، جنهن جو هڪ مثال [[پي-قدرن جو غلط استعمال]] آهي.<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://pubs.asahq.org/anesthesiology/article/60/5/505/29253/Regarding-the-Misuse-of-t-Tests| title = Regarding the Misuse of ''t'' Tests| journal = Anesthesiology| date = May 1984| volume = 60| issue = 5| page = 505| doi = 10.1097/00000542-198405000-00026| last1 = Schaefer| first1 = Carl F| pmid = 6711862| access-date = 2021-08-29 | archive-date = 2021-08-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210829012031/https://pubs.asahq.org/anesthesiology/article/60/5/505/29253/Regarding-the-Misuse-of-t-Tests| url-status = live| doi-access = free}}</ref> اٿاريل نڪتا شمارياتي به آهن ۽ معاشي به. شمارياتي لحاظ کان، جڏهن اڀياس ننڍا هجن ۽ اڀياس جي جوڙجڪ، وصفن، نتيجن ۽ تجزياتي طريقن ۾ وڏي لچڪ موجود هجي، تڏهن تحقيقي نتيجن جي درست هجڻ جو امڪان گھٽجي ويندو آهي. معاشي لحاظ کان، انهن شعبن ۾ نتيجن جي ڀروسي جوڳي هجڻ گھٽجي ٿي، جتي مالي مفاد، لاڙا ۽ تحقيقي ٽولين وچ ۾ سخت مقابلو وڌيڪ هجي. ان ڪري مختلف تحقيقي جوڙجڪن ۽ سائنسي شعبن ۾ گھڻا تحقيقي نتيجا غلط سمجھيا وڃن ٿا، خاص طور جديد حياتياتي طب جي تحقيق ۾، جيڪا اڪثر اهڙن شعبن ۾ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جتي اڀياس کان اڳ ۽ پوءِ صحيح نتيجو ملڻ جا امڪان تمام گھٽ هوندا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، انهن ڏکيائين جي باوجود، گھڻيون نيون دريافتون اهڙي مفروضو پيدا ڪندڙ تحقيق مان ئي سامهون اينديون رهنديون، جيڪا اڀياس کان اڳ گھٽ يا تمام گھٽ امڪانن سان شروع ٿيندي آهي. ان مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته ڄاڻ جون حدون وڌائڻ لاءِ مکيه ڌارا کان ٻاهر وارن شعبن جي تحقيق ضروري هوندي، جتي شروعاتي طور ڪاميابيءَ جا امڪان تمام ڪمزور نظر اچي سگهن ٿا.<ref name="mostRwrong"/> === پيچيده سرشتن جي سائنس === پيچيده سرشتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ سائنس ۾ [[شعبن کان مٿانهين تحقيق]]، [[سرشتي جو نظريو]]، [[ضابطي جو نظريو#کليل چڪر ۽ بند چڪر (موٽ) ضابطو|ضابطي جو نظريو]] ۽ [[سائنسي نمونه سازي]] جهڙا عنصر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا. عام طور، گھڻ رخي، پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل سرشتن ۽ انگن اکرن جي وڏن مجموعن تي سائنسي طريقو سختيءَ سان لاڳو ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو. خاص طور، [[وڏا انگ اکر|وڏن انگن اکرن]] ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ طريقا، جهڙوڪ [[اڳڪٿي ڪندڙ تجزيو]]، سائنسي طريقي جي ابتڙ سمجھيا وڃي سگهن ٿا،<ref>Anderson, Chris (2008) [http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2008/anderson2008a.pdf The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502005844/http://www.uvm.edu/pdodds/files/papers/others/2008/anderson2008a.pdf |date=2021-05-02 }}. Wired Magazine 16.07</ref> ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انگن اکرن مان ڪي اهڙا پيرا ميٽر ڪڍيا ويا هوندا، جيڪي ڪنهن وضاحت بابت متبادل مفروضن لاءِ اهم ٿي سگهن ٿا؛ اهڙيءَ طرح صاف ڪيل انگ اکر اڳڪٿي ڪندڙ تجزيي ۾ رڳو [[صفري مفروضو|صفري مفروضي]] جي پٺڀرائي ڪندا. {{harvp| Fleck| 1979 |pp=38–50}} لکي ٿو ته ”هڪ [[#startWithBugs|سائنسي دريافت انهن سماجي عملن تي غور کان سواءِ اڻپوري رهي ٿي]]، جيڪي ان جي شڪل جو تعين ڪن ٿا.“<ref name= bigDataCanBeIncomplete>[[لوڊوڪ فليڪ]] (1979) ''[https://worldpece.org/sites/default/files/artifacts/media/pdf/fleck_et_al._-_2008_-_genesis_and_development_of_a_scientific_fact.pdf Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826194119/https://worldpece.org/sites/default/files/artifacts/media/pdf/fleck_et_al._-_2008_-_genesis_and_development_of_a_scientific_fact.pdf |date=2021-08-26 }}''</ref> == رياضيات سان لاڳاپو == سائنس، تجويز ڪيل نمونن کي [[مشاهدي لائق|مشاهدي لائق شين]] سان گڏ ڪرڻ، ڀيٽڻ ۽ پرکڻ جو عمل آهي. ڪو نمونو نقل، رياضياتي يا ڪيميائي مساوات، يا تجويز ڪيل مرحلن جو مجموعو ٿي سگهي ٿو. سائنس رياضيات سان ان لحاظ کان مشابهت رکي ٿي ته ٻنهي شعبن جا محقق دريافت جي هر مرحلي تي ''ڄاتل'' ۽ ''اڻڄاتل'' ڳالهين وچ ۾ فرق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن ٿا. سائنس ۽ رياضيات ٻنهي ۾ نمونن جو اندروني طور هڪجهڙو هجڻ ضروري آهي، ۽ انهن کي ''[[ترديد پذيري|ترديد پذير]]''، يعني غلط ثابت ڪري سگهڻ جوڳو، پڻ هجڻ گهرجي. رياضيات ۾ ڪنهن بيان جو اڃا ثابت ٿيل هجڻ ضروري ناهي؛ اهڙي مرحلي تي ان بيان کي [[گمان]] چيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{harvp|Pólya|1957|p=131}}، ”جديد [[رهنما طريقو|رهنما طريقي]]“ واري ڀاڱي ۾: ”جڏهن اسين گھڻي ڌيان سان ڪم ڪريون ٿا، تڏهن پنهنجي ڪم جي اڳڀرائيءَ کي شدت سان محسوس ڪريون ٿا؛ اڳڀرائي تيز هجي ته خوش ٿيندا آهيون، ۽ سست هجي ته مايوس ٿيندا آهيون.“</ref> رياضياتي ۽ سائنسي ڪم هڪ ٻئي لاءِ اتساهه جو سبب بڻجي سگهن ٿا.<ref name= ilSaggiatore > ”فلسفو [يعني طبيعيات] هن وڏي ڪتاب ۾ لکيل آهي—منهنجو مطلب ڪائنات آهي—جيڪو هميشه اسان جي نگاهه آڏو کليل آهي، پر ان کي تيستائين سمجھي نٿو سگهجي، جيستائين ماڻهو پهرين اها ٻولي ۽ اهي نشان سمجھڻ نه سکي، جن ۾ اهو لکيل آهي. اهو رياضيات جي ٻوليءَ ۾ لکيل آهي، ۽ ان جا نشان ٽڪنڊا، دائرا ۽ ٻيون جاميٽري شڪليون آهن، جن کان سواءِ انساني طور ان جو هڪ لفظ به سمجھڻ ناممڪن آهي؛ انهن کان سواءِ ماڻهو اونداهي ڀول ڀليان ۾ ڀٽڪندو رهي ٿو.“ — گليليو گليلي، ''Il Saggiatore'' (''[[پرکيندڙ]]''، 1623ع)، جيئن [[اسٽلمين ڊريڪ]] (1957ع)، ''Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo''، ص 237–238 ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، ۽ جيئن {{harvp|di Francia|1981|p=10}} ۾ حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي. </ref> مثال طور، [[وقت]] جو فني تصور [[سائنس]] ۾ پيدا ٿيو، جڏهن ته بي وقتي ڪنهن رياضياتي موضوع جي خاصيت هئي. پر اڄ [[پوانڪاري گمان]] کي وقت کي اهڙي رياضياتي تصور طور استعمال ڪندي ثابت ڪيو ويو آهي، جنهن ۾ شيون وهي سگهن ٿيون؛ ڏسو [[ريچي وهڪرو]].<ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Cao |first1=Huai-Dong |last2=Zhu |first2=Xi-Ping |title=Hamilton-Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture |date=2006 |eprint=math/0612069 }} *H.D. Cao ۽ X.P. Zhu جي ''Asian J. Math.''، '''10'''(2) (2006)، 165–492 مان نظرثاني ڪيل.</ref> تنهن هوندي به، رياضيات ۽ حقيقت، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح حقيقت جي وضاحت ڪندڙ حد تائين سائنس، وچ ۾ لاڳاپو اڃا به اڻچٽو آهي. [[يوجين وگنر]] جو مقالو ”[[فطري سائنسن ۾ رياضيات جي غيرمعمولي اثرائتي]]“ نوبل انعام ماڻيندڙ طبعياتدان پاران هن مسئلي جو هڪ تمام مشهور بيان آهي. حقيقت ۾، ڪن مبصرن، جن ۾ [[گريگوري چائٽن]] جهڙا مشهور رياضيدان ۽ ''[[رياضيات ڪٿان اچي ٿي]]'' جا ليکڪ لاڪاف ۽ نونيئز پڻ شامل آهن، تجويز ڪيو آهي ته رياضيات عملي ماڻهن جي لاڙي ۽ انساني حدن، جن ۾ ثقافتي حدون پڻ شامل آهن، جو نتيجو آهي؛ هي خيال ڪنهن حد تائين سائنس بابت جديديت کان پوءِ واري نظرئي سان مشابهت رکي ٿو.<ref name= WMCF >George Lakoff ۽ Rafael E. Núñez (2000) ''[[رياضيات ڪٿان اچي ٿي]]''</ref> [[جارج پوليا]] جو [[مسئلو حل ڪرڻ]] بابت ڪم،<ref name= findIt >”جيڪڏهن اوهان ڪنهن مسئلي کي حل نٿا ڪري سگهو، ته ڪو وڌيڪ سولو مسئلو موجود آهي، جنهن کي اوهان حل ڪري سگهو ٿا: ان کي ڳوليو.“ —{{harvp|Pólya|1957|p=114}}</ref> رياضياتي [[رياضياتي ثبوت|ثبوتن]] جي جوڙجڪ، ۽ [[رهنما طريقو|رهنما طريقن]] بابت سندس لکڻيون<ref> George Pólya (1954)، ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics''. </ref><ref> George Pólya (1954)، ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning''. </ref> ڏيکارين ٿيون ته رياضياتي طريقو ۽ سائنسي طريقو تفصيل ۾ مختلف آهن، جيتوڻيڪ ورجائتن يا بازگشتي مرحلن جي استعمال ۾ هڪ ٻئي سان مشابهت رکن ٿا. {| class="wikitable" |- | !scope="col"|[[ان کي ڪيئن حل ڪجي|رياضياتي طريقو]] !scope="col"|[[سائنسي طريقو]] |- !scope="row"|1 | [[سمجھ]] | [[خاصيتن جو تعين|تجربي ۽ مشاهدي مان خاصيتن جو تعين]] |- !scope="row"|2 | [[تجزيو]] | [[مفروضي جو جڙڻ|مفروضو: هڪ تجويز ڪيل وضاحت]] |- !scope="row"|3 | [[وڪيپيڊيا:ترڪيب|ترڪيب]] | [[مفروضي مان اڳڪٿي]] |- !scope="row"|4 | [[جائزو]]/[[عام ڪرڻ|واڌارو]] | [[تجربو|جاچ ۽ تجربو]] |} پوليا جي نظر ۾، ''سمجھ'' ۾ اڻواقف وصفن کي پنهنجن لفظن ۾ ٻيهر بيان ڪرڻ، جاميٽري شڪلين کان مدد وٺڻ، ۽ اهو پڇڻ شامل آهي ته اسان اڳ ۾ ڇا ڄاڻون ٿا ۽ ڇا نٿا ڄاڻون؛ ''تجزيو''، جنهن کي پوليا [[اسڪندريه جو پاپس|پاپس]] کان ورتو،{{sfn|Pólya|1957|p=142}} ممڪن دليلن جي آزاد ۽ رهنما جوڙجڪ، [[مقصد کان پوئتي ڪم ڪرڻ]]، ۽ ثبوت ٺاهڻ لاءِ رٿ جوڙڻ تي ٻڌل آهي؛ ''ترڪيب'' ثبوت جي مرحليوار تفصيلن جي سخت [[اقليدس|اقليدي]] پيشڪش آهي؛{{sfn|Pólya|1957|p=144}} ۽ ''جائزو'' نتيجي ۽ ان تائين پهچڻ لاءِ اختيار ڪيل واٽ تي ٻيهر ويچار ۽ ٻيهر جاچ ڪرڻ آهي. پوليا جي ڪم تي اڳتي وڌندي، [[امري لاڪاتوش]] دليل ڏنو ته رياضيدان پنهنجي ڪم کي سڌارڻ لاءِ حقيقت ۾ تضاد، تنقيد ۽ نظرثانيءَ کي اصولن طور استعمال ڪن ٿا.<ref>{{harvp|Lakatos|1976}} رياضيدانن جي ڪيترين نسلن وسيلي [[گهڻ سطحي جسمن لاءِ اويلر جو فارمولو|گهڻ سطحي جسمن بابت اويلر جي فارمولي]] جي اوسر کي دستاويز ڪري ٿو.</ref>{{efn-lg|name= stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré}} سائنس وانگر، جتي سچ جي ڳولا ڪئي وڃي ٿي پر قطعي يقين حاصل نٿو ٿئي، ''[[ثبوت ۽ ترديدون]]'' ۾ لاڪاتوش اهو ثابت ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ته [[غير رسمي رياضيات]] جو ڪو به قضيو آخري يا مڪمل ناهي. ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته غير مسلماتي رياضيات ۾ اسان کي اهو نه سمجھڻ گهرجي ته ڪو قضيو نيٺ سچو آهي، پر رڳو اهو ته اڃا تائين ڪو [[جوابي مثال]] نه مليو آهي. جڏهن ڪو جوابي مثال، يعني اهڙي شيءِ جيڪا قضيي جي ابتڙ هجي يا جنهن جي قضيو وضاحت نه ڪري، ملي وڃي ته اسين قضيي کي ترتيب ڏيون ٿا، ۽ ممڪن آهي ته ان جي درست هجڻ واري دائري کي وڌايون. اهڙيءَ طرح ثبوتن ۽ ترديدن جي منطق ۽ عمل وسيلي اسان جي ڄاڻ لڳاتار وڌندي رهي ٿي. (تنهن هوندي به، جيڪڏهن رياضيات جي ڪنهن شاخ لاءِ مسلمات ڏنا وڃن ته اهي هڪ منطقي سرشتو ٺاهين ٿا—وٽگنسٽائن 1921ع، ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' 5.13؛ لاڪاتوش دعويٰ ڪئي ته اهڙي سرشتي مان نڪرندڙ ثبوت [[حشو (منطق)|حشوي]]، يعني [[منطقي سچ|اندروني منطقي طور سچا]]، هوندا آهن، جيڪي [[سلسلي جي ٻيهر لکڻ وارو سرشتو|صورتن کي ٻيهر لکڻ]] وسيلي حاصل ٿين ٿا، جيئن پوانڪاري ڏيکاريو، جنهن حشوي طور سچين صورتن، يعني [[اويلر خاصيت]]، کي [[همولوچي (رياضيات)|همولوچي]] مان نڪرندڙ يا ان ۾ ويندڙ صورتن ۾ بدلائڻ جي ٽيڪنڪ ڏيکاري،<ref name= eulerPoincaré >[[ايڇ. ايس. ايم. ڪوڪسٽر]] (1973) ''[[با قاعده گهڻ سطحي جسم (ڪتاب)|با قاعده گهڻ سطحي جسم]]'' {{ISBN| 9780486614809}}، باب نائون ”اويلر جي فارمولي بابت پوانڪاري جو ثبوت“</ref> يا وڌيڪ تجريدي نموني [[همولوچيائي الجبرا]] مان.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/K-theory/0245/survey.pdf| author = [[چارلس اي. وائبل]] |date=c. 1995| title = History of Homological Algebra| access-date = 2021-08-28 | archive-date = 2021-09-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210906014123/https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/K-theory/0245/survey.pdf}}</ref><ref>Henri Poincaré, Sur l'[[Analysis Situs (paper)|analysis situs]], ''Comptes rendusde l'Academie des Sciences'' '''115''' (1892), 633–636، جيئن {{harvp| Lakatos| 1976 |p=162}} ۾ حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي.</ref>{{efn-lg|name= stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré|پوانڪاري جي [[اويلر خاصيت]] بابت ڪوششن تي اسٽل ويل جي جائزي (ص 381) ۾ ڄاڻايو ويو آهي ته پوانڪاري کي ''[[همولوچي گولو#پوانڪاري همولوچي گولو|پوانڪاري همولوچي گولي]]'' تائين پهچڻ لاءِ ''پنج'' ورجاءَ ڪرڻا پيا.<ref name= stillwell>John Stillwell، جائزو وٺندڙ (اپريل 2014). ''Notices of the AMS.'' '''61''' (4)، ص 378–383، Jeremy Gray جي (2013) ''Henri Poincaré: A Scientific Biography'' بابت ([http://www.ams.org/notices/201404/rnoti-p378.pdf PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704205514/http://www.ams.org/notices/201404/rnoti-p378.pdf |date=2021-07-04 }}).</ref>}} لاڪاتوش پوليا جي [[رهنما طريقو|رهنما طريقن]] واري تصور جي بنياد تي رياضياتي ڄاڻ جو بيان پيش ڪيو. ''ثبوت ۽ ترديدون'' ۾ لاڪاتوش گمانن لاءِ ثبوت ۽ جوابي مثال ڳولڻ جا ڪيترائي بنيادي قاعدا ڏنا. سندس خيال هو ته رياضياتي ”[[خيالي تجربو|خيالي تجربا]]“ رياضياتي گمانن ۽ ثبوتن جي دريافت جو هڪ صحيح طريقو آهن.{{sfn|Lakatos|1976|p=55}} [[ڪارل فريڊرش گائوس|گائوس]] کان جڏهن پڇيو ويو ته هو پنهنجن [[قضيو|قضين]] تائين ڪيئن پهتو، تڏهن هن هڪ ڀيرو جواب ڏنو: ”durch planmässiges Tattonieren“، يعني [[تعميريت (رياضيات)|منظم محسوساتي تجربن وسيلي]].{{sfn|Mackay|1991|p=100}} == پڻ ڏسو == * {{Annotated link|شاهديءَ تي ٻڌل عمل}}، ۽ [[منظم ايجادي سوچ]] (SIT) * [[سائنسي طريقي جو خاڪو]] * [[طريقيات]] (تحقيق جو اڀياس) ۽ سائنس جو سائنسي اڀياس ([[مٿاسائنس]]) * {{Annotated link|مقداري تحقيق}} * [[تحقيق ۾ شفافيت]] ۽ [[علمي لاڙو|لاڙو]] * {{Annotated link|سائنسي قانون}} * [[سائنسي پروٽوڪول]] * {{Annotated link|جاچ پذيري}} == حاشيا ۽ حوالا== {{Notelist|33em}} <references group="lower-greek"/> <references group="upper-alpha"/> === نوٽ: سائنسي طريقي وسيلي مسئلن جو حل<!--سائنسي طريقي جا مثال-->=== {{Notelist-ua|33em}} {{Notelist-lr|33em}} === نوٽ: طريقي جا فلسفياڻا اظهار === {{Notelist-lg|33em}} == حوالا == === حاشيا === {{Reflist}} === ماخذ === {{Refbegin|33em |indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last1=Alikuzai |first1=Hamid Wahed |title=A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes |date=2013 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4907-1446-2 |page= |edition= |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WRlAQAAQBAJ |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112737/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WRlAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{citation |last=Borlik |first=Todd Andrew |contribution='More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in ''Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay'' |title=The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ |editor-last=Hyman |editor-first=Wendy Beth |display-editors=0 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |location=Farnham |year = 2011 |isbn = 978-0-7546-6865-7 |contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ }} * {{Citation <!--CB-->|first=Max |last=Born |author-link=ميڪس بورن |year=1949 |title=Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance |url=https://ia601501.us.archive.org/1/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.204850/2015.204850.Natural-Philosophy_text.pdf |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford}}، ڊوور پاران 1964ع ۾ پڻ ڇپيل. 1948ع جي وينفليٽ ليڪچرن مان. 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Lawrence (مترجم)، MIT Press، Cambridge، MA، 1981. * [[رونالڊ اين. گيئر|Giere, Ronald N.]] (مرتب)، ''Cognitive Models of Science''، جلد 15، ''Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science''، University of Minnesota Press، Minneapolis، MN، 1992. * [[ايئن هيڪنگ|Hacking, Ian]]، ''Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science''، Cambridge University Press، Cambridge، 1983. * [[ويرنر هائزنبرگ|Heisenberg, Werner]]، ''Physics and Beyond, Encounters and Conversations''، A.J. Pomerans (مترجم)، Harper and Row، New York، 1971، ص&nbsp;63–64. * [[جيرالڊ هولٽن|Holton, Gerald]]، ''[[سائنسي سوچ جا موضوعاتي سرچشما: ڪيپلر کان آئنسٽائن تائين]]''، پهريون ڇاپو 1973ع، نظرثاني ٿيل ڇاپو، Harvard University Press، Cambridge، MA، 1988. * [[ڪارين ڪنور سيٽينا]]، {{cite book |last=Knorr Cetina |first=Karin |title=Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-674-25894-5 |title-link=علمياتي ثقافتون}} * [[ٿامس ايس. ڪون|Kuhn, Thomas S.]]، ''The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change''، University of Chicago Press، Chicago، IL، 1977. * [[برونو لاتور|Latour, Bruno]]، ''Science in Action, How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society''، Harvard University Press، Cambridge، MA، 1987. * Losee, John، ''A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science''، Oxford University Press، Oxford، 1972. ٻيون ڇاپو، 1980. * [[نڪولس ميڪسويل|Maxwell, Nicholas]]، ''The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science''، Oxford University Press، Oxford، 1998. پيپر بيڪ ڇاپو، 2003. * [[نڪولس ميڪسويل|Maxwell, Nicholas]]، [http://www.paragonhouse.com/xcart/Understanding-Scientific-Progress-Aim-Oriented-Empiricism.html ''Understanding Scientific Progress''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220210819/http://www.paragonhouse.com/xcart/Understanding-Scientific-Progress-Aim-Oriented-Empiricism.html |date=2018-02-20 }}، Paragon House، St. Paul، Minnesota، 2017. * {{cite web |editor-link=وليم ميڪومس |editor-last=McComas |editor-first=William F. |title=The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths |work=The Nature of Science in Science Education |pages=53–70 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |place=Netherlands |year=1998 |url=http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf |archive-date=2014-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701110930/http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf}} * [[شيرل ميسڪ|Misak, Cheryl J.]]، ''Truth and the End of Inquiry, A Peircean Account of Truth''، Oxford University Press، Oxford، 1991. * [[نائومي اوريسڪس|Oreskes, Naomi]]، “Masked Confusion: A trusted source of health information misleads the public by prioritizing rigor over reality”، ''[[سائنٽيفڪ آمريڪن]]''، جلد 329، شمارو 4، نومبر 2023، ص&nbsp;90–91. * Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (مرتب)، ''Language and Learning, The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky''، Harvard University Press، Cambridge، MA، 1980. * [[ڪارل آر. پوپر|Popper, Karl R.]]، ''Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography''، Open Court، La Salle، IL، 1982. * [[هيلري پٽنم|Putnam, Hilary]]، ''Renewing Philosophy''، Harvard University Press، Cambridge، MA، 1992. * [[رچرڊ رورٽي|Rorty, Richard]]، ''Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature''، Princeton University Press، Princeton، NJ، 1979. * [[ويسلي سي. سالمن|Salmon, Wesley C.]]، ''Four Decades of Scientific Explanation''، University of Minnesota Press، Minneapolis، MN، 1990. * [[ايبنر شيموني|Shimony, Abner]]، ''Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural Science and Metaphysics''، Cambridge University Press، Cambridge، 1993. * [[پال ٿاگارڊ|Thagard, Paul]]، ''Conceptual Revolutions''، Princeton University Press، Princeton، NJ، 1992. * [[جان زيمان|Ziman, John]] (2000). ''Real Science: what it is, and what it means''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{Refend}} == ٻاهريون ڳنڍڻا == {{Commons category}} {{Wikibooks|سائنسي طريقو}} {{Wikiversity|سائنسي نموني سوچڻ}} {{wikiquote}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=سائنسي طريقو}} * {{cite SEP |url-id=scientific-method |title=Scientific Method |last=Andersen |first=Hanne|author-link=هاني اينڊرسن (فلسفي)|last2=Hepburn |first2=Brian}} * {{cite IEP |url-id=conf-ind |title=Confirmation and Induction}} * {{PhilPapers|category|scientific-method}} * {{InPho|idea|1916}} * [http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/files/scientific-method.html سائنس جو تعارف: سائنسي سوچ ۽ سائنسي طريقو] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101173949/http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/files/scientific-method.html |date=2018-01-01 }}، اسٽيون ڊي. شيفرسمين پاران. * [[روچيسٽر يونيورسٽي]] وٽ [http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html سائنسي طريقي جو تعارف] * [http://zenodo.org/record/6336021#.YmafclMpBKM فلسفياڻي نظرئي کان سائنسي طريقو] * دي گليليئن لائبريري تي پال نيوئل پاران [http://www.galilean-library.org/theory.html نظريي سان ڀريل مشاهدو] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060428080832/http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/ganderson/es10/lectures/lecture01/lecture01.html گريگ اينڊرسن جو سائنسي طريقي بابت ليڪچر] (28 اپريل 2006ع تي محفوظ ڪيل) * [http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html سائنس ميلي جا منصوبا جوڙڻ لاءِ سائنسي طريقي جو استعمال] * [http://emotionalcompetency.com/sci/booktoc.html رچرڊ ڊي. جيرارڊ جو آن لائين ڪتاب ''Scientific Methods''] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b240PGCMwV0 سائنس جي ڪنجي بابت رچرڊ فائنمين]، ڪارنيل ليڪچرن مان، هڪ منٽ ۽ ٽي سيڪنڊ. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511083452/http://www.dbskeptic.com/2010/03/14/what-it-means-to-be-scientifically-proven/ سائنسي طريقي بابت ليڪچر]، نڪ جوش ڪريئن، [[ڪيون پيڊين]]، [[مائيڪل شرمر]] ۽ [[رچرڊ ڊاڪنس]] پاران (11 مئي 2013ع تي محفوظ ڪيل). * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yk5IWzTfWeM ”اسان ڪيئن ڄاڻون ٿا ته ڇا سچ آهي؟“] (متحرڪ وڊيو؛ 2:52) {{سائنس جو فلسفو}} {{سائنس ۽ ٽيڪنالاجيءَ جا اڀياس}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Scientific Method}} [[زمرو:سائنسي طريقو| ]] [[زمرو:سائنسي انقلاب|طريقو]] [[زمرو:سائنس جو فلسفو]] [[زمرو:تجربيت]] <references group="lower-alpha"/> <references group="lower-roman"/> tktxtedstvprfk5n09pna7inw5o7fyt ست سري 0 40494 394585 170583 2026-07-15T12:43:20Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394585 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ست سري''' [[سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] ۽ [[لوڪ شاعري]] جي هڪ صنف آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ ئي [[بيت]] اندر سنڌ جي مشهور رومانوي داستانن سان لاڳاپيل ستن سرن يا موضوعن جو گڏيل ذڪر ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي بيت ۾ مختلف عشقيه داستانن جي ڪردارن، واقعن يا علامتن کي هڪ ئي شاعراڻي ترتيب سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي '''ست سري بيت''' چيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ست سري بيتن ۾ عام طور سنڌ جي مشهور لوڪ داستانن، جهڙوڪ [[مومل راڻو]]، [[سسئي پنهون]]، [[ڀوري ڦل وڌو]]، [[بوبنا جراڙ]]، [[ليلا چنيسر]]، [[سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] ۽ [[نوري ڄام تماچي]] سان لاڳاپيل سرن ۽ ڪردارن جا حوالا گڏيل انداز ۾ بيان ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙي صنف شاعر جي فني مهارت، لوڪ داستانن تي عبور ۽ مختلف موضوعن کي هڪ ئي بيت ۾ هم آهنگ ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت جو اظهار سمجهي ويندي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} elvq4sl7guchkapvk4iqf787ytjeo8f 394586 394585 2026-07-15T12:44:15Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394586 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ست سري''' [[سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] ۽ [[لوڪ شاعري]] جي هڪ صنف آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ ئي [[بيت]] اندر سنڌ جي مشهور رومانوي داستانن سان لاڳاپيل ستن سرن يا موضوعن جو گڏيل ذڪر ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي بيت ۾ مختلف عشقيه داستانن جي ڪردارن، واقعن يا علامتن کي هڪ ئي شاعراڻي ترتيب سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي '''ست سري بيت''' چيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ست سري بيتن ۾ عام طور سنڌ جي مشهور لوڪ داستانن، جهڙوڪ [[مومل راڻو]]، [[سسئي پنهون]]، [[ڀوري ڦل وڌو]]، [[بوبنا جراڙ]]، [[ليلا چنيسر]]، [[سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] ۽ [[نوري ڄام تماچي]] سان لاڳاپيل سرن ۽ ڪردارن جا حوالا گڏيل انداز ۾ بيان ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙي صنف شاعر جي فني مهارت، لوڪ داستانن تي عبور ۽ مختلف موضوعن کي هڪ ئي بيت ۾ هم آهنگ ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت جو اظهار سمجهي ويندي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == * [[سر مومل راڻو]] * [[سر سسئي پنهون]] * [[سر ڀوري ڦل وڌو]] * [[سر بوبنا جراڙ]] * [[سر ليلا چنيسر]] * [[سر سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] * [[سر نوري ڄام تماچي]] * [[بيت]] * [[سنڌي لوڪ شاعري]] * [[سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} sqvzxg0f4kowmgeeo7aajposw8i6kbd 394587 394586 2026-07-15T12:45:33Z Intisar Ali 8681 394587 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ست سري''' [[سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] ۽ [[لوڪ شاعري]] جي هڪ صنف آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ ئي [[بيت]] اندر سنڌ جي مشهور رومانوي داستانن سان لاڳاپيل ستن سرن يا موضوعن جو گڏيل ذڪر ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي بيت ۾ مختلف عشقيه داستانن جي ڪردارن، واقعن يا علامتن کي هڪ ئي شاعراڻي ترتيب سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي '''ست سري بيت''' چيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ست سري بيتن ۾ عام طور سنڌ جي مشهور لوڪ داستانن، جهڙوڪ [[مومل راڻو]]، [[سسئي پنهون]]، [[ڀوري ڦل وڌو]]، [[بوبنا جراڙ]]، [[ليلا چنيسر]]، [[سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] ۽ [[نوري ڄام تماچي]] سان لاڳاپيل سرن ۽ ڪردارن جا حوالا گڏيل انداز ۾ بيان ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙي صنف شاعر جي فني مهارت، لوڪ داستانن تي عبور ۽ مختلف موضوعن کي هڪ ئي بيت ۾ هم آهنگ ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت جو اظهار سمجهي ويندي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ''ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت''؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == * [[ سر مومل راڻو]] * [[سر سسئي پنهون]] * [[سر ڀوري ڦل وڌو]] * [[سر بوبنا جراڙ]] * [[سر ليلا چنيسر]] * [[سر سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] * [[سر نوري ڄام تماچي]] * [[بيت]] * [[سنڌي لوڪ شاعري]] * [[سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} jv83wkuz3xjhevqqa3vkcfoim12shgd ڪجليو 0 40687 394583 161395 2026-07-15T12:33:50Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394583 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ڪجليو''' (Kajlio) لوڪ گيت، هونئن تہ هڪ مخصوص رومانوي رنگ ۾ بيان ٿيل هوندو آهي. ”ڪجليو“ ٿر پاسي جو نهايت مقبول عوامي گيت آهي. تاريخي اعتبار کان هن گيت جو ننگر پارڪرجي علائقي ۾ بنياد پيل ٿو ڀانئجي: {{quote|”ڪارا ڪجليو ٿي گان، ڙي ڪارا ڪجليو ٿي گان“. <ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref>|}} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} c0dowyv947df670f2di4epvnaq541ww 394584 394583 2026-07-15T12:38:45Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394584 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ڪجليو''' (Kajlio) لوڪ گيت، هونئن تہ هڪ مخصوص رومانوي رنگ ۾ بيان ٿيل هوندو آهي. ”ڪجليو“ ٿر پاسي جو نهايت مقبول عوامي گيت آهي. تاريخي اعتبار کان هن گيت جو ننگر پارڪرجي علائقي ۾ بنياد پيل ٿو ڀانئجي: {{quote|”ڪارا ڪجليو ٿي گان، ڙي ڪارا ڪجليو ٿي گان“. <ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref>|}} == موضوع ۽ انداز == '''ڪجليو''' بنيادي طور هڪ رومانوي [[لوڪ گيت]] آهي، جنهن ۾ محبت، وڇوڙو، انتظار ۽ فراق جا احساس شاعرانه انداز ۾ بيان ڪيا ويندا آهن. هي گيت ٿري لهجي ۽ لوڪ ڌنن ۾ ڳايو ويندو آهي ۽ پنهنجي سادي ٻولي ۽ جذباتي اظهار سبب ٿر جي لوڪ موسيقيءَ ۾ نمايان حيثيت رکي ٿو. == روايت ۽ ثقافتي اهميت == [[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا]] موجب، ڪجليو ٿر جي لوڪ ادب ۽ ثقافت جو هڪ اهم جزو آهي. هن گيت ۾ عام طور "ڪارا!" يا "ڪاري نان ڪجليو ٿي گان" جهڙيون وراڻيون استعمال ٿينديون آهن، جيڪي لوڪ ڌنن سان گڏ ڳايون وينديون آهن ۽ گيت جي سڃاڻپ بڻجي چڪيون آهن.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا |entry=ڪجليو (گيت) |publisher=سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي }}</ref> هڪ مشهور روايت موجب، '''ڪجليو''' ٻن محبت ڪندڙن جي فراق جي پسمنظر ۾ وجود ۾ آيو. چيو وڃي ٿو ته [[نگرپارڪر]] تعلقي جي [[تارياڻو]] ڳوٺ ۾ ''ڪارينڌو'' پاڙي جو هڪ ڀيل، جنهن جو نالو '''ڪارو''' هو، هڪ عورت سان محبت ڪندو هو. مقامي ماڻهن ان رشتي کي ناپسند ڪيو ۽ ڪنهن بهاني سان ڪاري کي قيد ڪرائي ڇڏيو. ان کان پوءِ سندس محبوبه فراق جي درد ۾ ''ڪجليو'' ڳايو، جنهن جون ڪجهه اصل سٽون ان واقعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿيون. وقت گذرڻ سان گڏ هن گيت ۾ ٻين موضوعن ۽ موقعن سان لاڳاپيل سٽن جو پڻ اضافو ٿيندو رهيو.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا |entry=ڪجليو (گيت) |publisher=سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي }}</ref> ڪجليو بنيادي طور ٿري محاوري ۾ چيو ويو آهي، پر مختلف علائقن ۾ رائج روايتن سبب ان جي ٻوليءَ ۽ سٽن ۾ تبديليون پڻ آيون آهن. مثال طور، لاڙ مان مليل هڪ روايت ۾ هيءَ مصرع شامل آهي: {{Quotation| سنڌڻ جُتي پير ۾، پير جوتيءَ جان. }} محققن موجب، اها مصرع بعد ۾ هن گيت ۾ شامل ٿي آهي.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا |entry=ڪجليو (گيت) |publisher=سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي }}</ref> == مشهور وراڻيون == ڪجليي جون هيٺيون وراڻيون سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور آهن: * ''ڪارا! ڪجليو ٿي گان، ڙي ڪارا! ڪجليو ٿي گان.'' * ''ڪاري نان ڪجليو ٿي گان، ڪاري نان ڪجليو ٿي گان.'' == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 9tpygslyy64kymizynulk77mwjd2ndy مارئي 0 40776 394781 394455 2026-07-16T09:39:05Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394781 wikitext text/x-wiki '''مارئي''' (''Marui'') [[عمر مارئي|عمر-مارئي]] جي مرڪزي عورت ڪردار. شاھ جي سورمي، جنهن کي شاھ عورت جي عظمت، وطن جي حب ۽ قومپرستيءَ جي لاءِ تمثيلي طور بيان ڪيو آهي. مارئي ٿر جي غريب نينگري هئي، جنهن کي عمر (حڪمران) زوريءَ کڻي ويو ۽ لالچون ڏئي شادي ڪرڻ پئي چاهي. پر هن جي انڪار کيس امر ڪري ڇڏيو. شاھ لطيف ڪلاسيڪي شاعرن مارئيءَ جي حب الوطنيءَ واري داستان کي ڳائي کيس حب الوطنيءَ جي علامت بنائي ڇڏيو آهي. هي قصو سومرن جي دور سان منسوب آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> هن لوڪ داستان جي مرڪزي ڪردار '''مارئي''' آهي، جيڪا [[ٿرپارڪر]] جي هڪ نوجوان ڇوڪري هئي. روايت موجب [[عمر سومرو]]، جيڪو ان وقت [[عمرڪوٽ]] جو حاڪم هو، سندس حسن کان متاثر ٿي کيس اغوا ڪري ويو ۽ ساڻس شادي ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي. مارئي انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب کيس [[عمرڪوٽ قلعو|عمرڪوٽ جي قلعي]] ۾ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين قيد رکيو ويو. پنهنجي وطن سان بي مثال وفاداري، ثابت قدمي ۽ جرئت سبب مارئي سنڌي لوڪ ادب ۾ وطن سان محبت ۽ حب الوطنيءَ جي علامت طور سڃاتي وڃي ٿي.<ref name="ShahLatif">{{citation | title= Shah Jo Risalo | author = Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai | url = https://bhurgri.com/bhurgri/amar/%D8%B3%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A/}}</ref> ==بڻ بنياد== عمر مارئي جو داستان سڀ کان پهرين [[شاهه عبدالڪريم بلڙي وارو|شاهه عبدالڪريم بلڙي واري]] جي ڪتاب '''بيان العارفين'''، جيڪو سنڌين ۾ '''ڪريم جو رسالو''' جي نالي سان مشهور آهي، ۾ ملي ٿو. شاهه عبدالڪريم، [[شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائي]] جا پڙڏاڏا هئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oMhmKS73XtIC&q=schimmel+bulri&pg=PA12|title=Sindhi Literature|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|date=1974|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01560-8|language=en}}</ref> هي داستان پوءِ [[شاهه جو رسالو|شاهه جي رسالي]] ۾ شامل ٿيو ۽ سنڌ جي مشهور ستن الميي واري عشقيه داستانن مان هڪ بڻيو. ٻين مشهور داستانن ۾ [[سسئي پنهون]]، [[سهڻي ميهار]]، [[ليلا چنيسر]]، [[نوري ڄام تماچي]]، [[سورٺ راءِ ڏياچ]] ۽ [[مومل راڻو]] شامل آهن. اهي سڀئي داستان گڏيل طور '''سنڌ جون ست سورميون''' يا '''شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائي جون ست سورميون''' سڏجن ٿيون. هي داستان [[تاريخ طاهري]] (1030هه/1621ع) ۽ [[تحفة الڪرام]] (1180–1181هه/1766–1767ع) ۾ پڻ درج ٿيل آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[نبي بخش بلوچ|بلوچ]] |first=نبي بخش |url=https://www.google.com.pk/books/edition/Folklore_of_Sindh/b-24rQEACAAJ?hl=en |title=Folklore of Sindh: Anthology of Prefaces |date=2014 |publisher=[[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]] |pages=315 |language=en}}</ref> محققن جي راءِ موجب عمر مارئي جو داستان غالباً [[سومرا خاندان|سومرن جي دور]] (1050ع–1350ع) ۾ وجود ۾ آيو.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[نبي بخش بلوچ|بلوچ]] |first=نبي بخش |url=https://www.google.com.pk/books/edition/Folklore_of_Sindh/b-24rQEACAAJ?hl=en |title=Folklore of Sindh: Anthology of Prefaces |date=2014 |publisher=[[سنڌي ادبي بورڊ]] |pages=315 |language=en}}</ref> ==مقبول ثقافت ۾== * [[پاڪستان ٽيليويزن ڪارپوريشن]] 1993ع ۾ ''[[مارئي (ڌاراوار ڊرامو)|مارئي]]'' نالي هڪ ڌاراوار ڊرامو نشر ڪيو، جيڪو عمر ۽ مارئي جي داستان کي جديد پسمنظر ۾ پيش ڪري ٿو. هن ڊرامي ۾ [[غزال صديقي]] مارئي ۽ [[حسام قاضي]] عمر جو ڪردار ادا ڪيو. * ''[[عمر مارئي (فلم)|عمر مارئي]]'' پاڪستاني سنڌي فلم آهي، جيڪا هن لوڪ داستان تي ٻڌل آهي. ان جي تياري [[سيد حسين علي شاهه فاضلاڻي]] ڪئي، هدايت [[شيخ حسن]] ڏني، جڏهن ته اداڪارن ۾ [[سيد حسين علي شاهه فاضلاڻي]]، [[نگهت سلطانه]]، [[نور محمد چارلي]] ۽ [[ببو]] شامل هئا. هي فلم 12 مارچ 1956ع تي رليز ٿي ۽ پاڪستان ۾ ٺهندڙ پهرين سنڌي فيچر فلم هئي. * ''عمر مارئي'' هندستاني سنڌي اديب ۽ ڊراما نويس [[رام پنجواڻي]] جو لکيل سنڌي ناٽڪ آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drama - Professor Ram Panjwani|url=http://rampanjwani.com/Drama|access-date=2020-11-07|website=rampanjwani.com}}</ref> * ''[[آئي آئي]]''، [[ڪوڪ اسٽوڊيو پاڪستان (سيزن 15)|ڪوڪ اسٽوڊيو پاڪستان جي پندرهين سيزن]] جو هڪ سنڌي گيت، عمر مارئي جي داستان کان متاثر آهي.{{cn|date=May 2026}} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== * [http://www.museindia.com/focuscontent.asp?issid=39&id=2813 "عمر مارئي: حب الوطنيءَ جي علامت"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121255/http://www.museindia.com/focuscontent.asp?issid=39&id=2813 |date=2016-03-04 }}، ''Muse India''، شمارو 39، سيپٽمبر–آڪٽوبر 2011. * [http://bhurgri.com/bhurgri/sd_shah_marui.php [[سر مارئي]]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425040846/http://www.bhurgri.com/bhurgri/sd_shah_marui.php |date=2011-04-25 }}، [[شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائي]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019173003/http://geocities.com/thebhittai/lateef28.html [[سر مارئي]]] جو انگريزي ترجمو، [[ايلسا قاضي]]. * [http://www.pakistanitvdrama.com/tag/noor-muhammad-lashari ''عمر مارئي'' تي ٻڌل ٽيليويزن ڊرامو] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425040846/http://www.bhurgri.com/bhurgri/sd_shah_marui.php |date=2011-04-25 }} [[زمرو:عشقيه لوڪ ڪهاڻيون]] [[زمرو:سنڌي لوڪ ادب]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني ادب]] [[زمرو:پاڪستاني لوڪ ادب]] [[زمرو:شاھ جو رسالو]] n30tcjjac0t30yy2q1lou1tlxsc4ogr مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري 0 40804 394628 171038 2026-07-15T14:46:21Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394628 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|روايتي رزميہ ادب جي طنزيه پيروڊي}} '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' (انگريزي: ''Mock-heroic''، ''Mock-epic'' يا ''Heroi-comic'') ادب جي اها صنف آهي، جيڪا [[طنز]] يا [[پيروڊي]] جي صورت ۾ روايتي [[رزميہ شاعري|رزميہ ادب]] ۽ هيرن جي بلند اسلوب، ٻولي ۽ پيشڪش جو مزاحيه نموني نقل ڪري ٿي. هن صنف ۾ عام طور ڪنهن معمولي يا غير اهم موضوع کي رزميہ عظمت سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، يا ڪنهن بيوقوف، معمولي يا غير متوقع ڪردار کي هيرو جي حيثيت ڏني ويندي آهي، جنهن سان رزميہ ادب جي روايتي اسلوب تي طنز ۽ مزاح پيدا ٿئي ٿو. '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' جنهن ۾ پڙهندڙن جي تفريح طبع لاءِ مزاح جو عنصر موجود هجي يا جنهن ۾ ڪنهن جي مڪمل رزميہ شاعري جواب ۾ مزاحيہ شاعري ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي مذاق اڏائي وڃي. سنڌيءَ ۾ [[شمس الدين بلبل]] مزاحيہ شاعر ڪئي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} eewshq4duqplj86dtdf3px6wv3wi8ka 394631 394628 2026-07-15T14:54:55Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394631 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|روايتي رزميہ ادب جي طنزيه پيروڊي}} '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' (انگريزي: ''Mock-heroic''، ''Mock-epic'' يا ''Heroi-comic'') ادب جي اها صنف آهي، جيڪا [[طنز]] يا [[پيروڊي]] جي صورت ۾ روايتي [[رزميہ شاعري|رزميہ ادب]] ۽ هيرن جي بلند اسلوب، ٻولي ۽ پيشڪش جو مزاحيه نموني نقل ڪري ٿي. هن صنف ۾ عام طور ڪنهن معمولي يا غير اهم موضوع کي رزميہ عظمت سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، يا ڪنهن بيوقوف، معمولي يا غير متوقع ڪردار کي هيرو جي حيثيت ڏني ويندي آهي، جنهن سان رزميہ ادب جي روايتي اسلوب تي طنز ۽ مزاح پيدا ٿئي ٿو. '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' جنهن ۾ پڙهندڙن جي تفريح طبع لاءِ مزاح جو عنصر موجود هجي يا جنهن ۾ ڪنهن جي مڪمل رزميہ شاعري جواب ۾ مزاحيہ شاعري ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي مذاق اڏائي وڃي. سنڌيءَ ۾ [[شمس الدين بلبل]] مزاحيہ شاعر ڪئي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ==تاريخ== تاريخي طور تي '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' جو اسلوب سترهين صديءَ دوران اٽلي ۾ وڏي مقبوليت ماڻي، جڏهن ته برطانيا ۾ [[انگريزي بحالي وارو دور]] ۽ [[آگسٽن ادب]] جي زماني ۾ پڻ هن صنف وڏي ترقي ڪئي. هن صنف جو سڀ کان قديم معلوم مثال ''[[ڏيڏرن ۽ ڪوئن جي جنگ (نظم)|ڏيڏرن ۽ ڪوئن جي جنگ]]'' آهي، جنهن کي رومي عالمن [[هومر]] سان منسوب ڪيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها سندس رزميہ شاعري جي پيروڊي هئي. بهرحال، اڪثر جديد محققن جو خيال آهي ته اها تصنيف [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي دور ۾ ڪنهن گمنام شاعر جي لکيل آهي. يورپ ۾ نون ادبي رجحانن جي اُڀار سان طنزيه ادب پراڻين ادبي روايتن ۽ سماجي قدرن تي تنقيد جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. اسپين جي [[پڪارسڪ ناول]] ۽ فرانس جي [[برليسڪ ناول]] سان گڏ اٽلي ۾ ''poema eroicomico'' (مزاحيہ رزميہ نظم) جي صنف وجود ۾ آئي. هن صنف جا شاعر روايتي رزميہ شاعري جي ساڳي بحر، لغت، بيان ۽ فصاحت کي برقرار رکندا هئا، پر رزميہ موضوعن بدران روزمره جي واقعن ۽ معمولي ڪردارن کي موضوع بڻائي انهن ذريعي قديم رزميہ ادب تي طنز ڪندا هئا. [[فرانسيسڪو براچيوليني]] جو 1618ع ۾ شايع ٿيل ''Lo scherno degli dèi'' ("ديوتائن جو تمسخر") اڪثر پهريون اطالوي مزاحيہ رزميہ نظم شمار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[اليساندرو تاسوني]] جو ''[[لا سيخيا راپيٽا]]'' ("چورايل ڏول") (1622ع) هن صنف جو سڀ کان مشهور شاهڪار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. اٽلي ۾ هن صنف جون ٻيون به ڪيتريون ئي اهم تصنيفون منظرعام تي آيون، جن ۾ [[جيرولامو امي لونگي]] جي ''لا جيگانتيئا'' (''La Gigantea'')، [[جيوواني باتيستا لالي]] جي ''لا موسڪيئيڊي'' (''La moscheide'')، [[انتونيو ابوندانتي]] جي ''وياجو دي ڪولونيا'' (''Viaggio di Colonia'')، [[ڪارلو ڊي ڊوٽوري]] جي ''لاسينو'' (''L'asino'')، [[لوريتو ويتوري]] جي ''لا ٽرويا راپيتا'' (''La Troja rapita'')، [[لورينزو لپي]] جي ''اِل مالمانتيلي راڪُوئيستاتو'' (''Il Malmantile racquistato'') ۽ [[ايپوليٽو نيري]] جي ''لا پريزا دي سان مينياتو'' (''La presa di San Miniato'') شامل آهن. هيءَ صنف اطالوي مقامي لهجن ۾ پڻ ترقي ڪئي. [[نيپولٽن لهجو]] ۾ [[جوليو چيزارے ڪورتيزي]] جو ''لا وائاسئيڊي'' (''La Vaiasseide'') سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف آهي، جڏهن ته [[رومانسڪو لهجو]] ۾ [[جيوواني ڪاميليو پيريسيو]] جو ''اِل ماجيو رومانيسڪو'' (''Il maggio romanesco'')، [[جوسيپي برنيري]] جو ''ميو پاتاڪا'' (''Meo Patacca'') ۽ [[بينيڊيٽو ميڪيلي]] جو ''لا ليبرتا رومانا آڪُوئيستاتا اي ديفيسا'' (''La libbertà romana acquistata e defensa'') هن صنف جا اهم نمونا آهن. [[ميگوئل ڊي ثيروانتس]] جي ''[[ڊان ڪهوٽي]]'' جي انگريزي ترجمي کان پوءِ انگريزي اديبن رزميہ شاعري ۽ رزميہ داستانن جي مبالغي آميز ٻوليءَ کي عام ۽ معمولي ڪردارن جي بيان لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جي انگريزي روايت جي شروعات عام طور [[سيميوئل بٽلر]] جي ''هيوڊيبرس'' (''Hudibras'') (1662ع–1674ع) سان ڳنڍي ويندي آهي. هن نظم ۾ انگريزي گهرو ويڙهه واري دور جي هڪ پيوٽن سورمي کي رزميہ انداز ۾ پيش ڪري طنز ۽ مزاح پيدا ڪيو ويو. هن نظم مان ''هيوڊيبراسٽڪ'' (''Hudibrastic'') نالي هڪ مخصوص شعري اسلوب پڻ وجود ۾ آيو. [[جان ڊرائيڊن]] بحاليءَ واري دور ۾ مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جي ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. سندس ''ميڪ فليڪنو'' (''Mac Flecknoe'') هن صنف جو معياري نمونو شمار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ [[ورجل]] جي ''[[اينيئڊ]]'' جي رزميہ ٻولي استعمال ڪندي [[ٿامس شيڊويل]] تي طنز ڪيو ويو آهي. سترهين ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ دوران هيءَ صنف وڌيڪ ترقي ڪندي رهي. ان دور جو سڀ کان نمايان شاعر [[اليگزينڊر پوپ]] هو، جنهن جي ''دي ريپ آف دي لاڪ'' (''The Rape of the Lock'') کي انگريزي مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جو شاهڪار تصور ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هن نظم ۾ [[هومر]] جي ''[[الياذ]]'' ۽ [[ورجل]] جي ''[[اينيئڊ]]'' جي رزميہ اسلوب، بحر، ڪانٽو، ميوز کي سڏ، جنگي منظرن ۽ ٻين رزميہ روايتن کي هڪ معمولي سماجي واقعي سان جوڙي طنزيه انداز اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. پوپ پنهنجي ٻي تصنيف ''دي ڊنسيئڊ'' (''The Dunciad'') ۾ پڻ رزميہ اسلوب وسيلي معمولي موضوعن کي طنز جو نشانو بڻايو. ان کان سواءِ [[جان گي]] جون ''ٽريويا'' (''Trivia'') ۽ ''بيگرز اوپيرا'' (''Beggar's Opera'')، ۽ [[سيميوئل جانسن]] جو ''لنڊن'' (''London'') پڻ مزاحيہ رزميہ ادب جا اهم مثال شمار ٿين ٿا. == حوالا == {{حوالا}} cltxzgbkkfh33fj37xufrmrptr8joz8 394633 394631 2026-07-15T14:55:52Z Intisar Ali 8681 394633 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|روايتي رزميہ ادب جي طنزيه پيروڊي}} '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' (انگريزي: ''Mock-heroic''، ''Mock-epic'' يا ''Heroi-comic'') ادب جي اها صنف آهي، جيڪا [[طنز]] يا [[پيروڊي]] جي صورت ۾ روايتي [[رزميہ شاعري|رزميہ ادب]] ۽ هيرن جي بلند اسلوب، ٻولي ۽ پيشڪش جو مزاحيه نموني نقل ڪري ٿي. هن صنف ۾ عام طور ڪنهن معمولي يا غير اهم موضوع کي رزميہ عظمت سان پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، يا ڪنهن بيوقوف، معمولي يا غير متوقع ڪردار کي هيرو جي حيثيت ڏني ويندي آهي، جنهن سان رزميہ ادب جي روايتي اسلوب تي طنز ۽ مزاح پيدا ٿئي ٿو. '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' جنهن ۾ پڙهندڙن جي تفريح طبع لاءِ مزاح جو عنصر موجود هجي يا جنهن ۾ ڪنهن جي مڪمل رزميہ شاعري جواب ۾ مزاحيہ شاعري ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي مذاق اڏائي وڃي. سنڌيءَ ۾ [[شمس الدين بلبل]] مزاحيہ شاعر ڪئي آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> ==تاريخ== تاريخي طور تي '''مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري''' جو اسلوب سترهين صديءَ دوران اٽلي ۾ وڏي مقبوليت ماڻي، جڏهن ته برطانيا ۾ [[انگريزي بحالي وارو دور]] ۽ [[آگسٽن ادب]] جي زماني ۾ پڻ هن صنف وڏي ترقي ڪئي. هن صنف جو سڀ کان قديم معلوم مثال ''[[ڏيڏرن ۽ ڪوئن جي جنگ (نظم)|ڏيڏرن ۽ ڪوئن جي جنگ]]'' آهي، جنهن کي رومي عالمن [[هومر]] سان منسوب ڪيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها سندس رزميہ شاعري جي پيروڊي هئي. بهرحال، اڪثر جديد محققن جو خيال آهي ته اها تصنيف [[سڪندر اعظم]] جي دور ۾ ڪنهن گمنام شاعر جي لکيل آهي. يورپ ۾ نون ادبي رجحانن جي اُڀار سان طنزيه ادب پراڻين ادبي روايتن ۽ سماجي قدرن تي تنقيد جو اهم ذريعو بڻيو. اسپين جي [[پڪارسڪ ناول]] ۽ فرانس جي [[برليسڪ ناول]] سان گڏ اٽلي ۾ ''poema eroicomico'' (مزاحيہ رزميہ نظم) جي صنف وجود ۾ آئي. هن صنف جا شاعر روايتي رزميہ شاعري جي ساڳي بحر، لغت، بيان ۽ فصاحت کي برقرار رکندا هئا، پر رزميہ موضوعن بدران روزمره جي واقعن ۽ معمولي ڪردارن کي موضوع بڻائي انهن ذريعي قديم رزميہ ادب تي طنز ڪندا هئا. [[فرانسيسڪو براچيوليني]] جو 1618ع ۾ شايع ٿيل ''Lo scherno degli dèi'' ("ديوتائن جو تمسخر") اڪثر پهريون اطالوي مزاحيہ رزميہ نظم شمار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[اليساندرو تاسوني]] جو ''[[لا سيخيا راپيٽا]]'' ("چورايل ڏول") (1622ع) هن صنف جو سڀ کان مشهور شاهڪار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. اٽلي ۾ هن صنف جون ٻيون به ڪيتريون ئي اهم تصنيفون منظرعام تي آيون، جن ۾ [[جيرولامو امي لونگي]] جي ''لا جيگانتيئا'' (''La Gigantea'')، [[جيوواني باتيستا لالي]] جي ''لا موسڪيئيڊي'' (''La moscheide'')، [[انتونيو ابوندانتي]] جي ''وياجو دي ڪولونيا'' (''Viaggio di Colonia'')، [[ڪارلو ڊي ڊوٽوري]] جي ''لاسينو'' (''L'asino'')، [[لوريتو ويتوري]] جي ''لا ٽرويا راپيتا'' (''La Troja rapita'')، [[لورينزو لپي]] جي ''اِل مالمانتيلي راڪُوئيستاتو'' (''Il Malmantile racquistato'') ۽ [[ايپوليٽو نيري]] جي ''لا پريزا دي سان مينياتو'' (''La presa di San Miniato'') شامل آهن. هيءَ صنف اطالوي مقامي لهجن ۾ پڻ ترقي ڪئي. [[نيپولٽن لهجو]] ۾ [[جوليو چيزارے ڪورتيزي]] جو ''لا وائاسئيڊي'' (''La Vaiasseide'') سڀ کان مشهور تصنيف آهي، جڏهن ته [[رومانسڪو لهجو]] ۾ [[جيوواني ڪاميليو پيريسيو]] جو ''اِل ماجيو رومانيسڪو'' (''Il maggio romanesco'')، [[جوسيپي برنيري]] جو ''ميو پاتاڪا'' (''Meo Patacca'') ۽ [[بينيڊيٽو ميڪيلي]] جو ''لا ليبرتا رومانا آڪُوئيستاتا اي ديفيسا'' (''La libbertà romana acquistata e defensa'') هن صنف جا اهم نمونا آهن. [[ميگوئل ڊي ثيروانتس]] جي ''[[ڊان ڪهوٽي]]'' جي انگريزي ترجمي کان پوءِ انگريزي اديبن رزميہ شاعري ۽ رزميہ داستانن جي مبالغي آميز ٻوليءَ کي عام ۽ معمولي ڪردارن جي بيان لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جي انگريزي روايت جي شروعات عام طور [[سيميوئل بٽلر]] جي ''هيوڊيبرس'' (''Hudibras'') (1662ع–1674ع) سان ڳنڍي ويندي آهي. هن نظم ۾ انگريزي گهرو ويڙهه واري دور جي هڪ پيوٽن سورمي کي رزميہ انداز ۾ پيش ڪري طنز ۽ مزاح پيدا ڪيو ويو. هن نظم مان ''هيوڊيبراسٽڪ'' (''Hudibrastic'') نالي هڪ مخصوص شعري اسلوب پڻ وجود ۾ آيو. [[جان ڊرائيڊن]] بحاليءَ واري دور ۾ مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جي ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. سندس ''ميڪ فليڪنو'' (''Mac Flecknoe'') هن صنف جو معياري نمونو شمار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ [[ورجل]] جي ''[[اينيئڊ]]'' جي رزميہ ٻولي استعمال ڪندي [[ٿامس شيڊويل]] تي طنز ڪيو ويو آهي. سترهين ۽ ارڙهين صديءَ دوران هيءَ صنف وڌيڪ ترقي ڪندي رهي. ان دور جو سڀ کان نمايان شاعر [[اليگزينڊر پوپ]] هو، جنهن جي ''دي ريپ آف دي لاڪ'' (''The Rape of the Lock'') کي انگريزي مزاحيہ رزميہ شاعري جو شاهڪار تصور ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هن نظم ۾ [[هومر]] جي ''[[الياذ]]'' ۽ [[ورجل]] جي ''[[اينيئڊ]]'' جي رزميہ اسلوب، بحر، ڪانٽو، ميوز کي سڏ، جنگي منظرن ۽ ٻين رزميہ روايتن کي هڪ معمولي سماجي واقعي سان جوڙي طنزيه انداز اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. پوپ پنهنجي ٻي تصنيف ''دي ڊنسيئڊ'' (''The Dunciad'') ۾ پڻ رزميہ اسلوب وسيلي معمولي موضوعن کي طنز جو نشانو بڻايو. ان کان سواءِ [[جان گي]] جون ''ٽريويا'' (''Trivia'') ۽ ''بيگرز اوپيرا'' (''Beggar's Opera'')، ۽ [[سيميوئل جانسن]] جو ''لنڊن'' (''London'') پڻ مزاحيہ رزميہ ادب جا اهم مثال شمار ٿين ٿا == پڻ ڏسو == * [[ادبي تمسخر]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} mm4rpj80geb38xwrjbawrm0z9iiewwd مڪعب پسندي 0 40831 394793 393831 2026-07-16T10:12:50Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|20هين صديءَ جي اوان گارڊ فني تحريڪ}} [[File:Albert Gleizes, l'Homme au Balcon, 1912, oil on canvas, 195.6 x 114.9 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|البرٽ گليز، "بالڪونيءَ تي ماڻهو" (لوم او بالڪون)؛ ڊاڪٽر ٿيو مورينو جو خاڪو''، 1912ع، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 195.6×114.9 سينٽي ميٽر (77×45 1/4 انچ)، فلاڊيلفيا فن عجائب گھر. اهو ڪم ساڳئي سال مڪمل ٿيو، جڏهن البرٽ گليز، جان ميٽزنگر سان گڏ ''Du Cubisme"'' ڪتاب لکيو. هيءُ ڪم 1912ع ۾ [[پيرس]] جي "سالون ڊومني ۽ 1913ع ۾ [[نيو يارڪ شھر|نيويارڪ]]، [[شڪاگو]] ۽ [[بوسٽن]] جي آرمري شو ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيو ويو.]] '''ڪيوبزم''' يا '''مڪعب پسندي''' (Cubism) 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات واري اوان گارڊ فني تحريڪ آهي، جيڪا [[پيرس]] ۾ شروع ٿي. هن [[چٽسالي]] ۽ [[بصري فنون|بصري فنن]] ۾ انقلاب آندو ۽ [[ادب]]، [[فن تعمير]]، [[موسيقي]] ۽ [[ناٽڪ ناچ]] (Ballet) ۾ فني جدتن کي جنم ڏنو. مڪعب پسنديءَ جي تحريڪ فائوازم (Fauvism) جي رد عمل ۾ پکڙي هئي. هن تحريڪ ۾ شڪلين کي مرڪزيت قرار ڏئي انهن کي ٽڪنڊن ۽ سريکن مٿاڇرن ۾اهڙي طرح ورهايو ويندو هو، جو چونڊيل موضوع جاميٽريءَ جي سلسليوار شڪلين ۾ ڦهلجندو ويندو هو. هيءَ تحريڪ مصوريءَ جي اهم تحريڪ آهي، جنهن جا اڳواڻ پڪاسو ۽ براق هئا.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد]]، [[سنڌ]].</ref> ڪيوبسٽ یا مڪعب پسند موضوعن جو تجزيو ڪيو وڃي ٿو، انهن کي ٽوڙيو وڃي ٿو ۽ پوءِ تجريدي صورت ۾ ٻيهر جوڙيو وڃي ٿو. شين کي رڳو هڪ رخ کان ڏيکارڻ بدران، فنڪار موضوع کي ڪيترن رخن کان پيش ڪري ٿو، جيئن ان کي وڌيڪ وسيع پسمنظر ۾ ڏيکاري سگهجي.<ref>Jean Metzinger, ''Note sur la peinture'', Pan (Paris), October–November 1910</ref> ڪيوبزم کي 20هين صديءَ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ اثرائتي فني تحريڪ سمجهيو ويو آهي.<ref name="moma.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813112047/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&displayall=1|url-status=dead|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|archivedate=August 13, 2014|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/cubism-the-leonard-lauder-collection ''Cubism: The Leonard A. Lauder Collection'', The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2014] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517015704/http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/cubism-the-leonard-lauder-collection |date=2015-05-17 }}</ref> ''ڪيوبزم'' جو اصطلاح وسيع معنيٰ ۾ 1910ع واري ڏهاڪي ۽ سڄي 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي دوران پيرس، خاص طور مونمارتر ۽ مونپارناس، يا پيرس ڀرسان پوتو ۾ تيار ٿيل مختلف فن پارن سان لاڳاپيل آهي. هن تحريڪ جي شروعات [[پابلو پڪاسو]] ۽ جارج براڪ گڏجي ڪئي ۽ پوءِ جان ميٽزنگر، البرٽ گليز، رابرٽ ڊيلوني، آنري لي فوڪونيئر، خوان گريس ۽ فرنان ليجي پڻ ان سان شامل ٿيا.<ref name="MomaT02054">{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140613022945/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&section_id=T020541|url-status=dead|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|archivedate=June 13, 2014|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref> ڪيوبزم جي ظهور تي اهم اثرن مان هڪ پال سيزان جي آخري دور جي فن پارن ۾ [[ٽي-رخائي]] صورتن جي پيشڪش هئي.<ref name="moma.org"/> 1904ع جي "سالون ڊومني" ۾ سيزان جي تصويرن جي پٺتي نگاهه واري نمائش منعقد ڪئي وئي، جڏهن ته سندس ان وقت جا تازا ڪم 1905ع ۽ 1906ع جي "سالون ڊومني" ۾ ڏيکاريا ويا؛ 1907ع ۾ سندس وفات کان پوءِ سندس ياد ۾ ٻه وڌيڪ پٺتي نگاهه واريون نمائشون ٿيون.<ref name="Joann Moser">Joann Moser, ''Jean Metzinger in Retrospect, Pre-Cubist works, 1904–1909'', The University of Iowa Museum of Art, J. Paul Getty Trust, University of Washington Press 1985, pp. 34–42</ref> فرانس ۾ ڪيوبزم جون ڪيتريون شاخون پيدا ٿيون، جن ۾ اورفزم، [[تجريدي فن]] ۽ پوءِ پيوريزم شامل آهن.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geab/hd_geab.htm Magdalena Dabrowski, ''Geometric Abstraction'', Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2000]</ref> ڪيوبزم جو اثر فنن ۽ مقبول ثقافت ٻنهي ۾ تمام گهڻو ۽ گهڻ رخيو رهيو. ڪيوبزم ڪولاج کي جديد فني صورت طور متعارف ڪرايو. فرانس ۽ ٻين ملڪن ۾ فيوچرزم، سپريماٽزم، دادا آرٽ، [[فن تعمير|تعميريت]]، ڊي اسٽيجل ۽ آرٽ ڊيڪو ڪيوبزم جي ردعمل ۾ ترقي ڪئي.<ref name="MomaT02054"/> شروعاتي فيوچرسٽ تصويرن ۽ ڪيوبزم ۾ ماضي ۽ حال کي گڏ ڪرڻ، هڪ ئي موضوع جا مختلف رخ هڪ ئي وقت يا لڳاتار ڏيکارڻ جهڙيون خاصيتون گڏيل هيون؛ انهن کي گهڻ رخي منظر، هم وقتيت يا گهڻائي پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو،<ref name="MoMA, Meanings and interpretations">{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702090838/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&section_id=T020544|url-status=dead|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|archivedate=July 2, 2015|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref> جڏهن ته تعميريت تي پڪاسو جي الڳ الڳ جزن مان مجسما ٺاهڻ واري طريقي جو اثر پيو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024234226/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10955&section_id=T019195|url-status=dead|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|archivedate=October 24, 2008|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref> انهن مختلف تحريڪن وچ ۾ ٻيون گڏيل خاصيتون به هيون، جهڙوڪ [[جاميٽري]] صورتن کي رخن ۾ ورهائڻ يا سادو بڻائڻ، ۽ مشيني دور کي جديد زندگيءَ سان ڳنڍڻ. ==تاريخ== عالمن ڪيوبزم جي تاريخ کي مختلف مرحلن ۾ ورهايو آهي. هڪ ورهاست موجب ڪيوبزم جو پهريون مرحلو، جنهن کي ''تجزياتي ڪيوبزم'' چيو وڃي ٿو، اهو اصطلاح [[خوان گريس]] پوءِ [[اپريوري ۽ اپوسٽيريوري|اپوسٽيريوري]] طور گهڙيو هو،<ref name="HF">[[هيو آنر|Honour, H.]] and J. Fleming, (2009) ''A World History of Art''. 7th edn. London: Laurence King Publishing, p. 784. {{ISBN|9781856695848}}</ref> فرانس ۾ 1910ع کان 1912ع تائين هلندڙ هڪ مختصر، پر انتهائي اهم ۽ اثرائتي فني تحريڪ هئي. ٻيو مرحلو، ''ترڪيبي ڪيوبزم''، عام طور 1912ع کان 1914ع تائين سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ وڌيڪ ساديون صورتون، چٽا رنگ، ۽ بناوت ۽ نمونن جا تجربا نمايان هئا؛ مثال طور اخبارن جي ڇپائي ۽ نقشيدار ڪاغذ جو استعمال.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tate |title=Synthetic cubism |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/synthetic-cubism |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=Tate |language=en-GB}}</ref> ''ترڪيبي ڪيوبزم'' لڳ ڀڳ 1919ع تائين اهم رهيو، جڏهن [[سريئلزم|سريئلسٽ]] تحريڪ مقبول ٿيڻ لڳي. انگريز [[فن جو تاريخدان|فن جي تاريخدان]] [[ڊگلس ڪوپر، فن جو تاريخدان|ڊگلس ڪوپر]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''دي ڪيوبسٽ ايپوڪ'' ۾ هڪ ٻي ورهاست پيش ڪئي. ڪوپر موجب ”ابتدائي ڪيوبزم“ 1906ع کان 1908ع تائين رهيو، جڏهن پڪاسو ۽ براڪ جي اسٽوڊيوز ۾ هيءَ تحريڪ ابتدائي طور ترقي ڪئي؛ ٻيو مرحلو ”اعليٰ ڪيوبزم“ 1909ع کان 1914ع تائين رهيو، جنهن دوران 1911ع کان پوءِ خوان گريس هڪ اهم نمائندي طور اڀريو؛ ۽ آخر ۾ ڪوپر 1914ع کان 1921ع واري دور کي ”آخري ڪيوبزم“ چيو، جيڪو بنيادي [[اوان گارڊ]] تحريڪ طور ڪيوبزم جو آخري مرحلو هو.<ref name="The Cubist Epoch">Douglas Cooper, [https://archive.org/stream/cubistepoch00coop#page/n0/mode/2up "The Cubist Epoch"], pp. 11–221, 232, Phaidon Press Limited 1970 in association with the [[لاس اينجلس ڪائونٽي عجائب گھر]] and the [[ميٽروپوليٽن عجائب گھر]] {{ISBN|0-87587-041-4}}</ref> ڊگلس ڪوپر طرفان انهن اصطلاحن جو محدود استعمال، جنهن ذريعي براڪ، پڪاسو، گريس (1911ع کان) ۽ ليجي (گهٽ حد تائين) جي ڪم کي الڳ ڪيو ويو، هڪ ارادي قدرائتي فيصلي جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.<ref name="Christopher Green">[http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&displayall=1#skipToContent Christopher Green, 2009, ''Cubism'', MoMA, Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813112047/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&displayall=1 |date=2014-08-13 }}</ref> ===پروٽو-ڪيوبزم: 1907–1908=== {{main|پروٽو-ڪيوبزم}} ڪيوبزم 1907ع کان 1911ع جي وچ ۾ تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. پابلو پڪاسو جي 1907ع واري تصوير ''[[لي ڊيموئزل ڊي اوينيون]]'' کي گهڻو ڪري [[اڳ-ڪيوبزم|اڳ-ڪيوبسٽ]] ڪم سمجهيو ويو آهي. 1908ع ۾ [[جارج براڪ]] جي نمائش بابت [[دانيئل-آنري ڪانوائلر|ڪانوائلر]] جي گيلريءَ ۾ لکيل جائزي ۾ نقاد [[لوئي ووڪسيل]] براڪ کي اهڙو جرئت مند ماڻهو سڏيو، جيڪو صورت کي حقير سمجهي ٿو ۽ ”هر شيءِ، هنڌن، شخصيتن ۽ گهرن کي جاميٽري رٿائن ۽ ڪيوبن ۾ گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿو“.<ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7521008s/f2.item Louis Vauxcelles, ''Exposition Braques'', Gil Blas, 14 November 1908], Gallica (BnF)</ref><ref name="Danchev">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTzniDD6EwAC&q=little+cubes&pg=PR123|title=Georges Braque: A Life|first=Alex|last=Danchev|date=March 29, 2007|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=9780141905006|via=Google Books}}</ref> ووڪسيل ٻڌايو ته ان وقت ماتيس کيس چيو هو: ”براڪ 1908ع جي [[سالون ڊومني]] لاءِ هڪ اهڙي تصوير موڪلي آهي، جيڪا ننڍن ڪيوبن مان ٺهيل آهي“.<ref name="Danchev" /> نقاد چارلس موريس پڻ ماتيس جا اهي لفظ ورجايا ۽ براڪ جي ننڍن ڪيوبن جو ذڪر ڪيو. ليسٽاڪ جي پل واري منظر براڪ کي ٽي اهڙيون تصويرون ٺاهڻ لاءِ اتساهيو، جن ۾ صورتن جي سادگي ۽ منظر نگاريءَ جي ٽوڙ ڦوڙ نمايان هئي.<ref>''Futurism in Paris – The Avant-garde Explosion'', Centre Pompidou, Paris 2008</ref> جارج براڪ جي 1908ع واري ''[[ليسٽاڪ جا گھر]]'' ۽ لاڳاپيل ڪمن سبب ووڪسيل 25 مارچ 1909ع جي ''گل بلاس'' ۾ ''بيزارري ڪيبڪ''، يعني ”ڪيوب نما عجيب شيون“، جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7536065n Louis Vauxcelles, ''Le Salon des Indépendants'', Gil Blas, 25 March 1909], Gallica (BnF)</ref> [[گرٽروڊ اسٽائن]] پڪاسو جي 1909ع ۾ ٺاهيل منظرن، جهڙوڪ ''هورٽا ڊي ايبرو ۾ ذخيرو''، کي پهريون ڪيوبسٽ تصويرون قرار ڏنو. ڪيوبسٽن جي پهرين منظم گڏيل نمائش 1911ع جي بهار ۾ [[پيرس]] جي [[سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان]] ۾ ”سال 41“ نالي ڪمري ۾ ٿي؛ ان ۾ [[جان ميٽزنگر]]، [[البرٽ گليز]]، [[فرنان ليجي]]، [[رابرٽ ڊيلوني]] ۽ [[آنري لي فوڪونيئر]] جا ڪم شامل هئا، پر پڪاسو يا براڪ جو ڪو به ڪم نمائش ۾ نه رکيو ويو.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> 1911ع تائين پڪاسو کي ڪيوبزم جو موجد تسليم ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته براڪ جي اهميت ۽ اڳڀرائي بابت پوءِ بحث ڪيو ويو، خاص طور ليسٽاڪ جي منظرن ۾ جاءِ، حجم ۽ ڪتلي جي سندس ورتاءَ جي حوالي سان. پر فن جي تاريخدان ڪرسٽوفر گرين لکيو ته ”ڪيوبزم بابت هي تصور انهن فنڪارن جي سڃاڻپ بابت تمام محدود وصف سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جن کي صحيح معنيٰ ۾ ڪيوبسٽ سڏڻ گهرجي“ ۽ اهو ”1911ع ۾ سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ نمائش ڪندڙ فنڪارن جي ڀاڱيداريءَ کي پٺتي ڌڪي ٿو“.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> اهو خيال ته ڪيوبسٽ انداز ۾ جاءِ، ڪتلي، وقت ۽ حجم جي پيشڪش ڪينواس جي همواريءَ جي ابتڙ نه، پر ان جي حمايت ڪري ٿي، [[دانيئل-آنري ڪانوائلر]] 1920ع ۾ ئي پيش ڪيو هو،<ref>D.-H. Kahnweiler. Der Weg zum Kubismus (Munich, 1920; Eng. trans., New York, 1949)</ref> پر 1950ع ۽ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾، خاص طور [[ڪليمينٽ گرينبرگ]]، ان تي تنقيد ڪئي.<ref>C. Greenberg. ''The Pasted-paper Revolution'', ARTnews, 57 (1958), pp. 46–49, 60–61 ([https://archive.org/details/sim_artnews_1958-09_57_5/page/n45/mode/2up Internet Archive]); repr. as 'Collage' in Art and Culture (Boston, 1961), pp. 70–83</ref> ڪيوبزم بابت هاڻوڪا خيال پيچيدا آهن ۽ ڪنهن حد تائين ”سال 41“ جي ڪيوبسٽن جي جواب ۾ ٺهيا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جا طريقا پڪاسو ۽ براڪ جي طريقن کان ايترا مختلف هئا، جو کين رڳو ثانوي حيثيت نٿي ڏئي سگهجي. تنهن ڪري ڪيوبزم جون متبادل تشريحون پڻ پيدا ٿيون. ڪيوبزم جي وسيع وصف ۾ اهي فنڪار به شامل آهن، جيڪي پوءِ ”سال 41“ وارن فنڪارن سان لاڳاپيل ٿيا، جهڙوڪ [[فرانسس پڪابيا]]؛ ڀائر [[ژاڪ ويلون]]، [[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]] ۽ [[مارسل ڊوشامپ]]، جن 1911ع جي آخر کان [[سيڪشن ڊور]]، يا [[پوتو گروپ]]، جو مرڪز ٺاهيو؛ مجسما ساز [[اليگزينڊر آرڪيپينڪو]]، [[جوزف چاڪي]] ۽ [[اوسپ زادڪين]]، گڏوگڏ [[ژاڪ لپشٽز]] ۽ [[آنري لوران]]؛ ۽ مصور [[لوئي مارڪوسس]]، [[راجر ڊي لا فريزني]]، [[فرانتيشيڪ ڪوپڪا]]، [[ڊيگو رويرا]]، [[ليوپولڊ سرويج]]، [[آگسٽ هربين]]، [[آندري لوٽ]]، [[جينو سيويريني]] (1916ع کان پوءِ)، [[ماريا بلانچارڊ]] (1916ع کان پوءِ) ۽ [[جارج والميئر]] (1918ع کان پوءِ) شامل آهن. وڌيڪ بنيادي طور ڪرسٽوفر گرين دليل ڏئي ٿو ته ڊگلس ڪوپر جا اصطلاح ”پوءِ پڪاسو، براڪ، گريس ۽ ليجي جي ڪمن جي اهڙين تشريحن سبب ڪمزور ٿي ويا، جيڪي نمائندگيءَ جي طريقن بدران علامتي ۽ نظرياتي سوالن تي زور ڏين ٿيون“.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> [[جان برجر]] چيو: ”ڪيوبزم جو استعاراتي نمونو خاڪو آهي: خاڪو اڻ ڏٺل عملن، قوتن ۽ جوڙجڪن جي هڪ ڏسڻ ۾ ايندڙ علامتي نمائندگي آهي. خاڪي لاءِ ظاهر جي ڪجهه پاسن کي ڇڏي ڏيڻ ضروري ناهي، پر انهن کي به نقل يا ٻيهر تخليق بدران نشانين طور ورتو ويندو.“<ref>{{cite book|last=Berger|first=John|title=The Moment of Cubism|url=https://archive.org/details/momentofcubismot0000berg|url-access=registration|year=1969|publisher=Pantheon|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780297177098}}</ref> ===شروعاتي ڪيوبزم: 1909–1914=== ڪانوائلر جي ڪيوبسٽن ۽ سالون ڪيوبسٽن وچ ۾ چٽو فرق هو. 1914ع کان اڳ، پڪاسو، براڪ، گريس ۽ ليجي، گهٽ حد تائين، پيرس ۾ هڪ ئي پڪو حامي فن واپاري، دانيئل-آنري ڪانوائلر، جي پٺڀرائي حاصل ڪئي. ڪانوائلر کين سندن ڪم خريد ڪرڻ جي خاص حق جي بدلي سالياني آمدنيءَ جي ضمانت ڏني. هو رڳو فن جي ڄاڻ رکندڙن جي هڪ ننڍڙي حلقي کي وڪرو ڪندو هو. سندس پٺڀرائي فنڪارن کي نسبتاً نجي ماحول ۾ تجربا ڪرڻ جي آزادي ڏني. پڪاسو 1912ع تائين مونمارتر ۾ ڪم ڪندو رهيو، جڏهن ته براڪ ۽ گريس پهرين عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ تائين اتي رهيا. ليجي مونپارناس ۾ رهندو هو.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ان جي ابتڙ، سالون ڪيوبسٽن پنهنجي شهرت بنيادي طور {{lang|fr|سالون ڊومني|italic=no}} ۽ سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ باقاعدي نمائشون ڪري ٺاهي، جيڪي پيرس جا ٻه وڏا غير علمي سالون هئا. تنهن ڪري هو عوامي ردعمل ۽ پنهنجو پيغام پهچائڻ جي ضرورت کان وڌيڪ واقف هئا.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> 1910ع ۾ ئي هڪ گروهه ٺهڻ لڳو، جنهن ۾ ميٽزنگر، گليز، ڊيلوني ۽ ليجي شامل هئا. اهي [[بوليورڊ دو مونپارناس]] ڀرسان آنري لي فوڪونيئر جي اسٽوڊيو ۾ باقاعدي گڏ ٿيندا هئا. انهن محفلن ۾ گيوم اپولينيئر ۽ [[آندري سالمن]] جهڙا ليکڪ پڻ اڪثر شريڪ ٿيندا هئا. ٻين نوجوان فنڪارن سان گڏ، هيءُ گروهه رنگ تي نئين تاثرپسنديءَ جي زور جي ابتڙ، صورت جي تحقيق تي زور ڏيڻ گهريو ٿي.<ref name="Fondation Gleizes, Chronologie">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fondationgleizes.fr/pdf/fag-chronologie-gleizes.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112092816/http://www.fondationgleizes.fr/pdf/fag-chronologie-gleizes.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Fondation Gleizes, Chronologie (in French)|archive-date=November 12, 2008}}</ref> لوئي ووڪسيل 26هين سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان، 1910ع، بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾ ميٽزنگر، گليز، ڊيلوني، ليجي ۽ لي فوڪونيئر کي سرسري ۽ غير درست نموني ”اڻڄاڻ جاميٽري ماهر، جيڪي انساني جسم ۽ هنڌن کي ڦڪي ڪيوبن ۾ گهٽائي ڇڏين ٿا“ سڏيو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7527626n|title=Gil Blas / dir. A. Dumont|date=March 18, 1910|website=Gallica}}</ref><ref name="Daniel Robbins 1985">Daniel Robbins, ''Jean Metzinger: At the Center of Cubism'', 1985, ''Jean Metzinger in Retrospect'', The University of Iowa Museum of Art, J. Paul Getty Trust, University of Washington Press</ref> ڪجهه مهينن کان پوءِ 1910ع جي {{lang|fr|سالون ڊومني|italic=no}} ۾ ميٽزنگر پنهنجي انتهائي ٽڪرايل تصوير ''[[نيو آ لا شيميني|نيو آ لا شيميني (اگهاڙو جسم)]]'' نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي، جيڪا پوءِ ''Du "Cubisme"'' (1912ع) ۽ ''Les Peintres Cubistes'' (1913ع) ٻنهي ۾ ٻيهر ڇپي وئي.<ref name="Apollinaire" /> ڪيوبزم بابت پهريون عوامي تڪرار 1911ع جي بهار ۾ سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان جي نمائش سبب پيدا ٿيو. ميٽزنگر، گليز، ڊيلوني، لي فوڪونيئر ۽ ليجي جي هن نمائش پهريون ڀيرو ڪيوبزم کي عام عوام جي ڌيان ۾ آندو. پيش ڪيل ڪيوبسٽ ڪمن مان رابرٽ ڊيلوني پنهنجي ''ايفل ٽاور، ٽور ايفل'' نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي، جيڪا هاڻي نيويارڪ جي سليمان آر. گوگنهايم عجائب گھر ۾ آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/1022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228221226/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artwork/1022|url-status=dead|title=Eiffel Tower|archive-date=February 28, 2014|website=The Guggenheim Museums and Foundation}}</ref> [[File:The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon, The New York Times, October 8, 1911.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|”ڪيوبسٽ“ پيرس جي سرءُ واري سالون تي ڇانيل، ''دي نيويارڪ ٽائمز''، 8 آڪٽوبر 1911ع. پڪاسو جي 1908ع واري ''ويهندڙ عورت''، ''مراقبو''، کي فنڪار جي پنهنجي اسٽوڊيو ۾ تصوير سان گڏ مٿين کاٻي پاسي ٻيهر ڇاپيو ويو. ميٽزنگر جي ''[[باگنيوز، ميٽزنگر|باگنيوز]]''، 1908–09ع، مٿين ساڄي پاسي ڇاپي وئي. ان سان گڏ درين، ماتيس، فريئز، هربين جي ڪمن ۽ براڪ جي تصوير پڻ ڏني وئي.]] ساڳئي سال جي {{lang|fr|سالون ڊومني|italic=no}} ۾، ”سال 41“ واري انڊيپانڊان گروپ کان سواءِ، [[آندري لوٽ]]، [[مارسل ڊوشامپ]]، ژاڪ ويلون، [[راجر ڊي لا فريزني]]، [[آندري دونوايي ڊي سيگونزاڪ]] ۽ [[فرانتيشيڪ ڪوپڪا]] جا ڪم پڻ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيا ويا. نمائش جو جائزو ''دي نيويارڪ ٽائمز'' جي 8 آڪٽوبر 1911ع واري شماري ۾ ڇپيو. هيءُ مضمون [[جيليٽ برجس]] جي ''دي وائلڊ مين آف پيرس'' کان هڪ سال پوءِ،<ref name="Gelett Burgess">{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/11445-the-wild-men-of-paris?v=preview|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424182236/http://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/11445-the-wild-men-of-paris|url-status=dead|title=The Wild Men of Paris|archive-date=April 24, 2016|website=www.architecturalrecord.com}}</ref> ۽ [[آرمري شو]] کان ٻه سال اڳ ڇپيو، جنهن حقيقت پسند فن جا عادي حيران آمريڪين کي يورپي اوان گارڊ جي تجرباتي طرزن، جن ۾ فووزم، ڪيوبزم ۽ فيوچرزم شامل هئا، سان متعارف ڪرايو. 1911ع واري ''دي نيويارڪ ٽائمز'' جي مضمون ۾ پڪاسو، ماتيس، درين، ميٽزنگر ۽ ٻين جا 1909ع کان اڳ جا ڪم ڏيکاريا ويا، جيڪي 1911ع واري سالون ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش نه ٿيا هئا. مضمون جو عنوان ''”ڪيوبسٽ“ پيرس جي سرءُ واري سالون تي ڇانيل'' ۽ ذيلي عنوان ''غير روايتي مصوري مکتب موجوده فني نمائش ۾ وڌيڪ مقبول ٿي رهيو آهي — ان جا پيروڪار ڇا ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا'' هو.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1911/10/08/archives/eccentric-school-of-painting-increases-its-vogue-in-the-current-art.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305063403/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D02E2D71131E233A2575BC0A9669D946096D6CF&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1911%2F10%2F08%2F104878571.html|url-status=dead|title=Eccentric School of Painting Increases Its Vogue in the Current Art Exhibition --- What Its Followers Attempt to Do.|date=October 8, 1911|archive-date=March 5, 2016|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref name="NY Times">{{Cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/10/08/104878571.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/10/08/104878571.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=''The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon'', ''The New York Times'', October 8, 1911 (High-resolution PDF)}}</ref> {{blockquote|پيرس جي سرءُ واري سالون ۾ نمائش لاءِ رکيل سڀني تصويرن مان ڪنهن به ڪم ايترو ڌيان نه ڇڪايو آهي، جيترو نام نهاد ”ڪيوبسٽ“ مکتب جي غير معمولي تخليقن. حقيقت ۾، پيرس مان موڪليل خبرون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته اهي ڪم آسانيءَ سان نمائش جو مکيه مرڪز بڻيل آهن. [...] ”ڪيوبسٽ“ نظرين جي چريائيءَ جهڙي نوعيت باوجود، انهن جا حامي چڱي خاصي انگ ۾ آهن. جارج براڪ، آندري درين، پڪاسو، چوبيل، اوٿون فريئز، هربين، ميٽزنگر — اهي انهن نالن مان ڪجهه آهن، جيڪي اهڙن ڪينواسَن تي لکيل آهن، جن اڳيان پيرس اڳ به خالي حيرت ۾ بيٺو هو ۽ هاڻي وري بيٺو آهي. انهن جو مطلب ڇا آهي؟ ڇا انهن جا ذميوار ماڻهو پنهنجي هوش مان نڪري ويا آهن؟ ڇا اهو فن آهي يا چريائپ؟ ڪير ڄاڻي؟<ref name="nytimes" /><ref name="NY Times" />}} ====سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان==== پيرس ۾ 20 مارچ کان 16 مئي 1912ع تائين ٿيل ايندڙ سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان، مارسل ڊوشامپ جي ''[[ڏاڪڻ تان لهندڙ اگهاڙو جسم، نمبر 2]]'' جي پيشڪش سبب مشهور ٿيو، جنهن خود ڪيوبسٽن ۾ پڻ تڪرار پيدا ڪيو. حقيقت ۾ ڪم کي نمائش ترتيب ڏيندڙ ڪاميٽي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن ۾ سندس ڀائر ۽ ٻيا ڪيوبسٽ شامل هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪم آڪٽوبر 1912ع ۾ سالون ڊي لا سيڪشن ڊور ۽ 1913ع ۾ نيويارڪ جي آرمري شو ۾ ڏيکاريو ويو، پر ڊوشامپ پنهنجي ڀائرن ۽ اڳوڻن ساٿين کي پنهنجي ڪم تي پابندي لڳائڻ لاءِ ڪڏهن به معاف نه ڪيو.<ref name="Fondation Gleizes, Chronologie" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://philamuseum.org/collection/object/51449|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918063503/http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/51449.html?mulR=24120%7C3|url-status=dead|title=Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2)|archivedate=September 18, 2017|website=philamuseum.org}}</ref> سالون جي منظرنامي ۾ نئون شامل ٿيل خوان گريس پنهنجو ''پڪاسو جو خاڪو''، جيڪو هاڻي شڪاگو جي فن اداري ۾ آهي، نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيو، جڏهن ته ميٽزنگر جي ٻن ڪمن ۾ ''[[لا فام او شوال|گهوڙي سان عورت]]''، 1911–1912ع، جيڪا هاڻي [[ڊينمارڪ جي قومي گيلري]] ۾ آهي، شامل هئي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/the-royal-collections/french-art-1900-1930/highlights/jean-metzinger-woman-with-a-horse/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115151153/http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/the-royal-collections/french-art-1900-1930/highlights/jean-metzinger-woman-with-a-horse/|url-status=dead|title=Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark, Jean Metzinger, 1911–12, ''Woman with a Horse'', oil on canvas, 162 × 130 cm|archive-date=January 15, 2012}}</ref> ڊيلوني جي وڏي تصوير ''لا ويل ڊي پيرس''، جيڪا پيرس جي جديد فن عجائب گھر ۾ آهي، ۽ ليجي جي ''لا نوس''، ''شادي''، جيڪا پيرس جي جديد فن جي قومي عجائب گھر ۾ آهي، پڻ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيون ويون. ====گيلريز ڊالمائو==== 1912ع ۾ [[گيلريز ڊالمائو]] دنيا جي پهرين باقاعدي اعلان ڪيل ڪيوبسٽ گڏيل نمائش، ''ايڪسپوزيسيو ڊارٽ ڪيوبسٽا''، پيش ڪئي،<ref name="Antliff, Leighten">Mark Antliff and Patricia Leighten, ''A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906–1914'', University of Chicago Press, 2008, pp. 293–295</ref><ref name="Carol A. Hess">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qrP60BqU634C&dq=cubisme+en+espana%2C+galeries+dalmau&pg=PA76 Carol A. Hess, ''Manuel de Falla and Modernism in Spain, 1898–1936''], University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 76, {{ISBN|0226330389}}</ref><ref>[http://acca.cat/formacions/commemoracio-del-centenari-del-cubisme-a-barcelona-1912-2012/ Commemoració del centenari del cubisme a Barcelona. 1912–2012], Associació Catalana de Crítics d'Art – ACCA</ref> جنهن ۾ جان ميٽزنگر، البرٽ گليز، خوان گريس، ماري لورانسين ۽ مارسل ڊوشامپ جا تڪراري ڪم ڏيکاريا ويا، 20 اپريل کان 10 مئي 1912ع، بارسلونا. ڊالمائو واري نمائش ۾ 26 فنڪارن جا 83 ڪم شامل هئا.<ref name="Vidal">[http://www.publicacions.ub.edu/ficha.aspx?cod=03809 Mercè Vidal, ''L'exposició d'Art Cubista de les Galeries Dalmau 1912'']{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 1996, {{ISBN|8447513831}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/cubisminshadowof00cott/page/227 <!-- quote=Galerie d'Art Ancien et d'Art Contemporain, rue Tronchet. --> David Cottington, ''Cubism in the Shadow of War: The Avant-garde and Politics in Paris 1905–1914''], Yale University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|0300075294}}</ref><ref name="Cubista">{{Cite web|url=http://pandora.girona.cat/viewer.vm?id=2933958&view=dalmau&lang=en|title=Exposició d'Art Cubista.|website=Dalmau Galleries}}</ref> ژاڪ نائيرال جي گليز سان ويجهڙائپ سبب هن ڪيوبسٽ نمائش جو مهاڳ لکيو،<ref name="Antliff, Leighten" /> جيڪو مڪمل ترجمو ٿي اخبار ''لا ويو ڊي ڪاتالونيا'' ۾ ٻيهر ڇپيو.<ref>[http://mdc2.cbuc.cat/cdm/compoundobject/collection/veup1/id/31472/rec/8 Joaquim Folch i Torres, ''Els Cubistes a cân Dalmau'', Pàgina artística de La Veu de Catalunya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422134407/http://mdc2.cbuc.cat/cdm/compoundobject/collection/veup1/id/31472/rec/8 |date=2018-04-22 }} (Barcelona) 18 April 1912, Any 22, núm. 4637–4652 (16–30 abr. 1912)</ref><ref>[http://acca.cat/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/premsa_exposicio_art_cubista.pdf Joaquim Folch y Torres, "El cubisme", Pàgina Artística de La Veu, La Veu de Catalunya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023339/http://acca.cat/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/premsa_exposicio_art_cubista.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}, 25 April 1912 (includes numerous articles on the artists and exhibition)</ref> ڊوشامپ جو ''ڏاڪڻ تان لهندڙ اگهاڙو جسم، نمبر 2'' پهريون ڀيرو هتي نمائش لاءِ پيش ٿيو.<ref name="Robinson et al">[https://books.google.com/books?id=6EvIx6zOuqgC&q=dalmau&pg=PA319 William H. Robinson, Jordi Falgàs, Carmen Belen Lord, ''Barcelona and Modernity: Picasso, Gaudí, Miró, Dalí''], Cleveland Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), Yale University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0300121067}}</ref> نمائش کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ اخبارن ۽ رسالن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي ٿيل خبرپوشيءَ گيلريز ڊالمائو کي يورپ ۾ جديديت جي ترقي ۽ ڦهلاءَ جي هڪ اهم قوت بڻائي ڇڏيو.<ref name="Robinson et al" /> جيتوڻيڪ خبرپوشي تمام وسيع هئي، پر اها هميشه هاڪاري نه هئي. اخبارن ''ايسڪيلا ڊي لا توراتشا''<ref>{{Citation |title=Cubist caricature, ''Esquella de La Torratxa'', Núm 1740 (3 maig 1912) |url=http://mdc2.cbuc.cat/cdm/compoundobject/collection/esquella/id/13001/rec/1746 |access-date=2026-07-11 |archive-date=2018-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729081708/http://mdc2.cbuc.cat/cdm/compoundobject/collection/esquella/id/13001/rec/1746 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ۽ ''ايل نوٽيسيرو يونيورسال''<ref name="Noticiero Universal">{{Cite web|url=http://pandora.girona.cat/viewer.vm?id=2934290&view=dalmau&lang=en|title=[Exposició d'Art Cubista – Noticiero Universal].|website=Dalmau Galleries}}</ref> ۾ ڪيوبسٽن تي حملا ڪندڙ، توهين آميز متن سان گڏ ڪارٽونن جا سلسلا شايع ٿيا.<ref name="Noticiero Universal" /> فن جي تاريخدان خائيمي بريهوئيگا ڊالمائو نمائش بابت لکي ٿو: ”ان ۾ ڪو شڪ ناهي ته نمائش عوام ۾ وڏي هلچل پيدا ڪئي، جنهن ان کي تمام گهڻي شڪ شبهي سان قبول ڪيو.“<ref>Jaime Brihuega, ''Las Vanguardias Artísticas en España 1909–1936'', Madrid. Istmo.1981</ref> 1912ع ۾ براڪ ۽ پڪاسو طرفان جديديت واري مفهوم ۾ ڪولاج متعارف ڪرائڻ سان ڪيوبزم ۾ هڪ وڏي ترقي ٿي. پڪاسو کي مئي 1912ع ۾ پهريون ڪيوبسٽ ڪولاج، ''[[ڪرسيءَ جي تاڻ سان ساڪن زندگي]]''، ٺاهڻ جو ڪريڊٽ ڏنو وڃي ٿو،<ref name="Rubin_36">Rubin, William, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Museum of Modern Art (1989). ''Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism''. New York, Boston: Museum of Modern Art. p. 36. {{ISBN|9780870706752}}</ref> جڏهن ته براڪ ڪيوبسٽ گتي جي مجسمن ۽ [[پاپيئي ڪولي|پاپيئي ڪولي]] ٺاهڻ ۾ پڪاسو کان اڳتي هو.<ref>Rubin, William, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Museum of Modern Art (1989). ''Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism''. New York, Boston: Museum of Modern Art. p. 30. {{ISBN|9780870706752}}</ref> پاپيئي ڪولي اڪثر روزمره جي ڪاغذي شين، جهڙوڪ اخبار، ميزپوش، ڀتين جي ڪاغذ ۽ موسيقيءَ جي ورقن جي ٽڪرن مان ٺهندا هئا، جڏهن ته ڪيوبسٽ ڪولاج مختلف مواد کي گڏ ڪندا هئا؛ مثال طور ''ڪرسيءَ جي تاڻ سان ساڪن زندگي'' ۾ آزاديءَ سان لڳايل تيل رنگ ۽ واپاري نموني ڇپيل آئل ڪلاٿ کي هڪ ئي ڪينواس تي گڏ ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Rubin_36"/> ====سالون ڊومني==== [[سالون ڊومني#1912ع، سياسي اثر|1912ع جي سالون ڊومني]] ۾ ڪيوبسٽن جي ڀاڱيداريءَ سبب سرڪاري ملڪيت واري عمارتن، جهڙوڪ [[گران پالي]]، کي اهڙن فن پارن جي نمائش لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ بابت وڏو تڪرار پيدا ٿيو. سياستدان [[جان پيئر فلپ لامپوئي]] جي ڪاوڙ ''لي جرنال'' جي 5 آڪٽوبر 1912ع واري پهرين صفحي جي خبر بڻي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7625001c|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034853/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7625001c/f1.image|url-status=dead|title=Le Journal|date=October 5, 1912|archive-date=September 4, 2015|website=Gallica}}</ref> تڪرار پيرس جي شهري ڪائونسل تائين پکڙجي ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ قومي اسيمبليءَ جي نمائندن واري ايوان ۾ عوامي پئسن سان اهڙي فن لاءِ جڳهه مهيا ڪرڻ بابت بحث ٿيو.<ref name="Débats parlementaires">[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6470818j/f8.image.r=1912%20%20Salon%20d%27Automne%20%20Chambre%20des%20d%C3%A9put%C3%A9s%20%20cubiste%20Assembl%C3%A9e%20Nationale.langFR Journal officiel de la République française. Débats parlementaires. Chambre des députés, 3 Décembre 1912, pp. 2924–2929. Bibliothèque et Archives de l'Assemblée nationale, 2012–7516] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034853/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6470818j/f8.image.r=1912%20%20Salon%20d%27Automne%20%20Chambre%20des%20d%C3%A9put%C3%A9s%20%20cubiste%20Assembl%C3%A9e%20Nationale.langFR |date=2015-09-04 }}. {{ISSN|1270-5942}}</ref> ڪيوبسٽن جو دفاع سوشلسٽ نائب [[مارسيل سيمبا]] ڪيو.<ref name="Débats parlementaires" /><ref name="Patrick F. Barrer">Patrick F. Barrer: ''Quand l'art du XXe siècle était conçu par les inconnus'', pp. 93–101, gives an account of the debate.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peterbrooke.org.uk/a&r/chronology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522231116/http://www.peterbrooke.org.uk/a%26r/chronology|url-status=dead|title=biography|archive-date=May 22, 2013|website=www.peterbrooke.org.uk}}</ref> عوامي ڪاوڙ جي هن پسمنظر ۾ جان ميٽزنگر ۽ البرٽ گليز ''[[Du "Cubisme"|دو ڪيوبزم]]'' لکيو، جيڪو 1912ع ۾ يوژين فيگيئر شايع ڪيو، ۽ 1913ع ۾ انگريزي ۽ روسي ۾ ترجمو ٿيو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fondationgleizes.fr/albert-gleizes-oeuvre.html|title=Albert-Gleizes-œuvre|date=September 18, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918235710/http://www.fondationgleizes.fr/albert-gleizes-oeuvre.html|archive-date=2007-09-18}}</ref> نمائش ۾ پيش ڪيل ڪمن ۾ [[آنري لي فوڪونيئر|لي فوڪونيئر]] جي وڏي تصوير ''لي مونتانيار اتاڪي پار دي اورس''، يعني ''رڇن جي حملي هيٺ جبل واسي''، جيڪا هاڻي روڊ آئلينڊ اسڪول آف ڊزائن عجائب گھر ۾ آهي؛ [[جوزف چاڪي]] جو ''دو فام''، يعني ''ٻه عورتون''، جيڪو هاڻي گم ٿيل مجسمو آهي؛ ۽ ڪوپڪا جي انتهائي تجريدي تصوير ''امورفا''، جيڪا پراگ جي قومي گيلري ۾ آهي، ۽ [[پڪابيا]] جي ''[[چشمو|لا سورس، چشمو]]''، جيڪا نيويارڪ جي جديد فن عجائب گھر ۾ آهي، شامل هئا. ====تجريد ۽ تيار-شده شيون==== [[File:Robert Delaunay, 1912, Les Fenêtres simultanée sur la ville (Simultaneous Windows on the City), 40 x 46 cm, Kunsthalle Hamburg.jpg|thumb|[[رابرٽ ڊيلوني]]، ''شهر تي هم وقت دريون''، 1912ع، 46 × 40 سينٽي ميٽر، [[هيمبرگر ڪنسٽ هال]]، ''تجريدي ڪيوبزم'' جو هڪ مثال]] ڪيوبزم جون سڀ کان انتهاپسند صورتون پڪاسو ۽ براڪ نه اپنائيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مڪمل تجريد جي مخالفت ڪندا هئا. ان جي ابتڙ، ٻين ڪيوبسٽن، خاص طور [[فرانتيشيڪ ڪوپڪا]]، ۽ انهن فنڪارن جن کي [[گيوم اپولينيئر|اپولينيئر]] [[اورفزم، فن|اورفسٽ]] سڏيو، جهڙوڪ ڊيلوني، ليجي، پڪابيا ۽ ڊوشامپ، ڏسڻ ۾ ايندڙ موضوع کي مڪمل طور هٽائي تجريد کي قبول ڪيو. 1912ع جي سالون ڊومني ۾ ڪوپڪا جا ٻه ڪم، ''امورفا–فوگ آ دو ڪولور'' ۽ ''امورفا ڪروماتيڪ شود''، انتهائي تجريدي، يا غير نمائندگي ڪندڙ، ۽ مابعدالطبيعاتي رخ رکندڙ هئا. ڊوشامپ 1912ع ۾ ۽ پڪابيا 1912ع کان 1914ع تائين پيچيده جذباتي ۽ جنسي موضوعن لاءِ وقف اظهارائتي ۽ اشارتي تجريد کي ترقي ڏني. 1912ع کان ڊيلوني ''هم وقت دريون'' نالي تصويرن جو هڪ سلسلو ٺاهڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن کان پوءِ ''گول صورتون'' نالي سلسلو ٺاهيو، جنهن ۾ هن سطحي جوڙجڪن کي چمڪندڙ منشوري رنگن سان گڏايو. گڏ رکيل رنگن جي بصري خاصيتن جي بنياد تي، تصويرن ۾ حقيقت کان سندس پري ٿيڻ لڳ ڀڳ مڪمل ٿي ويو. 1913–14ع ۾ ليجي ''صورتن جا تضاد'' نالي سلسلو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ رنگ، ليڪ ۽ صورت تي ساڳيو زور ڏنو ويو. تجريدي خاصيتن باوجود، سندس ڪيوبزم مشيني دور ۽ جديد زندگيءَ جي موضوعن سان ڳنڍيل هو. اپولينيئر ''Les Peintres cubistes''، 1913ع، ۾ تجريدي ڪيوبزم جي انهن شروعاتي ترقيين جي حمايت ڪئي،<ref name="Apollinaire" /> ۽ هڪ نئين ”خالص“ مصوريءَ بابت لکيو، جنهن مان موضوع کي هٽايو ويو هو. پر سندس طرفان اورفزم جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪرڻ باوجود، اهي ڪم پاڻ ۾ ايترا مختلف هئا، جو کين هڪ ئي زمري ۾ رکڻ ڏکيو آهي.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> اپولينيئر مارسل ڊوشامپ کي پڻ اورفسٽ سڏيو، جيڪو ڪيوبزم کان متاثر هڪ ٻي انتهاپسند ترقيءَ جو ذميوار هو. [[مارسل ڊوشامپ جون تيار-شده شيون|تيار-شده شيون]] ان گڏيل خيال مان پيدا ٿيون ته فن پارو پاڻ هڪ شيءِ آهي، جيئن تصوير پڻ شيءِ آهي، ۽ اهو دنيا جي استعمال ٿيل مادي باقيات کي ڪم آڻي ٿو، جيئن ڪيوبسٽ تعمير ۽ اسمبلاژ ۾ ڪولاج ۽ پاپيئي ڪولي. ڊوشامپ لاءِ ايندڙ منطقي قدم اهو هو ته هڪ عام شيءِ کي اهڙي پاڻ ڪافي فن پارَي طور پيش ڪيو وڃي، جيڪو رڳو پاڻ کي ظاهر ڪري. 1913ع ۾ هن سائيڪل جو ڦيٿو رڌڻي جي اسٽول تي لڳايو، ۽ 1914ع ۾ بوتلون سڪائڻ واري ريڪ کي پنهنجي حق ۾ هڪ مجسمي طور چونڊيو.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ====سيڪشن ڊور==== {{main|سيڪشن ڊور}} [[File:Salon d'Automne 1912, Paris, works exhibited by Kupka, Modigliani, Csaky, Picabia, Metzinger, Le Fauconnier.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|1912ع جو {{lang|fr|[[سالون ڊومني]]|italic=no}}، جيڪو پيرس جي گران پالي ۾ 1 آڪٽوبر کان 8 نومبر تائين منعقد ٿيو. [[جوزف چاڪي]] جو 1911–12ع وارو مجسمو ''[[عورتن جو گروهه]]'' کاٻي پاسي، [[اميديو موڊيلياني]] جي ٻن مجسمن اڳيان ڏيکاريل آهي. [[سيڪشن ڊور]] جي ٻين فنڪارن جا ڪم پڻ ڏيکاريل آهن، کاٻي کان ساڄي: [[فرانتيشيڪ ڪوپڪا]]، [[فرانسس پڪابيا]]، [[جان ميٽزنگر]] ۽ [[آنري لي فوڪونيئر]].]] ''سيڪشن ڊور''، جنهن کي ''پوتو گروپ'' پڻ چيو ويندو هو، ڪجهه سڀ کان نمايان ڪيوبسٽن قائم ڪيو. اهو ڪيوبزم ۽ اورفزم سان لاڳاپيل مصورن، مجسما سازن ۽ نقادن جو گڏيل گروهه هو، جيڪو 1911ع کان لڳ ڀڳ 1914ع تائين سرگرم رهيو ۽ 1911ع جي [[سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان]] ۾ پنهنجي تڪراري نمائش کان پوءِ نمايان ٿيو. آڪٽوبر 1912ع ۾ پيرس جي ''گيلري لا بوئتي'' ۾ ٿيل ''سالون ڊي لا سيڪشن ڊور'' کي پهرين عالمي جنگ کان اڳ ڪيوبزم جي سڀ کان اهم نمائش سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جنهن ڪيوبزم کي وسيع عوام آڏو پيش ڪيو. نمائش ۾ 200 کان وڌيڪ ڪم ڏيکاريا ويا، ۽ ڪيترن فنڪارن 1909ع کان 1912ع تائين پنهنجي فني ترقيءَ جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ ڪم پيش ڪيا، جنهن سبب نمائش کي ڪيوبزم جي پٺتي نگاهه واري نمائش جهڙو تاثر مليو.<ref name="The History and Chronology of Cubism">{{Cite web|url=http://www.serdar-hizli-art.com/art_history/abstract_art/history_and_chronology_of_cubism_page_5.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314010756/http://www.serdar-hizli-art.com/art_history/abstract_art/history_and_chronology_of_cubism_page_5.htm|url-status=dead|title=The History and Chronology of Cubism, p. 5|archive-date=March 14, 2013}}</ref> ظاهر آهي ته گروهه ''سيڪشن ڊور'' جو نالو ان لاءِ اختيار ڪيو، جيئن پاڻ کي پيرس جي [[مونمارتر]] علائقي ۾ [[پابلو پڪاسو]] ۽ [[جارج براڪ]] جي هڪ ئي وقت ترقي ڪندڙ ڪيوبزم جي محدود وصف کان ڌار ڪري سگهي، ۽ اهو ڏيکاري سگهي ته ڪيوبزم ڪا الڳ ٿلڳ فني صورت نه، پر هڪ وڏي روايت جو تسلسل هو؛ حقيقت ۾ [[سونهري نسبت]] گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 2,400 سالن کان مختلف دلچسپين رکندڙ اولهه جي دانشورن کي موهيندي رهي هئي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_s8JyxbYrSG0/TJZ4b_6VYNI/AAAAAAAABfo/5RCFXVta2yk/s1600/La+Section+d%27Or+numéro+spécial+9+octobre+1912+couv.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403151309/http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_s8JyxbYrSG0/TJZ4b_6VYNI/AAAAAAAABfo/5RCFXVta2yk/s1600/La+Section+d%27Or+num%C3%A9ro+sp%C3%A9cial+9+octobre+1912+couv.jpg|url-status=dead|title=La Section d'Or, Numéro spécial, 9 Octobre 1912|archive-date=April 3, 2017}}</ref> سيڪشن ڊور جو خيال ميٽزنگر، گليز ۽ ژاڪ ويلون جي ڳالهين دوران پيدا ٿيو. گروهه جو نالو ويلون تجويز ڪيو، جڏهن هن [[ليونارڊو دا ونچي]] جي ''[[ڪوڊيڪس اربيناس|تراتاٽو ديلا پيتورا]]'' جو [[جوزفين پيلاڊان]] طرفان 1910ع ۾ ڪيل ترجمو پڙهيو. 19هين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ يورپي ماڻهو [[آفريقي ثقافت|آفريقي]]، پولينيشيائي، [[مائيڪرونيشيا|مائيڪرونيشيائي]] ۽ [[آمريڪا جا اصلوڪا ماڻهو|آمريڪا جي اصلوڪن ماڻهن]] جي فن کي دريافت ڪري رهيا هئا. [[پال گوگين]]، [[آنري ماتيس]] ۽ پابلو پڪاسو جهڙا فنڪار انهن پرڏيهي ثقافتن جي طرزن جي سخت قوت ۽ سادگيءَ کان متاثر ٿيا. لڳ ڀڳ 1906ع ۾ پڪاسو جي ملاقات [[گرٽروڊ اسٽائن]] وسيلي ماتيس سان ٿي، جڏهن ٻئي فنڪار تازو ئي [[ابتدائيت]]، [[آئيبيريا جا ماڻهو|آئيبيريائي]] مجسمي سازي، [[آفريقي فن]] ۽ [[آفريقي قبائلي نقاب]]ن ۾ دلچسپي وٺڻ لڳا هئا. اهي دوستاڻا حريف بڻيا ۽ پنهنجي سڄي فني سفر دوران هڪ ٻئي سان مقابلو ڪندا رهيا، جنهن شايد 1907ع تائين پڪاسو کي پنهنجي ڪم جي نئين دور ۾ داخل ٿيڻ ڏانهن ڌڪيو، جنهن تي يوناني، آئيبيريائي ۽ آفريقي فن جو اثر هو. پڪاسو جي 1907ع وارين تصويرن کي [[اڳ-ڪيوبزم|اڳ-ڪيوبزم]] سان منسوب ڪيو ويو آهي، خاص طور ''[[لي ڊيموئزل ڊي اوينيون]]'' ۾، جيڪا ڪيوبزم جي [[اڳيون نسل، نسب نامو|اڳڀري صورت]] هئي.<ref name="Cooper, 24" /> [[File:La Carrière de Bibémus, par Paul Cézanne, Yorck.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|[[پال سيزان]]، ''بيبيموس کاڻ''، 1898–1900ع، [[فوڪ وانگ عجائب گھر]]، ايسن، جرمني]] فن جي تاريخدان ڊگلس ڪوپر چوي ٿو ته [[پال گوگين]] ۽ [[پال سيزان]] ”ڪيوبزم جي جوڙجڪ تي خاص اثر وڌو ۽ 1906ع ۽ 1907ع دوران پڪاسو جي تصويرن لاءِ خاص اهميت رکندڙ هئا“.<ref>Cooper, 20–27</ref> ڪوپر وڌيڪ لکي ٿو: ”''ڊيموئزل'' کي عام طور پهرين ڪيوبسٽ تصوير چيو وڃي ٿو. اها وڌاءُ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيتوڻيڪ اها ڪيوبزم ڏانهن پهريون وڏو قدم هئي، پر اڃا ڪيوبسٽ نه هئي. ان ۾ خلل وجهندڙ، [[اظهار پسند]] عنصر ڪيوبزم جي روح جي به ابتڙ آهي، جنهن دنيا کي الڳ ۽ حقيقت پسند انداز سان ڏٺو. تنهن هوندي به، ''ڊيموئزل'' کي ڪيوبزم جي شروعاتي نقطي طور وٺڻ منطقي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها نئين تصويري ٻوليءَ جي جنم جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ پڪاسو قائم روايتن کي سختيءَ سان اونڌو ڪيو، ۽ ان کان پوءِ پيدا ٿيل هر شيءِ ان مان وڌي.“<ref name="Cooper, 24"/> ''ڊيموئزل'' کي ڪيوبزم جي شروعات سمجهڻ تي سڀ کان مضبوط اعتراض، ان تي ابتدائي فن جي چٽي اثر باوجود، اهو آهي ته ”اهڙا نتيجا غير تاريخي آهن“، فن جي تاريخدان [[ڊينئل رابنس، فن جو تاريخدان|ڊينئل رابنس]] لکيو.<ref name="Daniel Robbins">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/albertgleizes1881robb|title=Albert Gleizes, 1881–1953 : a retrospective exhibition|first=Daniel|last=Robbins|date=April 19, 1964|publisher=[New York : Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation]|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> اها عام تشريح ”ان اوسر وٺندڙ فن جي پيچيدگين کي مناسب اهميت ڏيڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿي، جيڪو پڪاسو جي نئين تصوير جي ترقيءَ کان ٿورو اڳ ۽ ان دوران موجود هو.“<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> 1905ع کان 1908ع جي وچ ۾ نئين طرز جي شعوري ڳولا فرانس، جرمني، نيدرلينڊز، اٽلي ۽ روس ۾ فن اندر تيز تبديليون آنديون. تاثرپسندن ٻٽي نظرئي کي استعمال ڪيو هو، ۽ [[لي نابي]] ۽ [[علامت پسندي، فن|علامت پسند]]، جيڪي سيزان کي پڻ ساراهيندا هئا، تصويري سطح کي هموار ڪري موضوعن کي سادن جاميٽري صورتن تائين محدود ڪيو. [[نئين تاثرپسندي|نئين تاثرپسند]] جوڙجڪ ۽ موضوع، خاص طور [[جارج سورا]] جي ڪمن، جهڙوڪ ''پراڊ ڊي سرڪ''، ''[[لي شاهو]]'' ۽ ''[[سرڪس، سورا جي تصوير|لي سرڪ]]'' ۾ ڏسڻ ۾ ايندڙ، پڻ هڪ اهم اثر هو. ادب ۽ سماجي فڪر جي ترقيءَ ۾ پڻ هڪجهڙايون موجود هيون.<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> سورا کان سواءِ، ڪيوبزم جون پاڙون سيزان جي پوئين دور جي ڪم جي ٻن الڳ لاڙن ۾ ڳولي سگهجن ٿيون: پهريون، رنگيل سطح کي رنگن جي ننڍن گهڻ رخن وارن علائقن ۾ ورهائڻ، جنهن سان [[ٻن اکين واري نظر]] مان پيدا ٿيندڙ گهڻ رخي نظرئي تي زور پيو؛ ۽ ٻيو، قدرتي صورتن کي سلنڊرن، گولن ۽ مخروطن ۾ سادو ڪرڻ ۾ سندس دلچسپي. پر ڪيوبسٽن هن تصور کي سيزان کان وڌيڪ اڳتي وڌايو. انهن ڏيکاريل شين جون سڀ سطحون هڪ ئي تصويري سطح تي پيش ڪيون، ڄڻ شين جا سڀ رخ هڪ ئي وقت نظر اچي رهيا هجن. هن نئين قسم جي پيشڪش تصوير سازي ۽ فن ۾ شين کي ڏسڻ جي انداز ۾ انقلاب آندو. [[File:Jean Metzinger, 1911-12, La Femme au Cheval - The Rider.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[جان ميٽزنگر]]، 1911–12ع، ''[[لا فام او شوال|گهوڙي سان عورت]]''، اسٽيٽنس ميوزيم فور ڪنسٽ، ڊينمارڪ جي قومي گيلري. 1912ع جي سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي ۽ اپولينيئر جي 1913ع واري ''[[ڪيوبسٽ مصور، جمالياتي ويچار]]'' ۾ ڇپي. اڳوڻي ملڪيت: ژاڪ نائيرال، [[نيلز بوهر]]]] ڪيوبزم جي تاريخي مطالعي جي شروعات 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ ٿي، ۽ شروعات ۾ محدود ڄاڻ وارن ماخذن، خاص طور [[گيوم اپولينيئر]] جي راين، تي ڀاڙيو ويو. پوءِ اهو گهڻو ڪري [[دانيئل-آنري ڪانوائلر]] جي ڪتاب ''Der Weg zum Kubismus''، جيڪو 1920ع ۾ ڇپيو، تي ڀاڙڻ لڳو، جنهن ۾ پڪاسو، براڪ، ليجي ۽ گريس جي ترقيءَ کي مرڪز بڻايو ويو. ”تجزياتي“ ۽ ”ترڪيبي“ جا اصطلاح، جيڪي پوءِ سامهون آيا، 1930ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ کان وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيا ويا. اهي ٻئي اصطلاح تاريخي طور پوءِ لاڳو ڪيا ويا، يعني جن حقيقتن کي اهي بيان ڪن ٿا، انهن کان پوءِ. انهن مرحلن مان ڪنهن کي به لاڳاپيل ڪم ٺهڻ وقت اهڙي نالي سان نه سڏيو ويو هو. ڊينئل رابنس لکيو: ”جيڪڏهن ڪانوائلر ڪيوبزم کي پڪاسو ۽ براڪ سمجهي ٿو، ته اسان جي رڳو اها غلطي آهي ته ٻين ڪيوبسٽن جي ڪمن کي ان محدود وصف جي سختيءَ هيٺ آڻيون.“<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> ”ڪيوبزم“ جي روايتي تشريح، جيڪا براڪ ۽ پڪاسو جي ڪمن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ پوءِ تيار ڪئي وئي، 20هين صديءَ جي ٻين فنڪارن بابت اسان جي قدرشناسيءَ تي اثر وڌو. ان کي [[جان ميٽزنگر]]، البرٽ گليز، [[رابرٽ ڊيلوني]] ۽ [[آنري لي فوڪونيئر]] جهڙن مصورن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روايتي ڪيوبزم کان سندن بنيادي فرقن ڪانوائلر کي اهو سوال ڪرڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ته ڇا کين ڪيوبسٽ سڏڻ به گهرجي يا نه. [[ڊينئل رابنس، فن جو تاريخدان|ڊينئل رابنس]] موجب: ”رڳو ان ڪري جو انهن فنڪارن مختلف نموني ترقي ڪئي يا روايتي نموني کان هٽي ويا، اهو چوڻ ته کين ڪيوبزم ۾ ثانوي يا سيٽلائيٽ ڪردار ڏنو وڃي، هڪ وڏي غلطي آهي.“<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> ”ڪيوبزم“ جي اصطلاح جي تاريخ عام طور ان ڳالهه تي زور ڏئي ٿي ته ماتيس 1908ع ۾ براڪ جي هڪ تصوير بابت ”ڪيوبن“ جو ذڪر ڪيو، ۽ نقاد [[لوئي ووڪسيل]] ساڳئي پسمنظر ۾ اهو اصطلاح ٻه ڀيرا ڇاپيو. پر ”ڪيوب“ لفظ 1906ع ۾ هڪ ٻئي نقاد، لوئي شاسوان، پڪاسو يا براڪ بدران ميٽزنگر ۽ ڊيلوني بابت استعمال ڪيو: ::”مسٽر ميٽزنگر، مسٽر [[پال سينياڪ|سينياڪ]] وانگر، هڪ موزائيڪ ساز آهي، پر هو پنهنجي رنگن جي ڪيوبن کي ڪٽڻ ۾ وڌيڪ درستگي آڻي ٿو، جيڪي ڄڻ مشيني طريقي سان ٺاهيا ويا هجن [...]“.<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /><ref>Louis Chassevent, ''Les Artistes Indépendants, 1906'', Quelques Petits Salons. Paris, 1908. Chassevent discussed Delaunay and Metzinger in terms of Signac's influence, referring to Metzinger's "precision in the cut of his cubes..."</ref><ref name="Robert Herbert">Robert Herbert, Neo-Impressionism, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York, 1968</ref> ”ڪيوب“ لفظ جو تنقيدي استعمال گهٽ ۾ گهٽ مئي 1901ع تائين وڃي ٿو، جڏهن جان بيرال ''آرٽ اي ليتراتور'' ۾ انڊيپانڊان ۾ [[آنري-ايڊمون ڪراس]] جي ڪم جو جائزو وٺندي لکيو ته هو ”وڏي ۽ چورس نقطي پسندي استعمال ڪري ٿو، جيڪا موزائيڪ جو تاثر ڏئي ٿي. ماڻهو اهو به سوچي ٿو ته فنڪار مختلف رنگن واري ٺوس مادي جا ڪيوب ڇو استعمال نه ڪيا: اهي سهڻا پوش ٺاهين ها.“ (رابرٽ هربرٽ، 1968ع، ص.&nbsp;221)<ref name="Robert Herbert" /> ڪيوبزم جو اصطلاح 1911ع تائين عام استعمال ۾ نه آيو، ۽ شروعات ۾ گهڻو ڪري ميٽزنگر، گليز، ڊيلوني ۽ ليجي لاءِ استعمال ٿيو.<ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> 1911ع ۾ شاعر ۽ نقاد [[گيوم اپولينيئر]] برسلز انڊيپانڊان ۾ نمائش لاءِ دعوت ڏنل فنڪارن جي هڪ گروهه پاران اهو اصطلاح قبول ڪيو. ايندڙ سال، [[سيڪشن ڊور]] جي سالون جي تياريءَ ۾ ميٽزنگر ۽ گليز ''[[Du "Cubisme"|دو ڪيوبزم]]'' لکيو ۽ ڇپايو،<ref>A. Gleizes and J. Metzinger. Du "Cubisme", Edition Figuière, Paris, 1912 (Eng. trans., London, 1913)</ref> ته جيئن اصطلاح بابت پکڙيل مونجهارو ختم ڪري سگهجي، ۽ ڪيوبزم جو مضبوط دفاع پيش ڪري سگهجي، جيڪو 1911ع جي سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۽ 1912ع جي پيرس واري سالون ڊومني کان پوءِ عوامي تڪرار جو سبب بڻيو هو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k201712x|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034853/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k201712x/f1.image|url-status=dead|title=Mercure de France : série moderne / directeur Alfred Vallette|date=December 1, 1912|archive-date=September 4, 2015|website=Gallica}}</ref> فنڪار طور سندن مقصد واضح ڪندڙ هيءُ ڪم ڪيوبزم بابت پهريون نظرياتي مقالو هو ۽ اڄ به سڀ کان صاف ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان بيانن مان هڪ آهي. نتيجو رڳو ٻن ليکڪن جي گڏيل ڪوشش نه هو، پر انهن فنڪارن جي حلقي جي ڳالهين کي پڻ ظاهر ڪندو هو، جيڪي [[پوتو]] ۽ [[ڪوربوا]] ۾ ملندا هئا. ان ۾ ”پاسي جي فنڪارن“ جي روين جي عڪاسي ٿي، جن ۾ پڪابيا ۽ ڊوشامپ ڀائر شامل هئا، ۽ ڇپجڻ کان اڳ ان جا حصا کين پڙهي ٻڌايا ويا هئا.<ref name="Christopher Green" /><ref name="Daniel Robbins" /> ''دو ڪيوبزم'' ۾ ترقي ڪيل خيال، يعني ڪنهن موضوع کي جاءِ ۽ وقت جي مختلف نقطن کان هڪ ئي وقت ڏسڻ، يعني ڪنهن شيءِ جي چوڌاري گهمي ان کي لڳاتار ڪيترن رخن کان ڏسي هڪ تصوير ۾ گڏ ڪرڻ، گهڻن نظرين، حرڪتي منظر، هم وقتيت يا گهڻائي، ڪيوبسٽن جو عام طور مڃيل طريقو آهي.<ref name="David Cottington">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KFGgxn7lfq0C&q=Cubism%2C+mobile+perspective&pg=PA92|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225927/https://books.google.com/books?id=KFGgxn7lfq0C&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=Cubism,+mobile+perspective&source=bl&ots=rm_znb7YtG&sig=8jHfIJBskeVW31AU_0hqno0HLBY&hl=fr|url-status=dead|title=Cubism and Its Histories|first=David|last=Cottington|date=April 19, 2004|archive-date=January 1, 2016|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn = 9780719050046|via=Google Books}}</ref> ميٽزنگر ۽ گليز جي 1912ع واري منشور ''[[Du "Cubisme"|دو ڪيوبزم]]'' کان پوءِ 1913ع ۾ ''[[ڪيوبسٽ مصور، جمالياتي ويچار|لي پينتر ڪيوبسٽ]]'' ڇپيو، جيڪو گيوم اپولينيئر جي ويچارن ۽ تبصرن جو مجموعو هو.<ref name="Apollinaire">Guillaume Apollinaire, ''Les Peintres cubistes: Méditations esthétiques'' (Paris, 1913)</ref> اپولينيئر 1905ع کان پڪاسو ۽ 1907ع کان براڪ سان ويجهو رهيو، پر هن ميٽزنگر، گليز، ڊيلوني، پڪابيا ۽ ڊوشامپ جهڙن فنڪارن کي پڻ اوتري ئي اهميت ڏني.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> 1912ع واري نمائش کي اهڙي نموني ترتيب ڏنو ويو هو، جو ڪيوبزم جي ترقيءَ جا لڳاتار مرحلا ڏيکاري سگهجن، ۽ ''[[Du "Cubisme"|دو ڪيوبزم]]'' ان موقعي لاءِ شايع ڪيو ويو؛ ان مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته فنڪارن جو ارادو پنهنجو ڪم وسيع عوام، يعني فن نقادن، فن گڏ ڪندڙن، فن واپارين ۽ عام ماڻهن، لاءِ سمجهڻ جوڳو بڻائڻ هو. بيشڪ، نمائش جي وڏي ڪاميابيءَ سبب ڪيوبزم هڪ مخصوص گڏيل فلسفي يا مقصد رکندڙ اوان گارڊ فني صنف يا طرز طور سڃاتو ويو.<ref name="The History and Chronology of Cubism" /> ===ڪرسٽل ڪيوبزم: 1914–1918=== {{main|ڪرسٽل ڪيوبزم}} 1914ع کان 1916ع جي وچ ۾ ڪيوبزم ۾ هڪ اهم تبديلي آئي، جنهن ۾ وڏن، هڪ ٻئي مٿان چڙهيل جاميٽري سطحن ۽ هموار مٿاڇري واري سرگرميءَ تي وڌيڪ زور ڏنو ويو. مصوري ۽ مجسما سازيءَ جي انهن طرزن جو هيءُ مجموعو، جيڪو خاص طور 1917ع کان 1920ع جي وچ ۾ اهم رهيو، ڪيترن فنڪارن اختيار ڪيو؛ خاص طور انهن فنڪارن، جيڪي فن واپاري ۽ گڏ ڪندڙ [[ليونيس روزنبرگ]] سان معاهدي هيٺ هئا. انهن ڪمن ۾ جوڙجڪ جي سختي، چٽائي ۽ ترتيب جي احساس سبب نقاد [[موريس رينال]] ان کي ”ڪرسٽل“ ڪيوبزم سڏيو. [[پهرين عالمي جنگ]] کان اڳ ڪيوبسٽن وٽ موجود ويچار، جهڙوڪ [[فن ۾ چوٿون رخ|چوٿون رخ]]، جديد زندگيءَ جي حرڪت، ڳجهي علم ۽ [[آنري برگسان]] جو [[مدت، فلسفو|مدت]] وارو تصور، هاڻي ڇڏي ڏنا ويا ۽ انهن جي جاءِ خالص صورت پسند حوالاتي ڍانچي ورتي.<ref name="Green, 1987">[https://books.google.com/books?id=e7ZuQgAACAAJ&q=Christopher+Green,+%27%27Cubism+and+Its+Enemies:+Modern+Movements Christopher Green, ''Cubism and Its Enemies: Modern Movements and Reaction in French Art, 1916–1928''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225927/https://books.google.com/books?id=e7ZuQgAACAAJ&dq=Christopher+Green,+%27%27Cubism+and+Its+Enemies:+Modern+Movements&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gliFVJKzJcizUe3AghA&redir_esc=y |date=2016-01-01 }}, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987, {{ISBN|0300034687}}</ref> ڪرسٽل ڪيوبزم ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ''رپل آ لاردر'' کي انهن ماڻهن جي اهڙي لاڙي سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي، جيڪي هٿياربند فوجن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا يا شهري شعبي ۾ رهيا، ۽ جيڪي عظيم جنگ جي حقيقتن کان ڀڄڻ چاهيندا هئا، جنگ دوران به ۽ ان جي فوري پڄاڻيءَ کان پوءِ به. 1914ع کان 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ تائين ڪيوبزم جي صفائي، ان جي گڏيل وحدت ۽ رضاڪارانه پابندين کي فرانسيسي سماج ۽ [[فرانس جي ثقافت|فرانسيسي ثقافت]] ٻنهي ۾ [[قدامت پسندي]] ڏانهن هڪ گهڻي وسيع [[نظريو|نظرياتي]] تبديليءَ سان لاڳاپيل سمجهيو ويو آهي.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ===پرڏيهه کان آيل مصور=== [[File:Diego Rivera, 1914, Portrait de Messieurs Kawashima et Foujita, oil and collage on canvas, 78.5 x 74 cm, private collection.jpg|thumb|[[ڊيگو رويرا]]، ''مسٽر ڪواشيما ۽ فوجيتا جو خاڪو''، 1914ع]] [[تسوگوهارو فوجيتا]] 1913ع ۾ پيرس آيو ۽ ان رنگا رنگ فني ماحول جو حصو بڻيو، جيڪو پوءِ ايڪول ڊي پيرس جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. جلد ئي هن مصور ريئيچيرو ڪواشيما سان اسٽوڊيو ورهايو، جنهن جا پيرس جي فني دنيا ۾ ڪيترائي لاڳاپا هئا. سيتي فالگئيئر ڏانهن اسٽوڊيو منتقل ڪرڻ کان پوءِ فوجيتا ۽ ڪواشيما مصورن اميديو موڊيلياني ۽ شائم سوٽين سان دوستي ڪئي، ۽ پابلو پڪاسو ۽ ڊيگو رويرا جي اسٽوڊيوز جو دورو ڪيو، جن سندن ڪيوبسٽ طرز ۾ خاڪا ٺاهيا. [[ڊيگو رويرا]] 1914ع ۾ پيرس ۾ پڪاسو سان مليو ۽ ساڻس دوستي ڪئي. هن ڪيوبسٽ تحريڪ جا عنصر پنهنجي ڪم ۾ شامل ڪيا، پر انهن کي پنهنجي نظرئي ۽ ميڪسيڪي موضوعن سان گڏايو. پڪاسو جي اسٽوڊيو ۾ هڪ تڪرار پيدا ٿيو، جتي رويرا هڪ تازو ٺهيل ڪينواس ڏٺو، جنهن کي هن پنهنجي ڪيوبسٽ طريقن ۽ جوڙجڪن جي لڳ ڀڳ سڌي نقل سمجهيو. جڏهن هن پڪاسو کي منهن ڏنو ته پڪاسو ڪاوڙ ۾ چوريءَ جي الزام کان انڪار ڪيو، ۽ رويرا کي اسٽوڊيو مان ڪڍيو ويو، جنهن سان سندن لاڳاپو ختم ٿي ويو.<ref>https://www.timeoutmexico.mx/ciudad-de-mexico/arte/picasso-y-rivera-conversaciones-a-traves-del-tiempo {{Bare URL inline|date=July 2026}}</ref> [[ميڪس ويبر]]، جنهن پيرس ۾ تعليم ورتي ۽ سڌو پابلو پڪاسو سان لاڳاپيل رهيو، کي پهريون آمريڪي ڪيوبسٽ مصور سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين آمريڪي فنڪارن، جن ۾ الفرڊ مورر، اسٽيوارٽ ڊيوس ۽ مينيئر ڊاسن شامل آهن، پڻ آمريڪا ۾ تجريد ۽ ڪيوبسٽ طريقن جا شروعاتي اڳواڻ هئا.<ref>https://www.themagazineantiques.com/article/pulling-rabbits-out-of-a-hat/ {{Bare URL inline|date=July 2026}}</ref> ===1918ع کان پوءِ ڪيوبزم=== ڪيوبزم جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جدت ڀريو دور 1914ع کان اڳ هو.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} پهرين عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ، واپاري [[ليونيس روزنبرگ]] جي سهڪار سان، ڪيوبزم ٻيهر فنڪارن لاءِ هڪ مرڪزي موضوع بڻيو ۽ 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ تائين ائين رهيو، جڏهن پيرس ۾ [[جاميٽري تجريد]] ۽ [[سريئلزم]] جي اڀار سبب ان جي اوان گارڊ حيثيت تي سوال اٿيا. ڪيترائي ڪيوبسٽ، جن ۾ پڪاسو، براڪ، گريس، ليجي، گليز، ميٽزنگر ۽ [[ايميليو پيٽوروٽي]] شامل هئا، ٻين طرزن کي ترقي ڏيڻ دوران 1925ع کان گهڻو پوءِ به وقت بوقت ڪيوبزم ڏانهن موٽندا رهيا. 1920ع ۽ 1930ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ آمريڪي [[اسٽيوارٽ ڊيوس، مصور|اسٽيوارٽ ڊيوس]] ۽ انگريز [[بين نڪولسن]] جي ڪمن ۾ ڪيوبزم ٻيهر ظاهر ٿيو. فرانس ۾، تنهن هوندي به، ڪيوبزم لڳ ڀڳ 1925ع کان زوال جو شڪار ٿيو. ليونيس روزنبرگ نه رڳو ڪانوائلر جي جلاوطنيءَ سبب بي سهارا ٿيل فنڪارن، پر لوران، لپشٽز، ميٽزنگر، گليز، چاڪي، هربين ۽ سيويريني سميت ٻين جا ڪم پڻ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيا. 1918ع ۾ روزنبرگ پيرس جي پنهنجي گيلري ڊي ليفورٽ موڊرن ۾ ڪيوبسٽ نمائشون منعقد ڪيون. لوئي ووڪسيل ڪيوبزم جي موت جو دليل ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، پر انهن نمائشَن، 1920ع جي سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ سٺي نموني ترتيب ڏنل ڪيوبسٽ نمائش، ۽ ساڳئي سال سالون ڊي لا سيڪشن ڊور جي بحاليءَ ڏيکاريو ته ڪيوبزم اڃا زنده هو.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ڪيوبزم جي ٻيهر اڀار سان لڳ ڀڳ 1917ع کان 1924ع تائين پيئر رويردي، موريس رينال ۽ دانيئل-آنري ڪانوائلر، ۽ فنڪارن مان گريس، ليجي ۽ گليز، جي هڪ منظم نظرياتي لکڻين جو سلسلو به سامهون آيو. هن دور ۾ ڪيترن فنڪارن جو وقت بوقت ڪلاسڪيت ڏانهن موٽڻ، يعني رڳو تصويري ڪم يا ڪيوبسٽ ڪم سان گڏ تصويري ڪم، جنهن کي [[نئين ڪلاسڪيت]] چيو وڃي ٿو، جنگ جي حقيقتن کان بچڻ جي لاڙي ۽ جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان فوري پوءِ فرانس جي ڪلاسيڪي يا لاطيني تصور جي ثقافتي غلبي سان ڳنڍيو ويو آهي. 1918ع کان پوءِ ڪيوبزم کي فرانسيسي سماج ۽ ثقافت ٻنهي ۾ [[قدامت پسندي]] ڏانهن وسيع نظرياتي تبديليءَ جو حصو سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. تنهن هوندي به، ڪيوبزم پاڻ انفرادي فنڪارن، جهڙوڪ گريس ۽ ميٽزنگر، جي مجموعي ڪم اندر ۽ براڪ، ليجي ۽ گليز جهڙن پاڻ ۾ بلڪل مختلف فنڪارن جي ڪمن ۾ ارتقائي رهيو. عوامي طور بحث هيٺ تحريڪ طور ڪيوبزم نسبتاً متحد ۽ وصف لاءِ کليل بڻيو. ان جي نظرياتي خالصتا هڪ اهڙو ماپو بڻجي، جنهن جي مقابلي ۾ [[حقيقت پسندي، بصري فنون|حقيقت پسندي]] يا [[حقيقت پسندي، فن#مثاليت جي مزاحمت ڪندڙ حقيقت پسندي يا فطرت پسندي|فطرت پسندي]]، [[دادا]]، [[سريئلزم]] ۽ تجريد جهڙن مختلف لاڙن کي پرکي سگهجي پيو.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ====ايشيا ۾ اثر==== [[جاپان]] ۽ [[چين]] ايشيا جي پهرين ملڪن مان هئا، جيڪي ڪيوبزم کان متاثر ٿيا. پهريون رابطو 1910ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ جاپاني فني رسالن ۾ ترجمو ٿيل ۽ ڇپيل يورپي متنن وسيلي ٿيو. 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ پيرس ۾ تعليم وٺندڙ جاپاني ۽ چيني فنڪار، مثال طور [[ايڪول ناسيونال سپيريئر دي بو زار]] ۾ پڙهندڙ، جديد فني تحريڪن، جن ۾ ڪيوبزم شامل هو، جي سمجهه پاڻ سان واپس کڻي آيا. ڪيوبسٽ خاصيتون ڏيکاريندڙ اهم ڪمن ۾ [[تيتسوگورو يوروزو]] جو ''ڳاڙهين اکين سان خود خاڪو''، 1912ع، ۽ [[فانگ گانمن]] جو ''سرءُ جي ڌن''، 1934ع، شامل آهن.<ref>{{Cite journal|author-last1=Kolokytha|author-first1= Chara |author-last2=Hammond|author-first2= J.M. |author-last3=Vlčková|author-first3= Lucie |title=Cubism|url=https://www.rem.routledge.com/articles/overview/cubism|journal=Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aaa.org.hk/en/collection/search/library/cubism-in-asia-unbounded-dialogues-report|title=Cubism in Asia: Unbounded Dialogues – Report|last=Archive|first=Asia Art|website=aaa.org.hk|language=en|access-date=2018-12-22}}</ref> ==تشريح== ===مقصد ۽ تنقيد=== [[File:Juan Gris - Portrait of Pablo Picasso - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.95|[[خوان گريس]]، ''پابلو پڪاسو جو خاڪو''، 1912ع، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، [[شڪاگو فن ادارو]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gris|first=Juan|title=Portrait of Pablo Picasso|url=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/8624/portrait-of-pablo-picasso|access-date=2021-06-07|website=The Art Institute of Chicago|language=en}}</ref>]] پڪاسو ۽ براڪ جي ڪيوبزم کي رڳو فني يا صوري اهميت نه هئي، ۽ سالون ڪيوبسٽن جا جدا رويا ۽ ارادا سندن ڪم جي نڪتل صورت بدران ڪيوبزم جون مختلف صورتون پيدا ڪندا هئا. ڪرسٽوفر گرين لکيو: ”ڪنهن به صورت ۾ اهو بلڪل واضح ناهي ته اهي ٻيا ڪيوبسٽ رخن ۾ ورهائڻ، ’پاساژ‘ ۽ گهڻ رخي منظر جهڙن طريقن جي ترقيءَ لاءِ پڪاسو ۽ براڪ تي ڪيتري حد تائين ڀاڙيندا هئا؛ ممڪن آهي ته هو شروعاتي مرحلي ۾ ’حقيقي‘ ڪيوبزم جي ٿوري ڄاڻ سان به انهن طريقن تائين پهچي ويا هجن، ۽ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سيزان بابت پنهنجي سمجهه جي رهنمائي هيٺ هجن.“ 1911ع ۽ 1912ع جي سالونن ۾ انهن ڪيوبسٽن جا ڏيکاريل ڪم پڪاسو ۽ براڪ جي پسنديده روايتي سيزان جهڙن موضوعن، يعني بيهاريل ماڊل، ساڪن زندگي ۽ منظر نگاري، کان اڳتي وڌي وڏي پيماني جي جديد زندگيءَ وارن موضوعن تائين پهتا. وسيع عوام لاءِ تيار ڪيل انهن ڪمن ۾ گهڻ رخي منظر ۽ پيچيده سطحي رخن کي اظهارائتي اثر لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته ادبي ۽ فلسفياتي اشارن سان ڀرپور موضوعن جي معنوي قوت برقرار رکي وئي.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ''دو ڪيوبزم'' ۾ ميٽزنگر ۽ گليز وقت جي احساس کي واضح طور گهڻ رخي منظر سان ڳنڍيو، ۽ فلسفي [[آنري برگسان]] جي تجويز ڪيل ”مدت“ واري خيال کي علامتي اظهار ڏنو، جنهن موجب زندگيءَ کي ذاتي طور هڪ لڳاتار وهڪري جي صورت ۾ محسوس ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جتي ماضي حال ۾ وهي ٿو ۽ حال مستقبل ۾ ضم ٿئي ٿو. سالون ڪيوبسٽن ٺوس شين ۽ جاءِ جي رخن واري ورتاءَ ۽ گهڻن نظرين جي اثرن کي شعور جي وهڪري جي جسماني ۽ نفسياتي احساس جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ڪيو، جنهن سان ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل وچ ۾ فرق ڌنڌلو ٿيو. پڪاسو ۽ براڪ کان الڳ سالون ڪيوبسٽن جي هڪ اهم نظرياتي جدت ''هم وقتيت'' هئي،<ref name="Christopher Green" /> جيڪا وڌيڪ يا گهٽ حد تائين [[آنري پوئنڪاري]]، [[ارنسٽ ماخ]]، [[شارل آنري، ڪتب خانو ماهر|شارل آنري]]، [[موريس پرنسي]] ۽ آنري برگسان جي نظرين مان اثر وٺندي هئي. هم وقتيت سان جدا خلائي ۽ وقتي رخن جي تصور کي مڪمل طور چئلينج ڪيو ويو. [[خطي منظر نگاري]]، جيڪا [[نشاة ثانيه]] دوران ترقي ڪئي هئي، ڇڏي ڏني وئي. موضوع کي هاڻي وقت جي ڪنهن هڪ لمحي ۾ هڪ خاص نظرئي کان نه ڏٺو ويندو هو، پر لڳاتار چونڊيل نظرين جي بنياد تي ٺاهيو ويندو هو؛ يعني ڄڻ ان کي هڪ ئي وقت ڪيترن رخن ۽ ڪيترن پاسن کان ڏٺو وڃي، ۽ اک کي هڪ کان ٻئي ڏانهن آزاديءَ سان گهمڻ ڏنو وڃي.<ref name="David Cottington" /> هم وقتيت، گهڻن نظرين يا [[لاڳاپيل حرڪت]] جي نمائندگيءَ واري هن طريقي کي ميٽزنگر جي ''[[نيو آ لا شيميني]]''، جيڪا 1910ع جي سالون ڊومني ۾ ڏيکاري وئي؛ گليز جي وڏي ''[[فصل جي ڏاڪن جي ڪٽائي|لو ديپيڪاژ دي مواسون (فصل جي ڏاڪن جي ڪٽائي)]]''، جيڪا 1912ع جي سالون ڊي لا سيڪشن ڊور ۾ ڏيکاري وئي؛ لي فوڪونيئر جي ''وافر مقدار''، جيڪا 1911ع جي انڊيپانڊان ۾ ڏيکاري وئي؛ ۽ ڊيلوني جي ''پيرس جو شهر''، جيڪا 1912ع جي انڊيپانڊان ۾ ڏيکاري وئي، ۾ انتهائي پيچيدگيءَ تائين پهچايو ويو. اهي وڏي خواهش رکندڙ ڪم ڪيوبزم جي تاريخ جي سڀ کان وڏين تصويرن مان آهن. ليجي جي ''شادي''، جيڪا پڻ 1912ع جي سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ ڏيکاري وئي، مختلف نمونن کي هڪ ئي وقتي ڍانچي اندر ٿيندي ڏيکاري هم وقتيت جي تصور کي صورت ڏني، جتي ماضي ۽ حال جا ردعمل گڏيل قوت سان هڪ ٻئي ۾ داخل ٿين ٿا. اهڙي موضوع ۽ هم وقتيت جو گڏجڻ سالون ڪيوبزم کي [[امبرٽو بوچوني]]، جينو سيويريني ۽ [[ڪارلو ڪارا]] جي شروعاتي فيوچرسٽ تصويرن سان هم آهنگ ڪري ٿو، جيڪي پاڻ شروعاتي ڪيوبزم جي ردعمل ۾ ٺاهيون ويون هيون.<ref name="MoMA, Meanings and interpretations" /> ڪيوبزم ۽ [[جديد فن|جديد يورپي فن]] آمريڪا ۾ مشهور 1913ع واري [[آرمري شو]] وسيلي [[نيويارڪ شهر]] ۾ متعارف ٿيو، جيڪو پوءِ [[شڪاگو]] ۽ [[بوسٽن]] ويو. آرمري شو ۾ [[پابلو پڪاسو]] ''لا فام او پو دي موتارد''، 1910ع، مجسمو ''عورت جو مٿو (فرنانڊ)'، 1909–10ع، ''لي زاربر''، 1907ع، ۽ ٻيا ڪيوبسٽ ڪم نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيا. [[ژاڪ ويلون]] ست اهم ۽ وڏا ڊرائي پوائنٽ پيش ڪيا، جڏهن ته سندس ڀاءُ [[مارسل ڊوشامپ]] پنهنجي تصوير ''[[ڏاڪڻ تان لهندڙ اگهاڙو جسم، نمبر 2]]''، 1912ع، سان آمريڪي عوام کي حيران ڪيو. [[فرانسس پڪابيا]] پنهنجا تجريدي ڪم ''لا دانس آ لا سورس'' ۽ ''لا پروسيسيون، سيويل''، ٻئي 1912ع، پيش ڪيا. [[البرٽ گليز]] ''[[لا فام او فلوڪس، گليز|لا فام او فلوڪس]]''، 1910ع، ۽ ''[[بالڪونيءَ تي ماڻهو، گليز|لوم او بالڪون]]''، 1912ع، جهڙا انتهائي اسلوب بند ۽ رخن ۾ ورهايل ڪيوبسٽ ڪم نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيا. [[جارج براڪ]]، [[فرنان ليجي]]، [[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]]، [[راجر ڊي لا فريزني]] ۽ [[اليگزينڊر آرڪيپينڪو]] پڻ پنهنجن ڪيوبسٽ ڪمن جا نمونا پيش ڪيا. ==ڪيوبسٽ مجسما سازي== {{main|ڪيوبسٽ مجسما سازي}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | width = | image1 = Pablo Picasso, 1909–10, Head of a Woman (Fernande), modeled on Fernande Olivier (right side).jpg | width1 = 160 | caption1 = [[فرنانڊ اوليويئر]] جي بنياد تي ٺهيل پتل جي مجسمي جو پاسي وارو منظر | alt1 = | image2 = Pablo Picasso, 1909–10, Head of a Woman (Fernande), modeled on Fernande Olivier.jpg | width2 = 160 | caption2 = ساڳئي پتل جي مجسمي جو سامهون وارو منظر، 40.5 × 23 × 26 سينٽي ميٽر | alt2 = <!-- Extra parameters --> | header = پابلو پڪاسو، 1909–10ع، ''عورت جو مٿو'' | header_align = center | header_background = | footer = اهي تصويرون 1913ع ۾ ''Umělecký Mĕsíčník'' ۾ ڇپيون<ref>[http://bluemountain.princeton.edu/bluemtn/cgi-bin/bluemtn?a=d&d=bmtnabk1913-04.2.3&srpos=19&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN-picasso----# Pablo Picasso, 1909–10, ''Head of a Woman'', bronze, published in ''Umělecký Mĕsíčník'', 1913] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303215312/http://bluemountain.princeton.edu/bluemtn/cgi-bin/bluemtn?a=d&d=bmtnabk1913-04.2.3&srpos=19&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN-picasso---- |date=2014-03-03 }}, Blue Mountain Project, Princeton University</ref> | footer_align = center | footer_background = | background color = }} جيئن مصوريءَ ۾، تيئن ڪيوبسٽ مجسما سازيءَ جون پاڙون پال سيزان طرفان رنگيل شين کي جزوي سطحن ۽ جاميٽري ٺوس صورتن، يعني ڪيوبن، گولن، سلنڊرن ۽ مخروطن، ۾ گهٽائڻ ۾ آهن. ۽ جيئن مصوريءَ ۾، تيئن هن جو به وسيع اثر پيو ۽ هن بنيادي طور [[تعميريت، فن|تعميريت]] ۽ [[فيوچرزم]] جي ترقيءَ ۾ ڀاڱو وڌو. ڪيوبسٽ مجسما سازي ڪيوبسٽ مصوريءَ سان گڏوگڏ ترقي ڪئي. 1909ع جي سرءُ ۾ پڪاسو ''عورت جو مٿو (فرنانڊ)'' ٺاهيو، جنهن ۾ هاڪاري خاصيتن کي ناڪاري جاءِ وسيلي ۽ ان جي ابتڙ ڏيکاريو ويو. ڊگلس ڪوپر موجب: ”پهريون حقيقي ڪيوبسٽ مجسمو پڪاسو جو اثرائتو ''عورت جو مٿو'' هو، جيڪو 1909–10ع ۾ ٺاهيو ويو، ۽ جيڪو ان وقت سندس تصويرن ۾ موجود ساڳين تجزياتي ۽ رخن ۾ ورهايل مٿن جو ٽي-رخائي هم منصب هو.“<ref name="The Cubist Epoch" /> انهن هاڪاري ۽ ناڪاري ابتڙن کي [[اليگزينڊر آرڪيپينڪو]] 1912–13ع ۾ وڏي همٿ سان استعمال ڪيو، مثال طور ''هلندڙ عورت'' ۾.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> [[جوزف چاڪي]] آرڪيپينڪو کان پوءِ پيرس جو پهريون مجسما ساز هو، جيڪو ڪيوبسٽن سان شامل ٿيو ۽ 1911ع کان ساڻن گڏ نمائشون ڪندو رهيو. ان کان پوءِ [[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]] ۽ پوءِ 1914ع ۾ [[ژاڪ لپشٽز]]، [[آنري لوران]] ۽ [[اوسپ زادڪين]] شامل ٿيا.<ref>Robert Rosenblum, "Cubism", Readings in Art History 2 (1976), Seuphor, Sculpture of this Century</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUPz18-QeyEC&q=csaky|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225927/https://books.google.com/books?id=rUPz18-QeyEC&q=csaky|url-status=dead|title=Joseph Csáky: A Pioneer of Modern Sculpture|first=Edith|last=Balas|date=April 19, 1998|archive-date=January 1, 2016|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn = 9780871692306|via=Google Books}}</ref> حقيقت ۾، ڪيوبسٽ تعمير ڪنهن به تصويري ڪيوبسٽ جدت جيتري اثرائتي هئي. اها [[نائوم گابو]] ۽ [[ولاديمير تاتلين]] ٻنهي جي اڳ-تعميريت واري ڪم جي پٺيان اهم تحريڪ هئي، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح 20هين صديءَ جي جديديت پسند مجسما سازيءَ جي سموري تعميري لاڙي جو شروعاتي نقطو بڻجي.<ref name="Christopher Green" /> ==اڏاوتي طرز== [[File:Palace of Assembly Chandigarh 2006.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|لي ڪوربوزيئر، اسيمبليءَ جي عمارت، [[چنڊي ڳڙهه]]، ڀارت]] ڪيوبزم 20هين صديءَ جي شروعات واري فن ۽ اڏاوتي طرز وچ ۾ هڪ اهم ڪڙي قائم ڪئي.<ref name="Blau & Troy">{{Cite book|title=Architecture and cubism|date=April 19, 2002|publisher=Centre canadien d'architecture/Canadian Centre for Architecture : MIT Press|oclc=915987228}}</ref> مصوري، مجسما سازي ۽ اڏاوتي طرز ۾ اوان گارڊ عملن جا تاريخي، نظرياتي ۽ سماجي-سياسي لاڳاپا شروعاتي طور فرانس، جرمني، نيدرلينڊز ۽ [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] ۾ اثرانداز ٿيا. جيتوڻيڪ ڪيوبزم ۽ اڏاوتي طرز وچ ۾ ڪيترائي گڏيل نقطا موجود آهن، پر ٻنهي وچ ۾ رڳو ٿورا سڌا لاڳاپا قائم ڪري سگهجن ٿا. گهڻو ڪري انهن جا لاڳاپا گڏيل صوري خاصيتن جي حوالي سان بيان ڪيا وڃن ٿا، جهڙوڪ صورتن کي رخن ۾ ورهائڻ، خلائي ابهام، شفافيت ۽ گهڻائي.<ref name="Blau & Troy" /> اڏاوتي طرز ۾ ڪيوبزم بابت دلچسپي ٽي-رخائي صورت کي ٽوڙڻ ۽ ٻيهر جوڙڻ تي مرڪوز هئي، جنهن ۾ ساديون جاميٽري صورتون روايتي منظر نگاريءَ جي وهم کان سواءِ هڪ ٻئي ڀرسان رکيون وينديون هيون. مختلف جزن کي هڪ ٻئي مٿان رکي، شفاف بڻائي يا هڪ ٻئي ۾ داخل ڪري سگهجي پيو، جڏهن ته سندن خلائي لاڳاپا برقرار رهندا هئا. 1912ع کان، [[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]] ۽ [[آندري مار]] جي ''لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ'' کان پوءِ، ڪيوبزم جديد اڏاوتي طرز جي ترقيءَ ۾ هڪ اثرائتو عنصر بڻيو، ۽ [[پيٽر بهرنس]] ۽ [[والٽر گروپيس]] جهڙن معمارن جي ڪم سان گڏوگڏ ترقي ڪندو رهيو؛ ان سان عمارتن جي ڊزائن کي سادو ڪرڻ، صنعتي پيداوار لاءِ مناسب مواد استعمال ڪرڻ ۽ شيشي جي استعمال ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref name="Christopher Green, Architecture">{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/collection/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405115249/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10068&section_id=T020551|url-status=dead|title=The Collection &#124; MoMA|archive-date=April 5, 2012|website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref> [[File:Zürich - Seefeld - Corbusier - Heidi Weber Museum IMG 1552.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.25|لي ڪوربوزيئر، [[سينٽر لي ڪوربوزيئر]]، يا هائيدي ويبر عجائب گھر، [[زيورخ]] جي [[سيفيلڊ، زيورخ|سيفيلڊ]]، [[زيورخ هورن]] ۾]] ڪيوبزم اهڙي اڏاوتي طرز لاءِ اهم هو، جيڪا ماضيءَ ڏانهن رجوع ڪرڻ کان سواءِ نئون انداز ڳولي رهي هئي. اهڙيءَ طرح، جيڪو مصوري ۽ مجسما سازيءَ ۾ انقلاب بڻجي چڪو هو، تنهن کي ”بدليل دنيا ڏانهن گهري نئين رخ اختيار ڪرڻ“ جي حصي طور اڏاوتي طرز ۾ لاڳو ڪيو ويو.<ref name="Christopher Green, Architecture" /><ref>P. R. Banham. Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (London, 1960), p. 203</ref> [[فليپو توماسو مارينيٽي]] جي ڪيوبو-فيوچرسٽ خيالن اوان گارڊ اڏاوتي طرز بابت روين تي اثر وڌو. اثرائتي [[ڊي اسٽيجل]] تحريڪ، پيرس ۾ ڪيوبزم جي اثر هيٺ [[پيٽ مونڊريان]] جي ترقي ڪيل نئين پلاسٽڪيت جي جمالياتي اصولن کي اختيار ڪيو. [[جينو سيويريني]] پڻ البرٽ گليز جي لکڻين وسيلي ڊي اسٽيجل کي ڪيوبسٽ نظريي سان ڳنڍيو. تنهن هوندي به، بنيادي جاميٽري صورتن کي فطري حسن ۽ صنعتي استعمال جي آسانيءَ سان ڳنڍڻ، جنهن جي اڳڪٿي مارسل ڊوشامپ 1914ع کان ڪئي هئي، [[پيوريزم، فن|پيوريزم]] جي باني [[اميدي اوزانفان]] ۽ شارل-ايڊوار ژانري، جيڪو [[لي ڪوربوزيئر]] جي نالي سان وڌيڪ مشهور هو، جي حصي ۾ آيو. ٻنهي پيرس ۾ گڏجي تصويرون نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪيون ۽ 1918ع ۾ ''اپري لي ڪيوبزم'' شايع ڪيو.<ref name="Christopher Green, Architecture" /> لي ڪوربوزيئر جي خواهش هئي ته هو پنهنجي ڪيوبزم واري طرز جون خاصيتون اڏاوتي طرز ۾ منتقل ڪري. 1918ع کان 1922ع تائين هن پنهنجون ڪوششون پيوريزم جي نظريي ۽ مصوريءَ تي مرڪوز رکيون. 1922ع ۾ لي ڪوربوزيئر ۽ سندس سئوٽ ژانري پيرس ۾ 35 رو ڊي سيوغ تي هڪ اسٽوڊيو کوليو. سندس نظرياتي اڀياس جلد ئي ڪيترن مختلف اڏاوتي منصوبن ۾ تبديل ٿي ويا.<ref>Choay, Françoise, ''le corbusier'' (1960), pp. 10–11. George Braziller, Inc. {{ISBN|0-8076-0104-7}}</ref> ===لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ (ڪيوبسٽ گھر)=== {{main|لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ}} [[File:Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, Projet d'hôtel, Maquette de la façade de la Maison Cubiste, published in Les Peintres Cubistes, 1913.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]]، 1912ع، ''لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ، پروژي ڊوتيل (ڪيوبسٽ گھر)'' جو خاڪو. تصوير گيوم اپولينيئر جي ''لي پينتر ڪيوبسٽ'' ۾ 17 مارچ 1913ع تي ڇپي]] [[File:La Maison Cubiste, Le Salon Bourgeois, Salon d'Automne, 1912, Paris.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''لو سالون بورژوا''، جيڪو [[آندري مار]] 1912ع جي پيرس واري {{lang|fr|سالون ڊومني|italic=no}} جي سينگاريل فنن واري حصي ۾ ''لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ'' لاءِ ترتيب ڏنو. کاٻي ڀت تي ميٽزنگر جي ''[[فام آ ليونتاي]]'' لڳل آهي]] 1912ع جي {{lang|fr|[[سالون ڊومني]]|italic=no}} ۾ هڪ اڏاوتي تنصيب پيش ڪئي وئي، جيڪا جلد ئي ''ميزون ڪيوبسٽ''، يعني ڪيوبسٽ گھر، جي نالي سان مشهور ٿي. ان جي اڏاوتي ڊزائن [[ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون]] ۽ اندروني سينگار [[آندري مار]] پنهنجي ساٿين جي هڪ گروهه سان گڏ ڪيو. ميٽزنگر ۽ گليز ''[[دو ڪيوبزم]]'' ۾، جيڪو ”ميزون ڪيوبسٽ“ جي جوڙجڪ دوران لکيو ويو، فن جي خودمختيار نوعيت بابت لکيو ۽ ان ڳالهه تي زور ڏنو ته سينگار جون ضرورتون فن جي روح تي حڪمراني نه ڪن. سندن نظر ۾ سينگار وارو ڪم ”تصوير جو ابتڙ“ هو. ميٽزنگر ۽ گليز لکيو: ”حقيقي تصوير پنهنجي وجود جو سبب پاڻ اندر رکي ٿي. ان کي گرجاگھر مان [[ويهڪ وارو ڪمرو|ويهڪ واري ڪمري]]، عجائب گھر مان مطالعي واري ڪمري ڏانهن منتقل ڪري سگهجي ٿو. اها بنيادي طور آزاد ۽ لازمي طور مڪمل هوندي آهي؛ ان لاءِ ذهن کي فوراً مطمئن ڪرڻ ضروري ناهي، بلڪه ان کي آهستي آهستي انهن خيالي گهرائين ڏانهن وٺي وڃڻ گهرجي، جتي هم آهنگ ڪندڙ روشني رهندي آهي. اها هن يا هن مجموعي سان هم آهنگ نه ٿيندي آهي؛ اها عام شين، ڪائنات سان هم آهنگ ٿيندي آهي: اها هڪ جاندار جوڙجڪ آهي...“<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.learn.columbia.edu/monographs/picmon/pdf/art_hum_reading_46.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602141918/http://www.learn.columbia.edu/monographs/picmon/pdf/art_hum_reading_46.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinge, except from ''Du Cubisme'', 1912|archive-date=June 2, 2013}}</ref> ''لا ميزون ڪيوبسٽ'' مڪمل فرنيچر سان تيار ڪيل نمونياتي گھر هو، جنهن ۾ هڪ منهن، ڏاڪڻ، ڪُٽيل لوهه جون ريلنگون ۽ ٻه ڪمرا هئا: هڪ ويهڪ وارو ڪمرو، ''سالون بورژوا''، جتي مارسل ڊوشامپ، ميٽزنگر، جنهن جي ''پکي سان عورت''، گليز، لورانسين ۽ ليجي جون تصويرون لڳل هيون، ۽ ٻيو سمهڻ وارو ڪمرو. اهو ''لار ڊيڪوراتيف'' جو هڪ مثال هو، يعني اهڙو گھر، جنهن ۾ ڪيوبسٽ فن کي جديد بورژوا زندگيءَ جي آرام ۽ انداز سان گڏ ڏيکاري سگهجي. {{lang|fr|سالون ڊومني|italic=no}} جا تماشائي ڊوشامپ-ويلون جي ڊزائن ڪيل پلستر واري منهن مان گذري ٻن فرنيچر سان تيار ڪيل ڪمرن ۾ داخل ٿيندا هئا.<ref>[http://www.kubisme.info/kt324a.html La Maison Cubiste, 1912] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313233214/http://www.kubisme.info/kt324a.html |date=2013-03-13 }}</ref> اها اڏاوتي تنصيب پوءِ 1913ع جي [[آرمري شو]] ۾ نيويارڪ، شڪاگو ۽ بوسٽن ۾ پڻ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي،<ref>[http://www.kubisme.info/kt315s.html Kubistische werken op de Armory Show] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313233210/http://www.kubisme.info/kt315s.html |date=2013-03-13 }}</ref> جتي نيويارڪ نمائش جي فهرست ۾ اها ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون، نمبر 609، ۽ ''اڏاوتي منهن، پلستر'' جي عنوان سان درج هئي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/items/detail/detail-duchampvillons-faade-architecturale-14604|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314150144/http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/images/detail/detail-duchampvillons-faade-architecturale-14604|url-status=dead|title=Detail of Duchamp-Villon's Façade architecturale, 1913, from the Walt Kuhn Family papers and Armory Show records, 1859–1984, bulk 1900–1949|archive-date=March 14, 2013|website=www.aaa.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/catnter00unse|title=Catalogue of international exhibition of modern art: at the Armory of the Sixty-ninth Infantry|date=April 19, 1913|publisher=Association of American Painters and Sculptors|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> [[File:Jacques Doucet's hôtel particulier, 33 rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine, 1929 photograph Pierre Legrain.jpg|thumb|upright=1.00|[[ژاڪ دوسي، فيشن ڊزائنر|ژاڪ دوسي]] جو خانگي محل، 33 رو سينٽ-جيمس، نويي-سور-سين]] اندروني فرنيچر، ڀتين جي ڪاغذ، گديل ڪپڙي ۽ قالينن جي ڊزائن [[آندري مار]] ڪئي، ۽ اهي ان اثر جا شروعاتي مثال هئا، جيڪو ڪيوبزم بعد ۾ [[آرٽ ڊيڪو]] تي وڌو. انهن ۾ تمام چٽن رنگن وارا گلاب ۽ ٻيا گلن جا نمونا اسلوب بند جاميٽري صورتن ۾ ترتيب ڏنل هئا. مار ان ويهڪ واري ڪمري کي، جتي ڪيوبسٽ تصويرون لڳل هيون، ''سالون بورژوا'' سڏيو. ليجي هن نالي کي ”مڪمل“ قرار ڏنو. نمائش کان اڳ مار ڏانهن هڪ خط ۾ ليجي لکيو: ”تنهنجو خيال اسان لاءِ بلڪل شاندار آهي، واقعي شاندار. ماڻهو ڪيوبزم کي گهريلو ماحول ۾ ڏسندا، جيڪا تمام اهم ڳالهه آهي.“<ref name="moma.org"/> ڪرسٽوفر گرين لکيو: ”مار جا مجموعا ڪيوبسٽ ڪمن لاءِ مناسب ڍانچن طور قبول ڪيا ويا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن تصويرن ۽ مجسمن کي سندن آزادي برقرار رکڻ ڏني، ۽ تضادن جي راند پيدا ڪئي؛ انهيءَ ڪري رڳو گليز ۽ ميٽزنگر پاڻ نه، پر ماري لورانسين، ڊوشامپ ڀائر، جن مان ريمنڊ ڊوشامپ-ويلون منهن ڊزائن ڪيو، ۽ مار جا پراڻا دوست ليجي ۽ راجر لا فريزني پڻ شامل ٿيا.“<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlY6SLmg-xEC&q=%22maison+cubiste%22+1912&pg=PA161|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130140743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vlY6SLmg-xEC&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22maison+cubiste%22+1912&source=bl&ots=jv-hGOpwJc&sig=0m8pM6Oi2mPGtmB6uB0Fe3s9YAQ&hl=en|url-status=dead|title=Art in France, 1900–1940|first=Christopher|last=Green|date=January 1, 2000|archive-date=November 30, 2016|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn = 0300099088|via=Google Books}}</ref> 1927ع ۾ ڪيوبسٽ [[جوزف چاڪي]]، [[ژاڪ لپشٽز]]، [[لوئي مارڪوسس]]، [[آنري لوران]]، مجسما ساز [[گستاو ميڪلوس]] ۽ ٻين رو سينٽ-جيمس، [[نويي-سور-سين]] ۾ هڪ اسٽوڊيو گھر جي سينگار ۾ گڏجي ڪم ڪيو. ان عمارت جي ڊزائن معمار پال روئو ڪئي ۽ اها فرانسيسي فيشن ڊزائنر [[ژاڪ دوسي، فيشن ڊزائنر|ژاڪ دوسي]] جي ملڪيت هئي، جيڪو [[پوسٽ-تاثرپسند]] ۽ ڪيوبسٽ تصويرن جو گڏ ڪندڙ پڻ هو، جن ۾ ''[[لي ڊيموئزل ڊي اوينيون]]'' به شامل هئي، جيڪا هن سڌي طرح پڪاسو جي اسٽوڊيو مان خريد ڪئي. لوران ڦوهارو ڊزائن ڪيو، چاڪي دوسي جي ڏاڪڻ ٺاهي،<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlY6SLmg-xEC&q=%22jacques+doucet%22+staircase+by+joseph+csaky&pg=PA57 |title=Joseph Csaky's staircase in the home of Jacques Doucet |isbn=0300099088 |access-date=18 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430202312/https://books.google.com/books?id=vlY6SLmg-xEC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=%22jacques+doucet%22+staircase+by+joseph+csaky&source=bl&ots=jvZeOQqDNb&sig=FF6sbrEJ7QnZEljAmyquHlR6oJI&hl=fr#v=onepage&q=%22jacques%20doucet%22%20staircase%20by%20joseph%20csaky&f=false |archive-date=30 April 2016 |last1=Green |first1=Christopher |year=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref> لپشٽز آتشدان جي مٿين تختي ٺاهي، ۽ مارڪوسس ڪيوبسٽ قالين تيار ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web |first=Aestheticus |last=Rex |url=http://aestheticusrex.blogspot.com.es/2011/04/jacques-doucets-studio-st-james-at.html |title=Jacques Doucet's Studio St. James at Neuilly-sur-Seine |publisher=Aestheticusrex.blogspot.com.es |date=14 April 2011 |access-date=18 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327104507/http://aestheticusrex.blogspot.com.es/2011/04/jacques-doucets-studio-st-james-at.html |archive-date=27 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcKfjM9OknEC&q=jacques+doucet%2C+rue+Saint-James%2C+Neuilly&pg=PA56 |title=''The Modernist Garden in France'', Dorothée Imbert, 1993, Yale University Press |isbn=0300047169 |access-date=18 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430165254/https://books.google.com/books?id=fcKfjM9OknEC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=jacques+doucet,+rue+Saint-James,+Neuilly&source=bl&ots=QqQ4m-jgXG&sig=5RJ8fjC4pmSaCE2b9sRNDNN3IfM&hl=en#v=onepage&q=jacques%20doucet%2C%20rue%20Saint-James%2C%20Neuilly&f=false |archive-date=30 April 2016 |last1=Imbert |first1=Dorothée |year=1993 |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUPz18-QeyEC&q=jacques+doucet%2C+joseph+Csaky&pg=PA5 |title=Joseph Csáky: A Pioneer of Modern Sculpture, Edith Balas, 1998, p. 5 |isbn=9780871692306 |access-date=18 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430153058/https://books.google.com/books?id=rUPz18-QeyEC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=jacques+doucet,+joseph+Csaky&source=bl&ots=wywyzJn6BX&sig=SeI2no9a60nGo0uIEfOSpbjxWVM&hl=en#v=onepage&q=jacques%20doucet%2C%20joseph%20Csaky&f=false |archive-date=30 April 2016 |last1=Balas |first1=Edith |year=1998 |publisher=American Philosophical Society }}</ref> ===چيڪ ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز=== {{main|چيڪ ڪيوبزم|رونڊو ڪيوبزم}} [[File:Dům U černé Matky Boží 02.JPG|thumb|[[ڪاري مدونا جو گھر]]، پراگ ۾، جيڪو [[جوزف گوچار]] 1912ع ۾ تعمير ڪيو|left]] اصل ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز تمام ناياب آهي. ڪيوبزم اڏاوتي طرز ۾ رڳو [[بوهيميا]]، هاڻوڪي [[چيڪ جمهوريت]]، ۽ خاص طور ان جي گادي [[پراگ]] ۾ لاڳو ٿيو.<ref name=bonek>{{cite book|last1=Boněk|first1=Jan|title=Cubist Prague|date=2014|publisher=Eminent|location=Prague|isbn=978-80-7281-469-5|page=9}}</ref><ref name=cztourism>{{cite web|title=Cubism|url=https://www.czechtourism.com/p/cubism-editorial/|website=www.czechtourism.com|publisher=CzechTourism|access-date=1 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016060851/https://www.czechtourism.com/p/cubism-editorial/|archive-date=16 October 2015}}</ref> چيڪ معمار پهريان ۽ اڪيلا معمار هئا، جن اصل ڪيوبسٽ عمارتون ڊزائن ڪيون.<ref name=radioprague>{{cite web|title=Cubist architecture|url=http://www.radio.cz/en/static/inventors/cubism|website=www.radio.cz|publisher=Radio Prague|access-date=1 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911055421/http://www.radio.cz/en/static/inventors/cubism|archive-date=11 September 2015}}</ref> ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز گهڻو ڪري 1910ع کان 1914ع جي وچ ۾ اوسر ورتي، پر ڪيوبسٽ يا ڪيوبزم کان متاثر عمارتون [[پهرين عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ به تعمير ڪيون ويون. جنگ کان پوءِ پراگ ۾ ''رونڊو ڪيوبزم'' نالي اڏاوتي طرز ترقي ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز کي گول صورتن سان گڏايو ويو.<ref name=czkubista>{{cite web|title=Czech Cubism|url=http://www.kubista.cz/en/cubism/profiles.html#|website=www.kubista.cz|publisher=Kubista|access-date=1 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008123014/http://www.kubista.cz/en/cubism/profiles.html|archive-date=8 October 2015}}</ref> [[File:Vyšehrad_Kovařovicova_vila_7.jpg|thumb|پراگ ۾ [[جوزف چوخول]] جي ڊزائن ڪيل ڪوواروويچ ولا]] پنهنجن نظرياتي اصولن ۾ ڪيوبسٽ معمارن حرڪت جي ضرورت جو اظهار ڪيو، جيڪا تخليقي خيال وسيلي مادي ۽ ان ۾ موجود ماٺ تي غالب اچي، جيئن نتيجو ڏسندڙ ۾ حرڪت ۽ اظهارائتي مجسماوار صورت جو احساس پيدا ڪري. اهو مقصد اهرامن، ڪيوبن ۽ منشورن مان نڪتل صورتن، ترڇين سطحن جي ترتيب ۽ جوڙجڪ، خاص طور ٽڪنڊي سطحن، ٻاهر نڪتل ڪرسٽل جهڙن جزن ۾ تراشيل منهنن، جيڪي نام نهاد [[هيرن جي ڪٽ]] جهڙا لڳن، يا غارن جهڙين صورتن، جيڪي پوئين [[گوٿڪ اڏاوتي طرز]] جي ياد ڏيارين، وسيلي حاصل ڪيو ويندو هو. اهڙيءَ طرح، عمارت جي منهن جون سموريون سطحون، جن ۾ ڇت جا ٽڪنڊي پاسا ۽ ڇت مان نڪرندڙ دريون پڻ شامل آهن، مجسماوار بڻايون وينديون هيون. ڄاريون ۽ ٻيا اڏاوتي سينگار پڻ ٽي-رخائي صورت اختيار ڪندا هئا. اهڙيءَ طرح دريُن ۽ دروازن جون نيون صورتون پڻ پيدا ٿيون، مثال طور [[ڇهه ڪنڊي دريون]].<ref name=czkubista/> چيڪ ڪيوبسٽ معمارن ڪيوبسٽ فرنيچر پڻ ڊزائن ڪيو. اهم ڪيوبسٽ معمارن ۾ [[پاول ياناڪ]]، [[جوزف گوچار]]، [[ولاسٽيسلاف هوفمان]]، [[ايميل ڪراليچيڪ]] ۽ [[جوزف چوخول]] شامل هئا.<ref name=czkubista/> انهن گهڻو ڪري پراگ ۾، پر بوهيميا جي ٻين شهرن ۾ پڻ ڪم ڪيو. سڀ کان مشهور ڪيوبسٽ عمارت پراگ جي [[پراگ جو پراڻو شهر|پراڻي شهر]] ۾ واقع [[ڪاري مدونا جو گھر]] آهي، جيڪو جوزف گوچار 1912ع ۾ تعمير ڪيو؛ ان ۾ دنيا جو اڪيلو ڪيوبسٽ ڪيفي، گرانڊ ڪيفي اورينٽ، پڻ واقع آهي.<ref name=bonek/> ولاسٽيسلاف هوفمان 1912–1914ع ۾ [[ڊيابليتسي قبرستان]] جا داخلي پويلين ٺاهيا، جوزف چوخول [[ويشيهراد]] هيٺان ڪيترائي رهائشي گھر ڊزائن ڪيا. [[وينسيسلاس چوڪ]] ڀرسان 1912ع ۾ ايميل ڪراليچيڪ جي ڊزائن ڪيل ڪيوبسٽ گهٽيءَ جي بتي پڻ محفوظ آهي؛ هن لڳ ڀڳ 1913ع ۾ [[پراگ جو نئون شهر|پراگ جي نئين شهر]] ۾ ڊائمنڊ هائوس پڻ تعمير ڪيو. ==ٻين شعبن ۾ ڪيوبزم== [[File:Cubic coffee service - Erik Magnussen (27986651569).jpg|thumb|ڪيوبزم کان متاثر آرٽ ڊيڪو ڪافي سيٽ، [[ايرڪ ميگنسن، چانديءَ جو ڪاريگر|ايرڪ ميگنسن]]، 1927ع، آمريڪا جي [[ڪليولئنڊ فن عجائب گھر]] ۾ ”جاز ايج“ نالي عارضي نمائش دوران]] [[File:Reuben haley per consolidated lamp & glass co., vaso ruba rombic, 1928-32.jpg|thumb|ڪيوبزم کان متاثر آرٽ ڊيڪو گل دان، [[ريوبن هيلي]]، 1928–1932ع، شيشو، [[ملواڪي فن عجائب گھر]]، [[ملواڪي]]، آمريڪا]] ڪيوبزم جو اثر مصوري ۽ مجسما سازيءَ کان ٻاهر ٻين فني شعبن تائين پڻ پکڙيو. ادب ۾ [[گرٽروڊ اسٽائن]] جي لکڻين ۾ ورجاءُ ۽ ورجائجندڙ فقرا، ٻنهي عبارتن ۽ مڪمل بابن جي بنيادي اڏاوتي جزن طور استعمال ٿين ٿا. اسٽائن جا گهڻا اهم ڪم اهو طريقو استعمال ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ ناول ''[[آمريڪين جي جوڙجڪ]]''، 1906–08ع، پڻ شامل آهي. گرٽروڊ اسٽائن ۽ سندس ڀاءُ [[ليو اسٽائن|ليو]] رڳو ڪيوبزم جا پهريان اهم سرپرست نه هئا، پر انهن ڪيوبزم تي پڻ اهم اثر وڌو. ان جي ابتڙ پڪاسو پڻ اسٽائن جي لکڻين تي اهم اثر وڌو. آمريڪي افسانوي ادب ۾ [[وليم فاڪنر]] جي 1930ع واري ناول ''[[جيئن آءٌ مرندي ليٽل هئس، ناول|جيئن آءٌ مرندي ليٽل هئس]]'' کي ڪيوبسٽ طرز سان لاڳاپي طور پڙهي سگهجي ٿو. ناول ۾ 15 ڪردارن جي مختلف تجربن جون ڪهاڻيون شامل آهن، جيڪي گڏ پڙهڻ سان هڪ واحد، ڳنڍيل مجموعو ٺاهين ٿيون. ڪيوبزم سان عام طور لاڳاپيل شاعرن ۾ [[گيوم اپولينيئر]]، [[بليز سينڊرارس]]، [[جان ڪوڪٽو]]، [[ميڪس ويبر، فنڪار|ميڪس ويبر]]، [[جان لو روا]]، [[ميڪس جيڪب]]، [[آندري سالمن]] ۽ [[پيئر رويردي]] شامل آهن. آمريڪي شاعر [[ڪينيٿ ريڪسروٿ]] موجب، شاعريءَ ۾ ڪيوبزم ”جزن کي شعوري ۽ ارادي سان الڳ ڪري، پوءِ سخت جوڙجڪ وسيلي انهن کي هڪ نئين، پاڻ ڪافي فني وجود ۾ ٻيهر گڏ ڪرڻ آهي. اهو سريئلسٽن جي آزاد لاڳاپي، ۽ دادا جي لاشعوري اظهار ۽ سياسي نيهلزم جي گڏيل صورت کان بلڪل مختلف آهي.“<ref>{{cite web |first=Kenneth |last=Rexroth |url=http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/reverdy.htm |title=The Cubist Poetry of Pierre Reverdy (Rexroth) |publisher=Bopsecrets.org |access-date=2011-06-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519035242/http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/reverdy.htm |archive-date=2011-05-19 }}</ref> تنهن هوندي به، ڪيوبسٽ شاعرن جو ڪيوبزم ۽ ان کان پوءِ جي [[دادا]] ۽ [[سريئلزم]] تحريڪن تي گهرو اثر پيو. سريئلزم جي باني ميمبر [[لوئي آراگون]] چيو ته بريٽون، سوپو، ايلوار ۽ سندس لاءِ رويردي ”اسان کان فوري اڳ وارو بزرگ ۽ مثالي شاعر“ هو.<ref>{{cite web |last=Reverdy |first=Pierre |url=http://www.bloodaxebooks.com/titlepage.asp?isbn=1852241543 |title=Title Page > Pierre Reverdy: Selected Poems |publisher=Bloodaxe Books |access-date=2011-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527200900/http://www.bloodaxebooks.com/titlepage.asp?isbn=1852241543 |archive-date=2011-05-27 }}</ref> جيتوڻيڪ انهن شاعرن کي ڪيوبسٽ مصورن جيترو ياد نٿو ڪيو وڃي، پر اهي اڄ به اثرانداز ۽ اتساهيندڙ آهن. آمريڪي شاعر [[جان ايشبري]] ۽ [[رون پيڊجٽ]] تازو [[پيئر رويردي|رويردي]] جي ڪمن جا نوان ترجما ڪيا آهن. [[والس اسٽيونس]] جي نظم ”[[هڪ ڪاري پکيءَ کي ڏسڻ جا تيرهن طريقا]]“ بابت پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو ته اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته ڪيوبزم جي گهڻ رخي نظر کي شاعريءَ ۾ ڪيئن منتقل ڪري سگهجي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://titan.iwu.edu/~wchapman/americanpoetryweb/stevthir.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070813070622/http://titan.iwu.edu/~wchapman/americanpoetryweb/stevthir.html|url-status=dead|title=Untitled Document|archive-date=2007-08-13|access-date=2008-04-07}}</ref> بيلٽ لاءِ پهريان ڪيوبسٽ منظرناما ۽ پوشاڪون پڪاسو 1917ع ۾ [[سرگئي دياگليئف]] جي ''[[پريڊ، بيلٽ|پريڊ]]'' لاءِ ڊزائن ڪيون.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kramer |first=Hilton |date=March 24, 1973 |title=Picasso's Cubist Images Still Dominate 'Parade' |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/24/archives/picassos-cubist-images-still-dominate-parade.html |access-date=May 13, 2024}}</ref> ان کان پوءِ پڪاسو ڇهن وڌيڪ بيلٽن تي ڪم ڪيو، جن وسيلي هن ”بيلٽ جي دنيا تي پنهنجو نشان ڇڏيو ۽ ڊزائنرن ۽ ناچ ترتيب ڏيندڙن جي نسلن تي اثر وڌو“.<ref>{{Cite web |last=de Souza |first=Isabella |title=Setting the Stage: Pablo Picasso's Foray Into Ballet |url=https://www.myartbroker.com/artist-pablo-picasso/articles/picasso-foray-into-ballet |website=Myartbroker.com}}</ref> براڪ پڻ 1924ع ۾ دياگليئف جي ''لي فاشو'' کان شروع ٿيندڙ پنهنجن چئن بيلٽن ۾ ساڳيو طريقو اختيار ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Unknown |title=The Ballets |url=https://www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/exhibition/los-ballets}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Milliard |first=Coline |date=June 13, 2014 |title=Is Braque Finally Coming Out of Picasso's Shadow? |url=https://news.artnet.com/art-world/is-braque-finally-coming-out-of-picassos-shadow-38488}}</ref> گريس پڻ دياگليئف جي [[باليه روس|باليه روس]] لاءِ منظرناما ۽ پوشاڪون ٺاهيون.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Juan Gris |url=https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/juan-gris}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lesso |first=Rosie |date=July 11, 2021 |title=Sumptuous Indulgence: Diaghilev and Juan Gris |url=https://blog.fabrics-store.com/2021/07/11/sumptuous-indulgence-diaghilev-and-juan-gris/}}</ref> گهڻا پوسٽر ٺاهيندڙ فنڪار، جهڙوڪ [[اي. ايم. ڪاساندرا]]<ref>Heller, S., & Fili, L. (1994). ''Dutch Moderne: Graphic Design from De Stijl to Deco''. Chronicle Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|0811803031}}.</ref> ۽ [[ايڊورڊ ميڪ نائٽ ڪافر]]، ڪيوبزم کي تجارتي گرافيڪي ڊزائن ۽ [[ٽائيپوگرافي]] جي شعبن ۾ مقبول بڻايو.<ref>Heller, S., & Fili, L. (1998). ''British Modern: Graphic Design Between the Wars''. Chronicle Books. p. 18. {{ISBN|0811813118}}.</ref> [[پال پوئري]] ۽ [[ڪالو سوئرز]] انهن فيشن ڊزائنرن مان هئا، جن ڪيوبسٽ عنصرن، جهڙوڪ هڪ ٻئي مٿان ايندڙ تهن ۽ جسم جي حجم کي لڪائيندڙ هموار سطحن، کي فيشن ڊزائن جي دنيا ۾ متعارف ڪرايو.<ref>Martin, R., & Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.). (1998). ''Cubism and Fashion''. Metropolitan Museum of Art: Distributed by H.N. Abrams. pp. 15–17, 42, 47. {{ISBN|9780870998881}}.</ref> [[جان برجر]] چيو: ”ڪيوبزم جي اهميت کي وڌائي بيان ڪرڻ لڳ ڀڳ ناممڪن آهي. اهو بصري فنن ۾ اهڙو ئي وڏو انقلاب هو، جهڙو شروعاتي [[نشاة ثانيه]] ۾ آيو هو. ان جا پوءِ واري فن، فلم ۽ اڏاوتي طرز تي ايترا گهڻا اثر آهن، جو هاڻي اسان انهن کي مشڪل سان محسوس ڪريون ٿا.“<ref>Berger, John. (1965). The Success and Failure of Picasso. Penguin Books, Ltd. p. 73. {{ISBN|978-0-679-73725-4}}.</ref> 1910ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۽ [[ٻن عالمي جنگين جي وچ وارو دور|ٻن عالمي جنگين جي وچ واري دور]] ۾ [[آرٽ ڊيڪو]] فنڪارن تاريخي يورپي طرزن، جهڙوڪ [[ڪلاسيڪي اڏاوتي طرز]] يا [[لوئي سورهين جو طرز]]،<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=39, 40|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref> غير اولهندي روايتن، جهڙوڪ صحارا جي ڏکڻ واري [[آفريقي فن]] يا [[چيني فن]]،<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=70|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref> ۽ نون ۽ جرئت ڀرين [[اوان گارڊ]] طرزن مان اتساهه ورتو. انهن طرزن مان هڪ ڪيوبزم هو. ان جو اثر تيز ڪنڊن ۽ ڪرسٽل جهڙين زاويائي صورتن مان ٺهيل شين ۽ سينگار ۾ چٽو نظر اچي ٿو. مثالن ۾ [[جان مارٽيل ۽ جوئل مارٽيل|جان ۽ جوئل مارٽيل]] جا [[جديد سينگار ۽ صنعتي فنن جي بين الاقوامي نمائش]] لاءِ ٺاهيل ”ڪيوبسٽ“ وڻ،<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=66, 67|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref> [[ريوبن هيلي]] جا ڪيترائي شيشي جا ٿانوَ، ۽ [[ايرڪ ميگنسن، چانديءَ جو ڪاريگر|ايرڪ ميگنسن]] جا ڪجهه چانديءَ جا سامان شامل آهن. ==تصويري گيلري== <gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:Georges Braque, 1909-10, La guitare (Mandora, La Mandore), oil on canvas, 71.1 x 55.9 cm, Tate Modern, London.jpg|[[جارج براڪ]]، 1909–10ع، ''لا گيتار (مانڊورا، لا مانڊور)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 71.1 × 55.9&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[ٽيٽ ماڊرن]]، لنڊن File:Albert Gleizes, 1910, Femme aux Phlox, oil on canvas, 81 x 100 cm, exhibited Armory Show, New York, 1913, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston..jpg|[[البرٽ گليز]]، 1910ع، ''[[لا فام او فلوڪس|لا فام او فلوڪس (فلوڪس گلن واري عورت)]]''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 81 × 100&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[هيوسٽن نفيس فنون عجائب گھر]]. 1911ع جي [[سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان]] جي ڪمري 41 ۽ 1913ع جي [[آرمري شو]] ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي File:Violin and Candlestick.jpg|[[جارج براڪ]]، 1910ع، ''وائلن ۽ ميڻ بتيءَ جو اسٽينڊ''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 60.96 × 50.17&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[سان فرانسسڪو جديد فن عجائب گھر]] File:Jean Metzinger, 1910-11, Deux Nus (Two Nudes, Two Women), oil on canvas, 92 x 66 cm, Gothenburg Museum of Art, Sweden.jpg|[[جان ميٽزنگر]]، 1910–11ع، ''[[دو نيو]]''، ''ٻه اگهاڙا جسم''، ''ٻه عورتون''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 92 × 66&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[گوٿنبرگ فن عجائب گھر]]، سويڊن. ڪيوبزم جي پهرين گڏيل نمائش، 1911ع جي پيرس واري [[سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان]] جي ڪمري 41 ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي File:Robert Delaunay, 1910, La ville no. 2, oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.jpg|[[رابرٽ ڊيلوني]]، 1910–11ع، ''لا ويل نمبر 2''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 146 × 114&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[جديد فن جو قومي عجائب گھر]]، پيرس File:Henri Le Fauconnier, 1910-11, L'Abondance (Abundance), oil on canvas, 191 x 123 cm (75.25 x 48.5 in.), Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.jpg|[[آنري لي فوڪونيئر]]، 1910–11ع، ''لابونڊانس (وافر مقدار)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 191 × 123&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[ڪنسٽ ميوزيم ڊين هاگ]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-28 |title=L'Abondance (Abundance) {{!}} Kunstmuseum Den Haag |url=https://www.kunstmuseum.nl/en/collection/labondance-abundance |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=www.kunstmuseum.nl |language=en}}</ref> File:Marcel Duchamp, 1911, La sonate (Sonata), oil on canvas, 145.1 x 113.3 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art.jpg|[[مارسل ڊوشامپ]]، 1911ع، ''لا سونات (سوناتا)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 145.1 × 113.3&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[فلاڊيلفيا فن عجائب گھر]] File:Pablo Picasso, 1911, La Femme au Violon, oil on canvas, private collection, on long-term loan to Bavarian State Painting Collections, Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich.jpg|پابلو پڪاسو، 1911ع، ''لا فام او وائلون''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، خانگي مجموعو، ڊگهي مدي لاءِ [[باويريا رياستي مصوري مجموعا]]، [[پيناڪوٿيڪ ڊيئر موڊرني]]، ميونخ، کي اڌارو ڏنل File:Fernand Léger, 1911-1912, Les Fumeurs (The Smokers), oil on canvas, 129.2 x 96.5 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York..jpg|[[فرنان ليجي]]، 1911–1912ع، ''لي فومير (تماڪ ڇڪيندڙ)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 129.2 × 96.5&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[سليمان آر. گوگنهايم عجائب گھر]]، نيويارڪ File:Georges Braque, 1911-12, Man with a Guitar (Figure, L’homme à la guitare), oil on canvas, 116.2 x 80.9 cm (45.75 x 31.9 in), Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg|[[جارج براڪ]]، 1911–12ع، ''گٽار سان ماڻهو (فگر، لوم آ لا گيتار)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 116.2 × 80.9&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[جديد فن جو عجائب گھر]] File:Jacques Villon, 1912, Girl at the Piano, oil on canvas, 129.2 x 96.4 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York...jpg|[[ژاڪ ويلون]]، 1912ع، ''پيانو وٽ ڇوڪري (فيليت او پيانو)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 129.2 × 96.4&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، بيضوي، [[جديد فن جو عجائب گھر]]، نيويارڪ. 1913ع جي [[آرمري شو]] ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي File:Francis Picabia, 1912, La Source, The Spring, oil on canvas, 249.6 x 249.3 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Exhibited, 1912 Salon d'Automne, Paris.jpg|[[فرانسس پڪابيا]]، 1912ع، ''لا سورس (چشمو)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 249.6 × 249.3&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[جديد فن جو عجائب گھر]]، نيويارڪ File:Fernand Léger, 1912-13, Nude Model in the Studio (Le modèle nu dans l'atelier), oil on burlap, 128.6 x 95.9 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim.jpg|[[فرنان ليجي]]، 1912–13ع، ''اسٽوڊيو ۾ اگهاڙو ماڊل (لو موديل نيو دان لاتيليئي)'، ٻوريءَ جي ڪپڙي تي تيل رنگ، 128.6 × 95.9&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[سليمان آر. گوگنهايم عجائب گھر]]، نيويارڪ File:Albert Gleizes, 1912-13, Les Joueurs de football (Football Players), oil on canvas, 225.4 x 183 cm, National Gallery of Art.jpg|[[البرٽ گليز]]، 1912–13ع، ''[[لي جوئر دي فوٽبال|لي جوئر دي فوٽبال (فٽبال رانديگر)]]''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 225.4 × 183&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[قومي فن گيلري]]، واشنگٽن ڊي سي File:Jean Metzinger, 1912-1913, L'Oiseau bleu, (The Blue Bird) oil on canvas, 230 x 196 cm, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris..jpg|[[جان ميٽزنگر]]، 1912–1913ع، ''[[لوئزو بلو، ميٽزنگر|لوئزو بلو (نيرو پکي)]]''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 230 × 196&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[پيرس شهر جو جديد فن عجائب گھر]]. 1913ع جي سالون ديزانڊيپانڊان ۾ نمائش لاءِ پيش ڪئي وئي File:Femme en chemise assise dans un fauteuil.jpg|[[پابلو پڪاسو]]، 1913–14ع، ''فام اسيز دان اَن فوٽوئل (ايوا)، آرام ڪرسيءَ ۾ ويٺل عورت''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 149.9 × 99.4&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، ليونارڊ اي. لاودر ڪيوبسٽ مجموعو File:Juan Gris, 1915, Nature morte à la nappe à carreaux (Still Life with Checked Tablecloth), oil on canvas, 116.5 x 89.3 cm.jpg|[[خوان گريس]]، 1915ع، ''ناتور مورت آ لا ناپ آ ڪارو (چوڪن واري ميزپوش سان ساڪن زندگي)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ ۽ گريفائٽ، 116.5 × 89.2&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[ميٽروپوليٽن فن عجائب گھر]]، [[ليونارڊ لاودر|ليونارڊ اي. لاودر]] جو مجموعو File:RamónGómezdelaSerna.JPG|[[ڊيگو رويرا]]، 1915ع، ''[[رامون گوميز ڊي لا سيرنا جو خاڪو]]''، 109.6 × 90.2&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[بيونس آئرس لاطيني آمريڪي فن عجائب گھر]] File:Jean Metzinger, 1916, Femme au miroir (Femme à sa toilette, Lady at her Dressing Table), oil on canvas, 92.4 x 65.1 cm, private collection.jpg|[[جان ميٽزنگر]]، اپريل 1916ع، ''[[فام او ميرواغ|فام او ميرواغ (فام آ سا تواليت، سينگار ميز وٽ عورت)]]''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 92.4 × 65.1&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، خانگي مجموعو File:Portrait of Josette 1916 Juan Gris.jpg|[[خوان گريس]]، آڪٽوبر 1916ع، ''جوزيت جو خاڪو''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 116 × 73&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[رينا صوفيا عجائب گھر]]، ميڊرڊ File:Pablo Picasso, 1918, Arlequin au violon (Harlequin with Violin), oil on canvas, 142 x 100.3 cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio.jpeg|پابلو پڪاسو، 1918ع، ''آرليڪان او وائلون (وائلن سان مسخرو)'، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 142 × 100.3&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[ڪليولئنڊ فن عجائب گھر]]، اوهايو File:Gino Severini, 1919, Bohémien Jouant de L'Accordéon (The Accordion Player).jpg|[[جينو سيويريني]]، 1919ع، ''بوهيمين ژوان ڊي لاڪورديون (اڪارڊين وڄائيندڙ)'، ميوزيو ڊيل نوويچينٽو، ميلان File:Albert Gleizes, 1920, Femme au gant noir (Woman with Black Glove), oil on canvas, 126 x 100 cm. Private collection.jpg|[[البرٽ گليز]]، 1920ع، ''[[ڪاري دستاني واري عورت|فام او گان نوار (ڪاري دستاني واري عورت)]]''، ڪينواس تي تيل رنگ، 126 × 100&nbsp;سينٽي ميٽر، [[آسٽريليا جي قومي گيلري]] </gallery> ==پڻ ڏسو== * [[فن ۾ چوٿون رخ]] * [[درستي پسندي]] * [[اڳ-ڪيوبزم]] * [[ريئونزم]] * [[سيڪشن ڊور]] * [[وورٽيسزم]] ==حوالا== {{reflist}} ==وڌيڪ پڙهڻ== * Mark Antliff and Patricia Leighten, ''A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906–1914'', The University of Chicago Press, 2008 * Alfred H. Barr Jr., ''Cubism and Abstract Art'', New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1936. * Elizabeth Carlson, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/675687 "Cubist Fashion: Mainstreaming Modernism after the Armory"], ''Winterthur Portfolio'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (Spring 2014), pp.&nbsp;1–28. {{doi|10.1086/675687}} * {{cite book | last=Cauman | first=John | title=Inheriting Cubism: The Impact of Cubism on American Art, 1909–1936 | location=New York | publisher=Hollis Taggart Galleries | year=2001 | isbn=0-9705723-4-4}} * {{cite book | last = Cooper | first = Douglas | title = The Cubist Epoch | url = https://archive.org/details/cubistepoch00coop | publisher = Phaidon in association with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art & the Metropolitan Museum of Art | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-87587-041-4 }} * Cécile Debray, Françoise Lucbert, ''La Section d'or, 1912-1920-1925'', Musées de Châteauroux, Musée Fabre, exhibition catalogue, Éditions Cercle d'art, Paris, 2000 * Paolo Vincenzo Genovese, ''Cubismo in architettura'', Mancosu Editore, Roma, 2010. اطالوي ٻوليءَ ۾. * John Golding, ''Cubism: A History and an Analysis, 1907-1914,'' New York: Wittenborn, 1959. * Christopher Green, ''Cubism and its Enemies, Modern Movements and Reaction in French Art, 1916–28'', Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987 * Ian Johnston, ''[[s:پراگ ۾ ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز بابت شروعاتي نوٽس|پراگ ۾ ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز بابت شروعاتي نوٽس]]''، 2004 * Mikhail Lifshitz, [https://web.archive.org/web/20180207005321/http://www.brill.com/products/book/crisis-ugliness-cubism-pop-art ''The Crisis of Ugliness: From Cubism to Pop-Art'']. David Riff جو ترجمو ۽ مهاڳ. Leiden: BRILL, 2018، اصل روسي ٻوليءَ ۾ Iskusstvo طرفان 1968ع ۾ ڇپيل * [[جان رچرڊسن، فن جو تاريخدان|رچرڊسن، جان]]. ''A Life Of Picasso, The Cubist Rebel 1907–1916.'' New York: [[الفرڊ اي. نوف]]، 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-307-26665-1}} * Daniel Robbins, "Sources of Cubism and Futurism", ''Art Journal'', Vol. 41, No. 4 (Winter 1981) ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|ڪيوبزم}} * [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cube/hd_cube.htm ڪيوبزم، هائلبرن فن جي تاريخ جي وقتوار فهرست، ميٽروپوليٽن فن عجائب گھر] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0htKTEJSXUk ڪيوبزم جو اڳواڻ ڊيگو رويرا] * [http://www.photo.rmn.fr/C.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2CO5PC0M5JIS5&SMLS=1&RW=1135&RH=584 ''ڪيوبزم''، قومي عجائب گھرن ۽ گران پالي دي شانز-ايليزي جي فوٽوگرافي اداري] * [https://www.fostinum.org/czech-cubist-architecture.html چيڪ ڪيوبسٽ اڏاوتي طرز] * [https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/movement/cubism ڪيوبزم، گوگنهايم جو آن لائين مجموعو] * [https://www.metmuseum.org/art/libraries-and-research-centers/leonard-lauder-research-center/programs-and-resources/index-of-cubist-art-collectors ڪيوبزم جي تاريخي گڏ ڪندڙن ۽ واپارين جي فهرست، ليونارڊ اي. لاودر جديد فن تحقيقي مرڪز، ميٽروپوليٽن فن عجائب گھر] {{ڪيوبزم}} {{Navboxes |list= {{جديديت}} {{اوان گارڊ}} {{اولهندي فن جون تحريڪون}} {{پابلو پڪاسو}} {{جارج براڪ}} {{جان ميٽزنگر}} {{البرٽ گليز}} }} {{Authority control (arts)}} [[Category:ڪيوبزم| ]] [[Category:20هين صديءَ جون فني تحريڪون]] [[Category:فنون ۾ 20هين صدي]] [[Category:تجريدي فن]] [[Category:يورپ جون فني تحريڪون]] [[Category:فني تحريڪون]] [[Category:فرانسيسي فنڪارن جا گروهه ۽ گڏيل تنظيمون]] [[Category:جارج براڪ]] [[Category:جديد فن]] [[Category:پابلو پڪاسو]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:20هين صدي جو فن]] [[زمرو:بصري فنون]] [[زمرو:اسلوب]] btaswweu9wi9ybbb0fciwz74psmv8cl نئين نوآباديت 0 40888 394658 164385 2026-07-15T20:07:20Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394658 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (Neocolonialism) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (Globalization) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (Neo Colonialism) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 6b1e41hc12fjxaa95oym0sqjmaybcqj 394662 394658 2026-07-15T20:11:00Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394662 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (Neo Colonialism) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 4f9wcqr3q2mkecgrnttscn4eaaonuaq 394663 394662 2026-07-15T20:11:30Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394663 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} a7q0uo49pb4h6tydsfldis6k1gpp6ai 394665 394663 2026-07-15T20:12:17Z Intisar Ali 8681 Intisar Ali صفحي [[نيو ڪالونيلزم]] کي [[نئين نوآباديت]] ڏانھن چوريو: مناسب عنوان ڏنو ويو 394663 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} a7q0uo49pb4h6tydsfldis6k1gpp6ai 394670 394665 2026-07-15T20:17:27Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394670 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 0evkhoq8lwkz2r8qryn8z7rd7comndi 394671 394670 2026-07-15T20:20:54Z Intisar Ali 8681 394671 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} nwb29dbgmbw0x3cn253oj3h45xjdbxt 394674 394671 2026-07-15T20:24:13Z Intisar Ali 8681 394674 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{مکيه|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (semi-colony) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} jkq7280t51xw7k8zrvvpnnsrp2190xy 394675 394674 2026-07-15T20:25:00Z Intisar Ali 8681 394675 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} rtpiw7iyr6az9pvvlnk19f00m6pwlzb 394678 394675 2026-07-15T20:27:23Z Intisar Ali 8681 394678 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (Proxy wars) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (Organisation of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 7dmhqh6pqaynl1lt8klim2dq5j5lijv 394681 394678 2026-07-15T20:32:56Z Intisar Ali 8681 394681 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (Proxy wars) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 7hhdydzfxlne9y7yxprin1yar8pkq3u 394684 394681 2026-07-15T20:34:12Z Intisar Ali 8681 394684 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} fwkd0dks2gq34yxcb75w314ds72jcxq 394686 394684 2026-07-15T20:36:13Z Intisar Ali 8681 394686 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 17d8e9ha0i2dgiextacx5g2ylvb55bm 394690 394686 2026-07-15T20:47:09Z Intisar Ali 8681 394690 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپن کي هٿي ڏني آهي.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو|عالمي نظام واري نظريي]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو|انحصاريت واري نظريي]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي.</ref> === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپا پيدا ڪيا آهن.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي. ===سائنس=== '''نئين نوآبادياتي تحقيق''' يا '''نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس'''، جنهن کي عام طور ''هيليڪاپٽر ريسرچ''، ''پيراشوٽ سائنس'' يا ''پيراشوٽ ريسرچ''، ''طفيلي تحقيق'' يا ''سفاري اسٽڊي'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي تحقيقي طريقي کي سڏيو ويندو آهي جنهن ۾ امير ملڪن جا محقق ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾ وڃي معلومات ۽ نمونا گڏ ڪن ٿا، پوءِ واپس پنهنجي ملڪ وڃي انهن جو تجزيو ڪن ٿا ۽ تحقيق جا نتيجا شايع ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته مقامي محققن کي يا ته بلڪل شامل نٿو ڪيو وڃي يا رڳو معمولي حد تائين شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هنگري جي سائنس اڪيڊمي جي 2003ع واري هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن بابت شايع ٿيل مقالن جي هڪ اتفاقي نموني مان 70 سيڪڙو مقالن ۾ ڪنهن به مقامي محقق کي گڏيل ليکڪ طور شامل نه ڪيو ويو هو. اڪثر اهڙي قسم جي تحقيق دوران مقامي ساٿي رڳو انتظامي سهائتا يا رابطي جي ذميواري نڀائيندڙ طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، پر سندن علمي مهارت مان فائدو نه ورتو ويندو آهي ۽ نه ئي تحقيق ۾ سندن حصي جو مناسب اعتراف ڪيو ويندو آهي. پيراشوٽ سائنس مان پيدا ٿيندڙ علمي مقالا گهڻو ڪري رڳو امير ملڪن جي سائنسدانن جي علمي ترقيءَ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيندا آهن، جڏهن ته مقامي سائنسي صلاحيتن، جهڙوڪ تحقيقي مرڪزن جي ترقي ۽ مقامي سائنسدانن جي پيشاورانه واڌ ويجهه، محدود رهجي ويندي آهي. اهڙي "نوآبادياتي" سائنس ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي انهن سائنسي طريقن جون جھلڪيون نظر اچن ٿيون، جن ۾ غير اولهندي ماڻهن کي "ٻيا" سمجهي نوآباديات کي هٿي ڏني ويندي هئي. ان ڪري ڪيترائي نقاد اهڙين استحصالي تحقيقي روايتن جي خاتمي ۽ علم کي نوآبادياتي اثرن کان آزاد ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا. اهڙو تحقيقي طريقو تحقيق جي معيار کي به متاثر ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ پرڏيهي محقق هميشه مقامي ضرورتن سان لاڳاپيل صحيح سوال نٿا پڇن يا مقامي مسئلن جي صحيح پسمنظر کي سمجهي نٿا سگهن. نتيجي طور مقامي برادريون تحقيق جي نتيجن مان پنهنجي فائدي لاءِ مناسب نموني فائدو نٿيون وٺي سگهن. خاص طور تي [[تحفظياتي حياتيات]] جهڙن شعبن ۾، جتي مقامي برادرين جي عملي شموليت مسئلن جي حل لاءِ ضروري هوندي آهي، نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس تحقيق جي نتيجن کي مقامي ادارن ۽ برادرين ۾ رائج ٿيڻ کان روڪي ٿي، جنهن سبب سائنسدانن پاران اڀياس هيٺ آيل مسئلن جو پائيدار حل ڳولڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو. == حوالا == {{حوالا}} qip388hi25bds0bculkkdvjmt86cmmr 394691 394690 2026-07-15T20:51:02Z Intisar Ali 8681 394691 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپن کي هٿي ڏني آهي.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو|عالمي نظام واري نظريي]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو|انحصاريت واري نظريي]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي.</ref> === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپا پيدا ڪيا آهن.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي. ===سائنس=== '''نئين نوآبادياتي تحقيق''' يا '''نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس'''، جنهن کي عام طور ''هيليڪاپٽر ريسرچ''، ''پيراشوٽ سائنس'' يا ''پيراشوٽ ريسرچ''، ''طفيلي تحقيق'' يا ''سفاري اسٽڊي'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي تحقيقي طريقي کي سڏيو ويندو آهي جنهن ۾ امير ملڪن جا محقق ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾ وڃي معلومات ۽ نمونا گڏ ڪن ٿا، پوءِ واپس پنهنجي ملڪ وڃي انهن جو تجزيو ڪن ٿا ۽ تحقيق جا نتيجا شايع ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته مقامي محققن کي يا ته بلڪل شامل نٿو ڪيو وڃي يا رڳو معمولي حد تائين شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هنگري جي سائنس اڪيڊمي جي 2003ع واري هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن بابت شايع ٿيل مقالن جي هڪ اتفاقي نموني مان 70 سيڪڙو مقالن ۾ ڪنهن به مقامي محقق کي گڏيل ليکڪ طور شامل نه ڪيو ويو هو. اڪثر اهڙي قسم جي تحقيق دوران مقامي ساٿي رڳو انتظامي سهائتا يا رابطي جي ذميواري نڀائيندڙ طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، پر سندن علمي مهارت مان فائدو نه ورتو ويندو آهي ۽ نه ئي تحقيق ۾ سندن حصي جو مناسب اعتراف ڪيو ويندو آهي. پيراشوٽ سائنس مان پيدا ٿيندڙ علمي مقالا گهڻو ڪري رڳو امير ملڪن جي سائنسدانن جي علمي ترقيءَ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيندا آهن، جڏهن ته مقامي سائنسي صلاحيتن، جهڙوڪ تحقيقي مرڪزن جي ترقي ۽ مقامي سائنسدانن جي پيشاورانه واڌ ويجهه، محدود رهجي ويندي آهي. اهڙي "نوآبادياتي" سائنس ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي انهن سائنسي طريقن جون جھلڪيون نظر اچن ٿيون، جن ۾ غير اولهندي ماڻهن کي "ٻيا" سمجهي نوآباديات کي هٿي ڏني ويندي هئي. ان ڪري ڪيترائي نقاد اهڙين استحصالي تحقيقي روايتن جي خاتمي ۽ علم کي نوآبادياتي اثرن کان آزاد ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا. اهڙو تحقيقي طريقو تحقيق جي معيار کي به متاثر ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ پرڏيهي محقق هميشه مقامي ضرورتن سان لاڳاپيل صحيح سوال نٿا پڇن يا مقامي مسئلن جي صحيح پسمنظر کي سمجهي نٿا سگهن. نتيجي طور مقامي برادريون تحقيق جي نتيجن مان پنهنجي فائدي لاءِ مناسب نموني فائدو نٿيون وٺي سگهن. خاص طور تي [[تحفظياتي حياتيات]] جهڙن شعبن ۾، جتي مقامي برادرين جي عملي شموليت مسئلن جي حل لاءِ ضروري هوندي آهي، نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس تحقيق جي نتيجن کي مقامي ادارن ۽ برادرين ۾ رائج ٿيڻ کان روڪي ٿي، جنهن سبب سائنسدانن پاران اڀياس هيٺ آيل مسئلن جو پائيدار حل ڳولڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو. == علائقن موجب == === آفريڪا === ==== ''فرانس آفريڪ'' ==== {{پڻ ڏسو |سي ايف اي فرانڪ}} [[File:CFA Franc map.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|2009ع ۾ استعمال: {{legend|#008800|[[اولهه آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[مرڪزي آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]<ref>{{cite news |title=African protests over the CFA 'colonial currency' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41094094 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=August 30, 2017 }}</ref>}} ]] يورپي نئين نوآباديات جي نمايان مثالن مان هڪ '''''[[فرانس آفريڪ]]''''' (''Françafrique'') آهي، جنهن مان مراد [[فرانس]] ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين آفريقي نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ آزادي کان پوءِ به برقرار رهندڙ ويجها سياسي، معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپا آهن. 1955ع ۾ [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] جي صدر [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] پهريون ڀيرو "فرينچ آفريڪا" جو اصطلاح مثبت معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جنهن سان سندس مراد فرانس ۽ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ سماجي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي تعاون هو. بعد ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن هن اصطلاح کي اهڙن غير متوازن بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جي وضاحت لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جن ۾ آزاديءَ باوجود اڳوڻيون نوآباديون فرانس جي اثر هيٺ رهيون. نئين نوآباديات جو اصطلاح انهن ملڪن ۾ پرڏيهي مداخلت جي وضاحت لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيو، جيڪي [[پين آفريقيت]] واري تحريڪ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، ۽ [[بانڊونگ ڪانفرنس|بانڊونگ جي ايشيائي–آفريقي ڪانفرنس]] (1955ع) ۾ شريڪ ٿيا، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ [[غير وابسته تحريڪ]] (1961ع) وجود ۾ آئي. [[سڀ آفريقي عوامي ڪانفرنس]] (AAPC) نئين نوآباديات جي باضابطه تعريف ڪئي، جيڪا ''ريزوليوشن آن نئو-ڪالونيئلئزم'' ۾ شايع ڪئي وئي. [[تونس]] (1960ع) ۽ [[قاهره]] (1961ع) ۾ ٿيل ڪانفرنسن دوران AAPC فرانس طرفان قائم ڪيل آزاد رياستن جي [[فرانسيسي برادري]] کي نئين نوآبادياتي نظام قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC5j0tI-Pv0C&pg=RA1-PA52 |title=Africa: The Politics of Independence and Unity |isbn=0-8032-9856-0 |last1=Wallerstein |first1=Immanuel Maurice |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=484744 |last1=Graf |first1=William D. |title=Reviewed work: Neocolonialism and African Politics: A Survey of the Impact of Neocolonialism on African Political Behaviour, Yolamu R. Barongo |journal=[[Canadian Journal of African Studies]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=600–602 |year=1981 |doi=10.2307/484744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[جاڪ فوڪار]]، جيڪو فرانسيسي صدر [[شارل ڊيگال]] (1958ع–1969ع) ۽ [[جارج پومپيدو]] (1969ع–1974ع) جو آفريقي معاملن بابت اهم صلاحڪار هو، ''فرانس آفريڪ'' پاليسي جو بنيادي معمار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Kaye |last=Whiteman |title=The Man Who Ran Françafrique – French Politician Jacques Foccart's Role in France's Colonisation of Africa Under the Leadership of Charles de Gaulle |type=obituary |magazine=[[The National Interest]] |date=Fall 1997}}</ref> [[فرانسوا-زاويي ويرشاو]] ۽ [[مونگو بيٽي]] جي لکڻين موجب، آفريقي ملڪن جي آزاديءَ کان پوءِ به لڳ ڀڳ چاليهن سالن تائين فرانس ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ اهڙا لاڳاپا برقرار رهيا، جن ۾ فرانسيسي فوجي اڏا قائم رهيا ۽ فرانسيسي [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن، خاص طور معدني وسيلن جي استحصال بابت، اجاريداري برقرار رکي. انهن جو دليل هو ته فرانس سان ويجها لاڳاپا رکندڙ ڪيترائي آفريقي حڪمران—خاص طور آمريڪا ۽ سوويت يونين جي سرد جنگ (1945ع–1992ع) دوران—پنهنجن ملڪن جي خودمختيار قومي اڳواڻن کان وڌيڪ فرانسيسي واپاري ۽ [[جاگرافيائي سياست|جاگرافيائي-سياسي]] مفادن جا نمائندا بڻيل هئا. اهڙن اڳواڻن ۾ [[عمر بونگو]] ([[گيبون]])، [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] ([[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]])، [[گناسنگبي اياديما]] ([[ٽوگو]])، [[دينيس ساسو نگوئيسو]] ([[جمهوريه ڪانگو]])، [[ادريس ديبي]] ([[چاڊ]]) ۽ [[هماني ديوري]] ([[نائيجر]]) جا نالا شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن. فرانس ۽ فرانسيسي ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل دفاعي معاهدن ذريعي خاص طور دفاع ۽ سلامتي جي شعبن ۾ ويجهو تعاون قائم ٿيو. انهن معاهدن سان لاڳاپيل ڳجهن شقن جي بنياد تي فرانس کي فوجي مداخلت جو اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندو هو، جيئن پنهنجي مفادن سان هم آهنگ حڪومتن کي بچائڻ، ساحل واري علائقي ۾ جهادي گروهن خلاف ڪارروائي ڪرڻ، يا گهرو ويڙهن کي ختم ڪرڻ. آفريقي براعظم مان فرانسيسي فوجن جي واپسي هڪ اهڙي دور جي پڄاڻي سمجهي وڃي ٿي، جنهن دوران فرانس چاڊ، ٽوگو، گيبون، روانڊا، جبوتي، زائير، صوماليا، آئيوري ڪوسٽ، مالي، ليبيا ۽ ڪيمرون ۾ فوجي مداخلتون ڪندو رهيو. ان سان گڏ ''فرانس آفريڪ'' واري نظام جي خاتمي جي به علامت سمجهي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |language=fr |title=The end of the Defense agreements between France and its former African colonies |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/ils-ont-change-le-monde/7-10-les-accords-la-fin-des-accords-de-defense-entre-la-france-et-ses-ex-colonies-africaines-7412378 |website=radiofrance.fr |date=2025-07-22 |access-date=2025-07-22}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} iuflpq83t0qe69bgoympqe2xkbrwe1k 394787 394691 2026-07-16T09:54:56Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات */ 394787 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپن کي هٿي ڏني آهي.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو|عالمي نظام واري نظريي]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو|انحصاريت واري نظريي]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي.</ref> === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپا پيدا ڪيا آهن. اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي. ===سائنس=== '''نئين نوآبادياتي تحقيق''' يا '''نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس'''، جنهن کي عام طور ''هيليڪاپٽر ريسرچ''، ''پيراشوٽ سائنس'' يا ''پيراشوٽ ريسرچ''، ''طفيلي تحقيق'' يا ''سفاري اسٽڊي'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي تحقيقي طريقي کي سڏيو ويندو آهي جنهن ۾ امير ملڪن جا محقق ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾ وڃي معلومات ۽ نمونا گڏ ڪن ٿا، پوءِ واپس پنهنجي ملڪ وڃي انهن جو تجزيو ڪن ٿا ۽ تحقيق جا نتيجا شايع ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته مقامي محققن کي يا ته بلڪل شامل نٿو ڪيو وڃي يا رڳو معمولي حد تائين شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هنگري جي سائنس اڪيڊمي جي 2003ع واري هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن بابت شايع ٿيل مقالن جي هڪ اتفاقي نموني مان 70 سيڪڙو مقالن ۾ ڪنهن به مقامي محقق کي گڏيل ليکڪ طور شامل نه ڪيو ويو هو. اڪثر اهڙي قسم جي تحقيق دوران مقامي ساٿي رڳو انتظامي سهائتا يا رابطي جي ذميواري نڀائيندڙ طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، پر سندن علمي مهارت مان فائدو نه ورتو ويندو آهي ۽ نه ئي تحقيق ۾ سندن حصي جو مناسب اعتراف ڪيو ويندو آهي. پيراشوٽ سائنس مان پيدا ٿيندڙ علمي مقالا گهڻو ڪري رڳو امير ملڪن جي سائنسدانن جي علمي ترقيءَ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيندا آهن، جڏهن ته مقامي سائنسي صلاحيتن، جهڙوڪ تحقيقي مرڪزن جي ترقي ۽ مقامي سائنسدانن جي پيشاورانه واڌ ويجهه، محدود رهجي ويندي آهي. اهڙي "نوآبادياتي" سائنس ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي انهن سائنسي طريقن جون جھلڪيون نظر اچن ٿيون، جن ۾ غير اولهندي ماڻهن کي "ٻيا" سمجهي نوآباديات کي هٿي ڏني ويندي هئي. ان ڪري ڪيترائي نقاد اهڙين استحصالي تحقيقي روايتن جي خاتمي ۽ علم کي نوآبادياتي اثرن کان آزاد ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا. اهڙو تحقيقي طريقو تحقيق جي معيار کي به متاثر ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ پرڏيهي محقق هميشه مقامي ضرورتن سان لاڳاپيل صحيح سوال نٿا پڇن يا مقامي مسئلن جي صحيح پسمنظر کي سمجهي نٿا سگهن. نتيجي طور مقامي برادريون تحقيق جي نتيجن مان پنهنجي فائدي لاءِ مناسب نموني فائدو نٿيون وٺي سگهن. خاص طور تي [[تحفظياتي حياتيات]] جهڙن شعبن ۾، جتي مقامي برادرين جي عملي شموليت مسئلن جي حل لاءِ ضروري هوندي آهي، نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس تحقيق جي نتيجن کي مقامي ادارن ۽ برادرين ۾ رائج ٿيڻ کان روڪي ٿي، جنهن سبب سائنسدانن پاران اڀياس هيٺ آيل مسئلن جو پائيدار حل ڳولڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو. == علائقن موجب == === آفريڪا === ==== ''فرانس آفريڪ'' ==== {{پڻ ڏسو |سي ايف اي فرانڪ}} [[File:CFA Franc map.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|2009ع ۾ استعمال: {{legend|#008800|[[اولهه آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[مرڪزي آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]<ref>{{cite news |title=African protests over the CFA 'colonial currency' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41094094 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=August 30, 2017 }}</ref> يورپي نئين نوآباديات جي نمايان مثالن مان هڪ '''''[[فرانس آفريڪ]]''''' (''Françafrique'') آهي، جنهن مان مراد [[فرانس]] ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين آفريقي نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ آزادي کان پوءِ به برقرار رهندڙ ويجها سياسي، معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپا آهن. 1955ع ۾ [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] جي صدر [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] پهريون ڀيرو "فرينچ آفريڪا" جو اصطلاح مثبت معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جنهن سان سندس مراد فرانس ۽ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ سماجي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي تعاون هو. بعد ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن هن اصطلاح کي اهڙن غير متوازن بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جي وضاحت لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جن ۾ آزاديءَ باوجود اڳوڻيون نوآباديون فرانس جي اثر هيٺ رهيون. نئين نوآباديات جو اصطلاح انهن ملڪن ۾ پرڏيهي مداخلت جي وضاحت لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيو، جيڪي [[پين آفريقيت]] واري تحريڪ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، ۽ [[بانڊونگ ڪانفرنس|بانڊونگ جي ايشيائي–آفريقي ڪانفرنس]] (1955ع) ۾ شريڪ ٿيا، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ [[غير وابسته تحريڪ]] (1961ع) وجود ۾ آئي. [[سڀ آفريقي عوامي ڪانفرنس]] (AAPC) نئين نوآباديات جي باضابطه تعريف ڪئي، جيڪا ''ريزوليوشن آن نئو-ڪالونيئلئزم'' ۾ شايع ڪئي وئي. [[تونس]] (1960ع) ۽ [[قاهره]] (1961ع) ۾ ٿيل ڪانفرنسن دوران AAPC فرانس طرفان قائم ڪيل آزاد رياستن جي [[فرانسيسي برادري]] کي نئين نوآبادياتي نظام قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC5j0tI-Pv0C&pg=RA1-PA52 |title=Africa: The Politics of Independence and Unity |isbn=0-8032-9856-0 |last1=Wallerstein |first1=Immanuel Maurice |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=484744 |last1=Graf |first1=William D. |title=Reviewed work: Neocolonialism and African Politics: A Survey of the Impact of Neocolonialism on African Political Behaviour, Yolamu R. Barongo |journal=[[Canadian Journal of African Studies]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=600–602 |year=1981 |doi=10.2307/484744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[جاڪ فوڪار]]، جيڪو فرانسيسي صدر [[شارل ڊيگال]] (1958ع–1969ع) ۽ [[جارج پومپيدو]] (1969ع–1974ع) جو آفريقي معاملن بابت اهم صلاحڪار هو، ''فرانس آفريڪ'' پاليسي جو بنيادي معمار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Kaye |last=Whiteman |title=The Man Who Ran Françafrique – French Politician Jacques Foccart's Role in France's Colonisation of Africa Under the Leadership of Charles de Gaulle |type=obituary |magazine=[[The National Interest]] |date=Fall 1997}}</ref> [[فرانسوا-زاويي ويرشاو]] ۽ [[مونگو بيٽي]] جي لکڻين موجب، آفريقي ملڪن جي آزاديءَ کان پوءِ به لڳ ڀڳ چاليهن سالن تائين فرانس ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ اهڙا لاڳاپا برقرار رهيا، جن ۾ فرانسيسي فوجي اڏا قائم رهيا ۽ فرانسيسي [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن، خاص طور معدني وسيلن جي استحصال بابت، اجاريداري برقرار رکي. انهن جو دليل هو ته فرانس سان ويجها لاڳاپا رکندڙ ڪيترائي آفريقي حڪمران—خاص طور آمريڪا ۽ سوويت يونين جي سرد جنگ (1945ع–1992ع) دوران—پنهنجن ملڪن جي خودمختيار قومي اڳواڻن کان وڌيڪ فرانسيسي واپاري ۽ [[جاگرافيائي سياست|جاگرافيائي-سياسي]] مفادن جا نمائندا بڻيل هئا. اهڙن اڳواڻن ۾ [[عمر بونگو]] ([[گيبون]])، [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] ([[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]])، [[گناسنگبي اياديما]] ([[ٽوگو]])، [[دينيس ساسو نگوئيسو]] ([[جمهوريه ڪانگو]])، [[ادريس ديبي]] ([[چاڊ]]) ۽ [[هماني ديوري]] ([[نائيجر]]) جا نالا شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن. فرانس ۽ فرانسيسي ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل دفاعي معاهدن ذريعي خاص طور دفاع ۽ سلامتي جي شعبن ۾ ويجهو تعاون قائم ٿيو. انهن معاهدن سان لاڳاپيل ڳجهن شقن جي بنياد تي فرانس کي فوجي مداخلت جو اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندو هو، جيئن پنهنجي مفادن سان هم آهنگ حڪومتن کي بچائڻ، ساحل واري علائقي ۾ جهادي گروهن خلاف ڪارروائي ڪرڻ، يا گهرو ويڙهن کي ختم ڪرڻ. آفريقي براعظم مان فرانسيسي فوجن جي واپسي هڪ اهڙي دور جي پڄاڻي سمجهي وڃي ٿي، جنهن دوران فرانس چاڊ، ٽوگو، گيبون، روانڊا، جبوتي، زائير، صوماليا، آئيوري ڪوسٽ، مالي، ليبيا ۽ ڪيمرون ۾ فوجي مداخلتون ڪندو رهيو. ان سان گڏ ''فرانس آفريڪ'' واري نظام جي خاتمي جي به علامت سمجهي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |language=fr |title=The end of the Defense agreements between France and its former African colonies |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/ils-ont-change-le-monde/7-10-les-accords-la-fin-des-accords-de-defense-entre-la-france-et-ses-ex-colonies-africaines-7412378 |website=radiofrance.fr |date=2025-07-22 |access-date=2025-07-22}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 2o6041vmu8hn4408dnvea9ko6i73ben 394788 394787 2026-07-16T09:59:03Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* فرانس آفريڪ */ 394788 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپن کي هٿي ڏني آهي.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو|عالمي نظام واري نظريي]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو|انحصاريت واري نظريي]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي.</ref> === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپا پيدا ڪيا آهن. اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي. ===سائنس=== '''نئين نوآبادياتي تحقيق''' يا '''نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس'''، جنهن کي عام طور ''هيليڪاپٽر ريسرچ''، ''پيراشوٽ سائنس'' يا ''پيراشوٽ ريسرچ''، ''طفيلي تحقيق'' يا ''سفاري اسٽڊي'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي تحقيقي طريقي کي سڏيو ويندو آهي جنهن ۾ امير ملڪن جا محقق ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾ وڃي معلومات ۽ نمونا گڏ ڪن ٿا، پوءِ واپس پنهنجي ملڪ وڃي انهن جو تجزيو ڪن ٿا ۽ تحقيق جا نتيجا شايع ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته مقامي محققن کي يا ته بلڪل شامل نٿو ڪيو وڃي يا رڳو معمولي حد تائين شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هنگري جي سائنس اڪيڊمي جي 2003ع واري هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن بابت شايع ٿيل مقالن جي هڪ اتفاقي نموني مان 70 سيڪڙو مقالن ۾ ڪنهن به مقامي محقق کي گڏيل ليکڪ طور شامل نه ڪيو ويو هو. اڪثر اهڙي قسم جي تحقيق دوران مقامي ساٿي رڳو انتظامي سهائتا يا رابطي جي ذميواري نڀائيندڙ طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، پر سندن علمي مهارت مان فائدو نه ورتو ويندو آهي ۽ نه ئي تحقيق ۾ سندن حصي جو مناسب اعتراف ڪيو ويندو آهي. پيراشوٽ سائنس مان پيدا ٿيندڙ علمي مقالا گهڻو ڪري رڳو امير ملڪن جي سائنسدانن جي علمي ترقيءَ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيندا آهن، جڏهن ته مقامي سائنسي صلاحيتن، جهڙوڪ تحقيقي مرڪزن جي ترقي ۽ مقامي سائنسدانن جي پيشاورانه واڌ ويجهه، محدود رهجي ويندي آهي. اهڙي "نوآبادياتي" سائنس ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي انهن سائنسي طريقن جون جھلڪيون نظر اچن ٿيون، جن ۾ غير اولهندي ماڻهن کي "ٻيا" سمجهي نوآباديات کي هٿي ڏني ويندي هئي. ان ڪري ڪيترائي نقاد اهڙين استحصالي تحقيقي روايتن جي خاتمي ۽ علم کي نوآبادياتي اثرن کان آزاد ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا. اهڙو تحقيقي طريقو تحقيق جي معيار کي به متاثر ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ پرڏيهي محقق هميشه مقامي ضرورتن سان لاڳاپيل صحيح سوال نٿا پڇن يا مقامي مسئلن جي صحيح پسمنظر کي سمجهي نٿا سگهن. نتيجي طور مقامي برادريون تحقيق جي نتيجن مان پنهنجي فائدي لاءِ مناسب نموني فائدو نٿيون وٺي سگهن. خاص طور تي [[تحفظياتي حياتيات]] جهڙن شعبن ۾، جتي مقامي برادرين جي عملي شموليت مسئلن جي حل لاءِ ضروري هوندي آهي، نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس تحقيق جي نتيجن کي مقامي ادارن ۽ برادرين ۾ رائج ٿيڻ کان روڪي ٿي، جنهن سبب سائنسدانن پاران اڀياس هيٺ آيل مسئلن جو پائيدار حل ڳولڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو. == علائقن موجب == === آفريڪا === ==== ''فرانس آفريڪ'' ==== {{پڻ ڏسو |سي ايف اي فرانڪ}} [[Image:CFA Franc map.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Usage of (in 2009): {{legend|#008800|[[West African CFA franc]]}}{{legend|#ff0000|[[Central African CFA franc]]<ref>{{cite news |title=African protests over the CFA 'colonial currency' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41094094 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=August 30, 2017 }}</ref>}}]] [[File:CFA Franc map.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|2009ع ۾ استعمال:{{legend|#008800|[[اولهه آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[مرڪزي آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]}}<ref>{{cite news |title=African protests over the CFA 'colonial currency' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41094094 |work=[[ بي بي سي خبرون]] |date=August 30, 2017 </ref> يورپي نئين نوآباديات جي نمايان مثالن مان هڪ '''''[[فرانس آفريڪ]]''''' (''Françafrique'') آهي، جنهن مان مراد [[فرانس]] ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين آفريقي نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ آزادي کان پوءِ به برقرار رهندڙ ويجها سياسي، معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپا آهن. 1955ع ۾ [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] جي صدر [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] پهريون ڀيرو "فرينچ آفريڪا" جو اصطلاح مثبت معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جنهن سان سندس مراد فرانس ۽ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ سماجي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي تعاون هو. بعد ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن هن اصطلاح کي اهڙن غير متوازن بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جي وضاحت لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جن ۾ آزاديءَ باوجود اڳوڻيون نوآباديون فرانس جي اثر هيٺ رهيون. نئين نوآباديات جو اصطلاح انهن ملڪن ۾ پرڏيهي مداخلت جي وضاحت لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيو، جيڪي [[پين آفريقيت]] واري تحريڪ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، ۽ [[بانڊونگ ڪانفرنس|بانڊونگ جي ايشيائي–آفريقي ڪانفرنس]] (1955ع) ۾ شريڪ ٿيا، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ [[غير وابسته تحريڪ]] (1961ع) وجود ۾ آئي. [[سڀ آفريقي عوامي ڪانفرنس]] (AAPC) نئين نوآباديات جي باضابطه تعريف ڪئي، جيڪا ''ريزوليوشن آن نئو-ڪالونيئلئزم'' ۾ شايع ڪئي وئي. [[تونس]] (1960ع) ۽ [[قاهره]] (1961ع) ۾ ٿيل ڪانفرنسن دوران AAPC فرانس طرفان قائم ڪيل آزاد رياستن جي [[فرانسيسي برادري]] کي نئين نوآبادياتي نظام قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC5j0tI-Pv0C&pg=RA1-PA52 |title=Africa: The Politics of Independence and Unity |isbn=0-8032-9856-0 |last1=Wallerstein |first1=Immanuel Maurice |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=484744 |last1=Graf |first1=William D. |title=Reviewed work: Neocolonialism and African Politics: A Survey of the Impact of Neocolonialism on African Political Behaviour, Yolamu R. Barongo |journal=[[Canadian Journal of African Studies]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=600–602 |year=1981 |doi=10.2307/484744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[جاڪ فوڪار]]، جيڪو فرانسيسي صدر [[شارل ڊيگال]] (1958ع–1969ع) ۽ [[جارج پومپيدو]] (1969ع–1974ع) جو آفريقي معاملن بابت اهم صلاحڪار هو، ''فرانس آفريڪ'' پاليسي جو بنيادي معمار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Kaye |last=Whiteman |title=The Man Who Ran Françafrique – French Politician Jacques Foccart's Role in France's Colonisation of Africa Under the Leadership of Charles de Gaulle |type=obituary |magazine=[[The National Interest]] |date=Fall 1997}}</ref> [[فرانسوا-زاويي ويرشاو]] ۽ [[مونگو بيٽي]] جي لکڻين موجب، آفريقي ملڪن جي آزاديءَ کان پوءِ به لڳ ڀڳ چاليهن سالن تائين فرانس ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ اهڙا لاڳاپا برقرار رهيا، جن ۾ فرانسيسي فوجي اڏا قائم رهيا ۽ فرانسيسي [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن، خاص طور معدني وسيلن جي استحصال بابت، اجاريداري برقرار رکي. انهن جو دليل هو ته فرانس سان ويجها لاڳاپا رکندڙ ڪيترائي آفريقي حڪمران—خاص طور آمريڪا ۽ سوويت يونين جي سرد جنگ (1945ع–1992ع) دوران—پنهنجن ملڪن جي خودمختيار قومي اڳواڻن کان وڌيڪ فرانسيسي واپاري ۽ [[جاگرافيائي سياست|جاگرافيائي-سياسي]] مفادن جا نمائندا بڻيل هئا. اهڙن اڳواڻن ۾ [[عمر بونگو]] ([[گيبون]])، [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] ([[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]])، [[گناسنگبي اياديما]] ([[ٽوگو]])، [[دينيس ساسو نگوئيسو]] ([[جمهوريه ڪانگو]])، [[ادريس ديبي]] ([[چاڊ]]) ۽ [[هماني ديوري]] ([[نائيجر]]) جا نالا شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن. فرانس ۽ فرانسيسي ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل دفاعي معاهدن ذريعي خاص طور دفاع ۽ سلامتي جي شعبن ۾ ويجهو تعاون قائم ٿيو. انهن معاهدن سان لاڳاپيل ڳجهن شقن جي بنياد تي فرانس کي فوجي مداخلت جو اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندو هو، جيئن پنهنجي مفادن سان هم آهنگ حڪومتن کي بچائڻ، ساحل واري علائقي ۾ جهادي گروهن خلاف ڪارروائي ڪرڻ، يا گهرو ويڙهن کي ختم ڪرڻ. آفريقي براعظم مان فرانسيسي فوجن جي واپسي هڪ اهڙي دور جي پڄاڻي سمجهي وڃي ٿي، جنهن دوران فرانس چاڊ، ٽوگو، گيبون، روانڊا، جبوتي، زائير، صوماليا، آئيوري ڪوسٽ، مالي، ليبيا ۽ ڪيمرون ۾ فوجي مداخلتون ڪندو رهيو. ان سان گڏ ''فرانس آفريڪ'' واري نظام جي خاتمي جي به علامت سمجهي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |language=fr |title=The end of the Defense agreements between France and its former African colonies |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/ils-ont-change-le-monde/7-10-les-accords-la-fin-des-accords-de-defense-entre-la-france-et-ses-ex-colonies-africaines-7412378 |website=radiofrance.fr |date=2025-07-22 |access-date=2025-07-22}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} ghskraoru05cuzxcsugbhfr4gfuk0xp 394794 394788 2026-07-16T10:33:40Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* فرانس آفريڪ */ 394794 wikitext text/x-wiki '''نئين نوآباديات''' ('''Neocolonialism''') اهڙي حالت کي چيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ هڪ رياست (عام طور اڳوڻي نوآبادياتي طاقت) ڪنهن ٻي ظاهري طور [[آزادي|آزاد]] رياست (عام طور پنهنجي اڳوڻي بيٺڪ) تي سڌي قبضي بدران اڻسڌن وسيلن ذريعي اثر ۽ ڪنٽرول برقرار رکي ٿي.<ref name="Stanard2018">{{Cite book |last=Stanard |first=Matthew G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-119-13013-0 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Scott |first1=John |title=neo-colonialism |date=2009 |dictionary=A Dictionary of Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon}}</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> ''نئون نوآباديات'' (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي پرڏيهي ملڪن تي جاري رهندڙ انحصار جي حوالي سان استعمال ٿيو، پر پوءِ ان جو مفهوم وسيع ٿي ويو ۽ اهڙين سڀني حالتن لاءِ استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جتي ترقي يافته ملڪن جي طاقت ذريعي نوآبادياتي نوعيت جو ڪنٽرول قائم ڪيو وڃي.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Halperin |first=Sandra |date=2023-12-02 |title=Neocolonialism |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism}}</ref> ڪجهه عالمن جو خيال آهي ته نئون نوآباديات عالمي معاشي حڪمراني، بين الاقوامي مالي ادارن ۽ واپاري نظامن وسيلي عمل ڪندو آهي، جيڪي قرضن ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن ذريعي ظاهري طور خودمختيار رياستن جي اندروني پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿين ٿا.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=The New Imperialism |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-191764-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nkrumah |first=Kwame |title=Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism |year=1965 |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons}}</ref> نئون نوآباديات [[معاشي سامراج]]، [[ثقافتي سامراج]] ۽ مشروط امداد جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مقصد ترقي پذير ملڪن تي اثرانداز ٿيڻ يا انهن کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته روايتي [[نوآباديات]] ۾ [[سڌو فوجي ڪنٽرول]] يا اڻسڌو سياسي غلبو ([[بالادستي]]) اختيار ڪيو ويندو هو. نئون نوآباديات عام [[عالميت]] (گلوبلائيزيشن) ۽ [[ترقياتي امداد]] کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو ان جو نتيجو عام طور اهڙي لاڳاپي جي صورت ۾ نڪرندو آهي، جنهن ۾ تابع داري، انحصار يا مالي وابستگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. '''نيو ڪالونيلزم''' خِطن، ملڪن ۽ علائقن تي سڌي ريت حڪومت ڪرڻ بدران معاشي، سياسي ۽ ٻين دٻائن ذريعي حڪومت ڪرڻ کي ’نئين بيٺڪيت‘ (نيو ڪالونيلئزم) چئبو آهي.<ref>ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.</ref> == اصطلاح == === بڻ بنياد === جڏهن '''نئين نوآباديات''' جو اصطلاح پهريون ڀيرو پيش ڪيو ويو، تڏهن اهو يورپي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻين بيٺڪن جي وچ ۾ برقرار رهندڙ معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو، خاص طور انهن آفريڪي ملڪن جي حوالي سان، جيڪي [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[نوآباديات جي خاتمي]] جي عمل دوران آزاد ٿيا هئا. 1962ع ۾ [[قومي اتحاد براءِ عوامي قوتون]] جي ڪانفرنس ۾ مراڪشي سياستدان ۽ پوءِ [[ٽريڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (1966ع) جي چيئرمين [[مهدي بن برڪا]] آفريڪا ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعاتي سياسي رجحانن کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ''الاستعمار الجديد'' ({{Langx|ar|الاستعمار الجديد}}، "نئون نوآباديات") جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=ar:الاختيار الثوري في المغرب |title=alaikhtiar althawriu fi almaghrib |language=ar |trans-title=The revolutionary choice in Morocco |publisher=دار الطليعة، |oclc=754752436}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = {{lang|ar|الاستعمار الجديد عبارة عن سياسة تعمل من جهة على منح الاستقلال السياسي، وعند الاقتضاء إنشاء دول مصطنعة لا حظ لها في وجود ذاتي، ومن جهة أخرى، تعمل على تقديم مساعدات مصحوبة بوعود تحقيق رفاهية تكون قواعدها في الحقيقة خارج القارة الإفريقية.}}<br /> "نئون نوآباديات اهڙي پاليسي آهي، جيڪا هڪ پاسي سياسي آزادي عطا ڪري ٿي ۽، ضرورت پوڻ تي، اهڙيون مصنوعي رياستون قائم ڪري ٿي، جن وٽ حقيقي خودمختياريءَ جو ڪو امڪان نه هوندو آهي؛ جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي اهڙي امداد فراهم ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا خوشحاليءَ جي واعدن سان گڏ هوندي آهي، پر جنهن جا بنياد حقيقت ۾ آفريڪي براعظم کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن." | source = [[مهدي بن برڪا]]، ''دي رووليشنري آپشن ان موروڪو'' (مئي 1963ع) }} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet stamp (80th anniversary of his birth) 1989 CPA 6101.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[ڪوامي نڪروما]] (سوويت يادگاري ٽپال ٽڪيٽ تي)، [[گهانا]] جو صدر (1960ع–1966ع)، جنهن کي "نئون نوآباديات" جي اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو اعزاز ڏنو وڃي ٿو.]] [[ڪوامي نڪروما]]، جيڪو 1960ع کان 1966ع تائين [[گهانا]] جو صدر رهيو، عام طور هن اصطلاح کي رائج ڪرڻ جو سهرو سندس سر تي ٻڌو وڃي ٿو. هي اصطلاح 1963ع ۾ [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي منشور جي ديباچي ۾ ظاهر ٿيو ۽ پوءِ سندس 1965ع جي ڪتاب ''[[نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو]]'' (''نيو-ڪالونيئلزم, دي لاسٽ اسٽيج آف امپيريل ازم'') جو عنوان پڻ بڻيو.<ref name="Arnold2010">{{cite book |first=Guy |last=Arnold |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4b4aAAAAQBAJ|page=108}} |date=April 6, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-1-4616-7231-9 |page=108}}</ref> هن ڪتاب ۾ گهانا جي صدر آفريڪا ۾ بين الاقوامي اجاردار سرمائيداريءَ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي بي نقاب ڪيو. سندس خيال موجب نئون نوآباديات پراڻي نوآباديات کان وڌيڪ ڳجهو، پيچيده ۽ خطرناڪ آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ معاشي آزادي کان سواءِ سياسي آزادي بي معنيٰ بڻجي وڃي ٿي. نڪروما نظرياتي طور [[لينن]] جي رسالي ''[[سامراج: سرمائيداريءَ جو اعليٰ ترين مرحلو]]'' (1917ع) ۾ پيش ڪيل سماجي، معاشي ۽ سياسي دليلن کي ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ واري دور تائين وڌايو. هن رسالي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي سامراج کي [[سرمائيداري]] جي [[سياسي معيشت]] جي مالي سيڙپڪاريءَ جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ [[جيوسياسي]] طاقت جي منطقي توسيع طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Vladimir |last=Lenin |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism |date=1916 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''نوآباديات: سامراج جو آخري مرحلو'' ۾ ڪوامي نڪروما لکي ٿو: {{Blockquote| اڄ سامراج جي بنيادي اوزار طور روايتي نوآباديات جي جاءِ تي نئون نوآباديات اچي چڪو آهي... جيڪو روايتي نوآباديات وانگر سرمائيدار ملڪن جي سماجي تضادن کي ٻين ملڪن ڏانهن منتقل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش آهي... نئين نوآباديات جو نتيجو اهو نڪري ٿو ته پرڏيهي سرمايو گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن جي ترقيءَ بدران انهن جي محنت جي استحصال لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. نئين نوآباديات هيٺ سيڙپڪاري امير ۽ غريب ملڪن جي وچ ۾ فرق گهٽائڻ بدران وڌيڪ وڌائي ٿي. نئين نوآباديات خلاف جدوجهد جو مقصد ترقي يافته ملڪن جي سرمائي کي گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مڪمل طور خارج ڪرڻ نه آهي، ۽ نه ئي اهو صرف نالي جي ڪري نوآباديات جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ان جو اصل مقصد اهو آهي ته ترقي يافته ملڪن جي مالي طاقت کي اهڙي نموني استعمال ٿيڻ کان روڪيو وڃي، جنهن سان گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ وڌيڪ غريب ٿين.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism |first=Kwame |last=Nkrumah |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/neo-colonialism/introduction.htm |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> نئين نوآباديات جو بنيادي جوهر اهو آهي ته جنهن رياست تي اهو لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، اها نظريي طور آزاد هوندي آهي ۽ بين الاقوامي خودمختياريءَ جون سڀ ظاهري علامتون رکي ٿي، پر حقيقت ۾ ان جو معاشي نظام، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ ان جي سياسي پاليسي، ٻاهران هدايت ڪئي ويندي آهي. |author= |title= }} === هاڻوڪو استعمال === هاڻوڪي علمي ادب ۾ ''نئون نوآباديات'' جو اصطلاح اڪثر عالمي سياسي معيشت ۾ موجود ساختي اڻبرابرين کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور واپاري انحصار، عالمي فراهميءَ جي زنجيرن (سپلاء چينز) ۽ مالي حڪمرانيءَ جي حوالي سان. ناقدن جو چوڻ آهي ته [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) ۽ [[عالمي بئنڪ]] جهڙا ادارا قرضن سان لاڳاپيل شرطن وسيلي ترقي پذير ملڪن جي گهريلو معاشي پاليسين تي اثرانداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻيا ماهر دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙا طريقا معاشي استحڪام ۽ ترقي لاءِ ضروري آهن.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=[[عالميت ۽ ان جا ناگوار اثر]] |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-05124-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conditionality |url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2016/08/01/20/56/IMF-Conditionality |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> == نئين نوآبادياتي معاشي بالادستي == [[File:Hands off Timorese Oil - Brisbane May Day 2017 parade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|مئي 2017ع ۾ برسبين ۾ [[آسٽريليا–اوڀر تيمور لاڳاپا|اوڀر تيمور جي تيل تي آسٽريليا جي دعويٰ]] خلاف احتجاج ڪندڙ ماڻهو.]] 1961ع ۾ نئين نوآبادياتي ڪنٽرول جي معاشي طريقن بابت پنهنجي تقرير ''ڪوبا: نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد ۾ تاريخي استثنا يا پيشرو؟'' (''ڪيوبا: ھسٽاريڪل ايڪسيپشن آر وئنگارڊ ان دي اينٽي-ڪالونيل اسٽرگل؟'') ۾ ارجنٽائني انقلابي [[چي گويرا]] چيو: {{Blockquote| اسان، جن کي ادب سان "گهٽ ترقي يافته" سڏيو وڃي ٿو، حقيقت ۾ [[يورپي نوآباديات|نوآبادياتي]]، نيم نوآبادياتي يا تابع ملڪ آهيون. اسان اهي ملڪ آهيون، جن جي معيشتن کي سامراج اهڙي نموني بگاڙي ڇڏيو آهي، جو انهن ۾ صنعت يا زراعت جون صرف اهي شاخون غيرمعمولي طور ترقي ڪيون ويون آهن، جيڪي سامراجي معيشت جي ضرورتن کي پورو ڪن. "گهٽ ترقي" يا بگڙيل ترقي خام مال جي خطرناڪ خصوصي پيداوار کي جنم ڏئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ اسان جي سڀني قومن لاءِ بک جو خطرو سمايل آهي. اسان، جيڪي "گهٽ ترقي يافته" آهيون، اهي به هڪ ئي فصل، هڪ ئي پيداوار ۽ هڪ ئي منڊيءَ تي ڀاڙيندڙ ملڪ آهيون. اهڙي هڪڙي پيداوار، جنهن جي غير يقيني وڪري جو دارومدار هڪ ئي اهڙي منڊيءَ تي هوندو آهي، جيڪا شرطون پڻ پاڻ مقرر ڪري ٿي. سامراجي معاشي بالادستيءَ جو اهو ئي سڀ کان وڏو فارمولو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle? |first=Che |last=Guevara |author-link=Che Guevara |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/04/09.htm |date=April 9, 1961 |access-date=August 27, 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> }} === انحصاريت جو نظريو === {{Main|انحصاريت جو نظريو}} '''انحصاريت جو نظريو''' (ڊپينڊنسي ٿيوري) معاشي نئين نوآباديات جي هڪ نظرياتي تشريح آهي. هن نظريي موجب عالمي معاشي نظام ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: مرڪز ۾ خوشحال ۽ صنعتي ملڪ، جڏهن ته ڪنارن تي غريب ۽ گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ. معاشي نئون نوآباديات غريب ملڪن جا انساني ۽ قدرتي وسيلا ڪڍي انهن کي امير ملڪن جي معيشتن ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ٿو. هن نظريي موجب ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي غربت جو بنيادي سبب اهو آهي ته اهي عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ جنهن نموني ضم ڪيا ويا آهن، تنهن سبب اهي ترقيءَ بدران انحصار جو شڪار بڻيل آهن. انحصاريت جو نظريو عالمي معاشي نظام ۾ موجود اڻبرابرين بابت [[مارڪسزم|مارڪسي]] تجزيي مان نڪتل آهي. ان مطابق مرڪزي ملڪن جي ترقي، ڪناري وارن ملڪن جي گهٽ ترقيءَ جو سڌو نتيجو آهي. هن نظريي ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي پڇاڙيءَ ۾ رائج [[نيم نوآبادياتي رياست]] (سيمي-ڪالوني) جو تصور پڻ شامل آهي.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Mandel |author-link=Ernest Mandel |title=Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries |journal=New International |location=New York |number=5 |pages=149–175}}</ref> === سرد جنگ === {{Main|سرد جنگ}} ويهين صديءَ جي وچ ۽ پڇاڙيءَ واري عرصي ۾، [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] جي وچ ۾ نظرياتي ٽڪراءَ دوران، ٻنهي ملڪن ۽ انهن جي [[تابع رياست]]ن هڪ ٻئي تي پنهنجي [[سامراجيت|سامراجي]] ۽ [[بالادستي]] واري پاليسين ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي عمل ڪرڻ جا الزام هنيا.<ref name="KanetMiner1992">{{cite book |first1=Roger E. |last1=Kanet |first2=Deborah N. |last2=Miner |first3=Tamara J. |last3=Resler |title=Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U9cNYHGVzzsC|page=149}} |date=April 2, 1992|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-41365-7 |pages=149–150}}</ref><ref name="Ruether2008">{{cite book |first=Rosemary Radford |last=Ruether |title=Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OHi7FAlbe18C|page=138}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4643-1 |page=138}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqi2008">{{cite book |first=Yumna |last=Siddiqi |title=Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pVSsAgAAQBAJ|page=123}} |year=2008 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13808-6 |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref name="Shannon1996">{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Shannon |title=An Introduction to the World-system Perspective |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U39evXuC41kC|page=94}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-2452-4 |pages=94–95 }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard1996">{{cite book |first=William H. |last=Blanchard |title=Neocolonialism American Style, 1960–2000|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=d42R23Jq6SMC|page=3}} |year=1996 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-30013-4 |pages=3–12}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson1977">{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=Nations and States: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u5kOAAAAQAAJ|page=339}} |year=1977 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-76810-7 |page=339}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Edward M. |last=Bennett |title=Colonialism and Neo-colonialism |pages=285–291 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |editor1-first=Alexander |editor1-last=DeConde |editor2-first=Richard Dean |editor2-last=Burns |editor3-first=Fredrik |editor3-last=Logevall |edition=2nd |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=0-684-80657-6}}</ref> اهو تڪرار نوآباديات کان آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ [[نيابتي جنگ]]ن (پراڪسي وارز) جي صورت اختيار ڪري ويو، جيڪي ٻنهي ڌرين جي حمايتي رياستن وسيلي وڙهيون ويون. [[ڪيوبا]]، [[وارسا معاھدو|وارسا معاهدي]] واري بلاڪ، ۽ [[جمال عبدالناصر]] (1956ع–1970ع) جي دور واري [[مصر]] سميت ٻين ملڪن، آمريڪا تي اهو الزام لڳايو ته هو اهڙين غير جمهوري حڪومتن جي سرپرستي ڪندو هو، جيڪي پنهنجي عوام جي مفادن جي نمائندگي نه ڪنديون هيون، ۽ آفريڪا، ايشيا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا ۾ انهن چونڊيل حڪومتن کي به ڪيرائڻ ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪندو هو، جيڪي آمريڪي جاگرافيائي-سياسي مفادن جي حمايت نه ڪنديون هيون.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/global-cold-war/75870878657DC67E0BC70FA7D2388494 |title=The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-70314-7 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817991}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[مهدي بن برڪا]] جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ڪيوبا ۾ منعقد ٿيل [[ايشيا، آفريڪا ۽ لاطيني آمريڪا جي عوام سان يڪجهتي تنظيم|ٽرائيڪنٽينينٽل ڪانفرنس]] (آرگنائيزيشن آف ساليڊرٽي ود دي پيپل آف ايشيا, آفريڪا اينڊ ليٽن آمريڪا) نوآبادياتي ملڪن جي آزادي ۽ خوداراديت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ انقلابي [[نوآباديات مخالف تحريڪ|نوآباديات مخالف جدوجهد]] جي حمايت ڪئي، جنهن سبب آمريڪا ۽ فرانس ناراض ٿيا. بن برڪا نئين نوآباديات بابت ڪميشن جو پڻ سربراهه هو، جيڪا نوآبادياتي طاقتن جي آزاد ٿيل ملڪن ۾ جاري مداخلت جو جائزو وٺندي هئي. سندس خيال موجب دنيا جي اهم سرمائيدار طاقت هجڻ جي حيثيت سان آمريڪا عملي طور سڀ کان وڏو نئون نوآبادياتي سياسي قوت بڻجي چڪو هو.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-24 |title=The Process of Creation of a New World, More Perfect, More Harmonious, and More Just Is Taking Place in Front of Us |url=https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/havana-tricontinental-1966/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barcia |first=Manuel |date=2009-09-01 |title=‘Locking horns with the Northern Empire’: anti-American imperialism at the Tricontinental Conference of 1966 in Havana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069052 |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=208–217 |doi=10.1080/14794010903069052 |issn=1479-4012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tricontinental - Freedom Archives Search |url=https://search.freedomarchives.org/collections/1035 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=search.freedomarchives.org |language=en}}</ref> === گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون === {{Main|گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن}} نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن جو اهو به موقف آهي ته [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن جي سيڙپڪاري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ رڳو ٿورن ماڻهن کي فائدو پهچائي ٿي، جڏهن ته مقامي آباديءَ لاءِ [[انساني بحران]]، [[قدرتي ماحول|ماحولياتي]] ۽ [[ماحوليات|ماحولي]] نقصان جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. سندن خيال موجب اهڙي عمل جي نتيجي ۾ [[پائيدار ترقي]] بدران غير پائيدار ترقي ۽ مستقل پسماندگي پيدا ٿئي ٿي. اهڙا ملڪ سستي مزدوري ۽ خام مال جا ذخيرو بڻجي وڃن ٿا، جڏهن ته جديد پيداواري ٽيڪنالاجي تائين سندن رسائي محدود رهندي آهي، جنهن ڪري هو پنهنجي معيشت کي خودمختيار نموني ترقي نٿا ڏئي سگهن. ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ قدرتي وسيلن تي اجاريداري، جيتوڻيڪ شروعات ۾ پرڏيهي سيڙپڪاري ۾ واڌ جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، پر پوءِ بيروزگاري، غربت ۽ في فرد آمدنيءَ ۾ گهٽتائي به پيدا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |title=World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929095554/http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0404-06.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=April 4, 2002}}</ref> اولهه آفريڪا جي [[گني بسائو]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[موريتانيا]] ۾ مڇي مارڻ تاريخي طور معيشت جو اهم حصو رهيو آهي. 1979ع کان [[يورپي يونين]] انهن ملڪن جي حڪومتن سان اولهه آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪنارن تي مڇي مارڻ بابت معاهدا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا. پرڏيهي ٻيڙين جي غير پائيدار تجارتي حد کان وڌيڪ مڇي مارڻ سبب وڏي پيماني تي بيروزگاري ۽ علائقي مان ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ۾ واڌ آئي.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=January 14, 2008 |title=Europe Takes Africa's Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow |language=en-US |work=[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/africa/14fishing.html |access-date=August 27, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> اهو عمل [[گڏيل قومن جو سامونڊي قانون بابت معاھدو]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز ڪنوينشن آن دي لا آف دي سي) جي اصولن جي به ابتڙ آهي، جيڪو مقامي برادرين لاءِ مڇي مارڻ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪري ٿو ۽ زور ڏئي ٿو ته پرڏيهي ڪمپنين سان مڇي مارڻ جا سرڪاري معاهدا رڳو اضافي ذخيرن (سرپلس اسٽاڪس) تائين محدود هجن.<ref>[[#UN2007|United Nations 2007]]</ref> [[آڪسفيم]] جي 2024ع واري رپورٽ ''انئيڪولٽي, انڪارپوريشن.'' موجب، [[اتر عالمي علائقو|اتر عالمي]] ملڪن ۾ قائم گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشنون ڏکڻ عالمي ملڪن ۾ هڪ نوآبادياتي طرز جي "استخراجي" (ايڪسٽريڪٽوسٽ) معاشي ماڊل کي برقرار رکي رهيون آهن، جنهن تحت اهي معيشتون ٽامي کان ڪافي تائين بنيادي خام شين جي برآمد تائين محدود رهن ٿيون.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/inequality-inc|title=Inequality, Inc.: How corporate power divides our world and the need for a new era of public action|last=Riddell|first=Rebecca|display-authors=etal.|date=15 January 2024 |website=Oxfam International |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> ڪيترن عالمن انهن حالتن کي [[عالمي قدر زنجير|عالمي قدر زنجيرن]] (گلوبل ويليو چينز) سان پڻ ڳنڍيو آهي، جتي وڌيڪ قدر واريون پيداواري سرگرميون ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ مرڪوز رهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته وسيلن جي کوٽائي ۽ گهٽ اجرت واري مزدوري ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ جاري رهي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Value Chains Development Report |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/global-value-chains/publication/global-value-chain-development-report |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> === بين الاقوامي قرض وٺڻ === {{پڻ ڏسو |بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ تي تنقيد}} آمريڪي معاشيات دان [[جيفري سيڪس]] سفارش ڪئي ته آفريڪا تي موجود سمورو قرض (تقريباً 200 ارب آمريڪي ڊالر) معاف ڪيو وڃي. هن اهو به تجويز ڏنو ته آفريقي ملڪ نه [[عالمي بئنڪ]] ۽ نه ئي [[بين الاقوامي مالياتي فنڊ]] (IMF) جا قرض واپس ڪن.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa 'should not pay its debts' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3869081.stm |access-date=November 23, 2013 |date=July 6, 2004 |agency=[[بي بي سي نيوز]] }}</ref> {{Blockquote| هاڻي وقت اچي ويو آهي ته هن ڊرامي کي ختم ڪيو وڃي. اهي قرض واپس ڪرڻ جي سگهه کان ٻاهر آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي قرض معاف نٿا ڪن، ته منهنجي صلاح آهي ته اوهان ادائيگي روڪي ڇڏيو؛ اهو قدم پاڻ کڻو. آفريڪا کي چوڻ گهرجي: "توهان جي وڏي مهرباني، پر اسان کي هي رقم انهن ٻارن جون فوري ضرورتون پوريون ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل آهي، جيڪي هن وقت مري رهيا آهن. تنهن ڪري اسان قرضن جي ادائيگيءَ لاءِ رکيل رقم صحت، تعليم، صاف پيئڻ جي پاڻي، ايڊز جي روڪٿام ۽ ٻين تڪڙين سماجي ضرورتن تي خرچ ڪنداسين." }} === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپن کي هٿي ڏني آهي.<ref>اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو|عالمي نظام واري نظريي]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو|انحصاريت واري نظريي]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي.</ref> === تحفظِ فطرت ۽ نئين نوآباديات === [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] ۽ الڳ طور [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جو خيال آهي ته جديد [[تحفظِ فطرت جي تحريڪ]]، جيئن ان تي [[ورلڊ وائڊ فنڊ فار نيچر]] جهڙيون بين الاقوامي تنظيمون عمل ڪن ٿيون، اڻڄاڻائيءَ ۾ ترقي پذير ملڪن سان نئين نوآبادياتي لاڳاپا پيدا ڪيا آهن. اهو موقف [[ايمانوئل والرسٽين]] جي [[عالمي نظام جو نظريو]] (1974ع) ۽ [[آندري گونڊر فرينڪ]] جي [[انحصاريت جو نظريو]] (1975ع) سان هم آهنگ آهي. ===سائنس=== '''نئين نوآبادياتي تحقيق''' يا '''نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس'''، جنهن کي عام طور ''هيليڪاپٽر ريسرچ''، ''پيراشوٽ سائنس'' يا ''پيراشوٽ ريسرچ''، ''طفيلي تحقيق'' يا ''سفاري اسٽڊي'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي تحقيقي طريقي کي سڏيو ويندو آهي جنهن ۾ امير ملڪن جا محقق ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾ وڃي معلومات ۽ نمونا گڏ ڪن ٿا، پوءِ واپس پنهنجي ملڪ وڃي انهن جو تجزيو ڪن ٿا ۽ تحقيق جا نتيجا شايع ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته مقامي محققن کي يا ته بلڪل شامل نٿو ڪيو وڃي يا رڳو معمولي حد تائين شامل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. هنگري جي سائنس اڪيڊمي جي 2003ع واري هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪن بابت شايع ٿيل مقالن جي هڪ اتفاقي نموني مان 70 سيڪڙو مقالن ۾ ڪنهن به مقامي محقق کي گڏيل ليکڪ طور شامل نه ڪيو ويو هو. اڪثر اهڙي قسم جي تحقيق دوران مقامي ساٿي رڳو انتظامي سهائتا يا رابطي جي ذميواري نڀائيندڙ طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، پر سندن علمي مهارت مان فائدو نه ورتو ويندو آهي ۽ نه ئي تحقيق ۾ سندن حصي جو مناسب اعتراف ڪيو ويندو آهي. پيراشوٽ سائنس مان پيدا ٿيندڙ علمي مقالا گهڻو ڪري رڳو امير ملڪن جي سائنسدانن جي علمي ترقيءَ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿيندا آهن، جڏهن ته مقامي سائنسي صلاحيتن، جهڙوڪ تحقيقي مرڪزن جي ترقي ۽ مقامي سائنسدانن جي پيشاورانه واڌ ويجهه، محدود رهجي ويندي آهي. اهڙي "نوآبادياتي" سائنس ۾ اوڻيهين صديءَ جي انهن سائنسي طريقن جون جھلڪيون نظر اچن ٿيون، جن ۾ غير اولهندي ماڻهن کي "ٻيا" سمجهي نوآباديات کي هٿي ڏني ويندي هئي. ان ڪري ڪيترائي نقاد اهڙين استحصالي تحقيقي روايتن جي خاتمي ۽ علم کي نوآبادياتي اثرن کان آزاد ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا. اهڙو تحقيقي طريقو تحقيق جي معيار کي به متاثر ڪري ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ پرڏيهي محقق هميشه مقامي ضرورتن سان لاڳاپيل صحيح سوال نٿا پڇن يا مقامي مسئلن جي صحيح پسمنظر کي سمجهي نٿا سگهن. نتيجي طور مقامي برادريون تحقيق جي نتيجن مان پنهنجي فائدي لاءِ مناسب نموني فائدو نٿيون وٺي سگهن. خاص طور تي [[تحفظياتي حياتيات]] جهڙن شعبن ۾، جتي مقامي برادرين جي عملي شموليت مسئلن جي حل لاءِ ضروري هوندي آهي، نئين نوآبادياتي سائنس تحقيق جي نتيجن کي مقامي ادارن ۽ برادرين ۾ رائج ٿيڻ کان روڪي ٿي، جنهن سبب سائنسدانن پاران اڀياس هيٺ آيل مسئلن جو پائيدار حل ڳولڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوي ٿو. == علائقن موجب == === آفريڪا === ==== ''فرانس آفريڪ'' ==== {{پڻ ڏسو |سي ايف اي فرانڪ}} [[Image:CFA Franc map.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|استعمال (2009 ۾): {{legend|#008800|[[اولھ آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]}}{{legend|#ff0000|[[سينٽرل آفريقي سي ايف اي فرانڪ]]<ref>{{cite news |title=African protests over the CFA 'colonial currency' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41094094 |work=[[به بي سي خبرون]] |date=August 30, 2017 }}</ref>}}]] يورپي نئين نوآباديات جي نمايان مثالن مان هڪ '''''[[فرانس آفريڪ]]''''' (''Françafrique'') آهي، جنهن مان مراد [[فرانس]] ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين آفريقي نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ آزادي کان پوءِ به برقرار رهندڙ ويجها سياسي، معاشي ۽ ثقافتي لاڳاپا آهن. 1955ع ۾ [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] جي صدر [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] پهريون ڀيرو "فرينچ آفريڪا" جو اصطلاح مثبت معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو، جنهن سان سندس مراد فرانس ۽ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ سماجي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي تعاون هو. بعد ۾ نئين نوآباديات تي تنقيد ڪندڙن هن اصطلاح کي اهڙن غير متوازن بين الاقوامي لاڳاپن جي وضاحت لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جن ۾ آزاديءَ باوجود اڳوڻيون نوآباديون فرانس جي اثر هيٺ رهيون. نئين نوآباديات جو اصطلاح انهن ملڪن ۾ پرڏيهي مداخلت جي وضاحت لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيو، جيڪي [[پين آفريقيت]] واري تحريڪ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، ۽ [[بانڊونگ ڪانفرنس|بانڊونگ جي ايشيائي–آفريقي ڪانفرنس]] (1955ع) ۾ شريڪ ٿيا، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ [[غير وابسته تحريڪ]] (1961ع) وجود ۾ آئي. [[سڀ آفريقي عوامي ڪانفرنس]] (AAPC) نئين نوآباديات جي باضابطه تعريف ڪئي، جيڪا ''ريزوليوشن آن نئو-ڪالونيئلئزم'' ۾ شايع ڪئي وئي. [[تونس]] (1960ع) ۽ [[قاهره]] (1961ع) ۾ ٿيل ڪانفرنسن دوران AAPC فرانس طرفان قائم ڪيل آزاد رياستن جي [[فرانسيسي برادري]] کي نئين نوآبادياتي نظام قرار ڏنو.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC5j0tI-Pv0C&pg=RA1-PA52 |title=Africa: The Politics of Independence and Unity |isbn=0-8032-9856-0 |last1=Wallerstein |first1=Immanuel Maurice |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=484744 |last1=Graf |first1=William D. |title=Reviewed work: Neocolonialism and African Politics: A Survey of the Impact of Neocolonialism on African Political Behaviour, Yolamu R. Barongo |journal=[[Canadian Journal of African Studies]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=600–602 |year=1981 |doi=10.2307/484744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[جاڪ فوڪار]]، جيڪو فرانسيسي صدر [[شارل ڊيگال]] (1958ع–1969ع) ۽ [[جارج پومپيدو]] (1969ع–1974ع) جو آفريقي معاملن بابت اهم صلاحڪار هو، ''فرانس آفريڪ'' پاليسي جو بنيادي معمار سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Kaye |last=Whiteman |title=The Man Who Ran Françafrique – French Politician Jacques Foccart's Role in France's Colonisation of Africa Under the Leadership of Charles de Gaulle |type=obituary |magazine=[[The National Interest]] |date=Fall 1997}}</ref> [[فرانسوا-زاويي ويرشاو]] ۽ [[مونگو بيٽي]] جي لکڻين موجب، آفريقي ملڪن جي آزاديءَ کان پوءِ به لڳ ڀڳ چاليهن سالن تائين فرانس ۽ ان جي اڳوڻين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ اهڙا لاڳاپا برقرار رهيا، جن ۾ فرانسيسي فوجي اڏا قائم رهيا ۽ فرانسيسي [[گهڻ قومي ڪارپوريشن]]ن، خاص طور معدني وسيلن جي استحصال بابت، اجاريداري برقرار رکي. انهن جو دليل هو ته فرانس سان ويجها لاڳاپا رکندڙ ڪيترائي آفريقي حڪمران—خاص طور آمريڪا ۽ سوويت يونين جي سرد جنگ (1945ع–1992ع) دوران—پنهنجن ملڪن جي خودمختيار قومي اڳواڻن کان وڌيڪ فرانسيسي واپاري ۽ [[جاگرافيائي سياست|جاگرافيائي-سياسي]] مفادن جا نمائندا بڻيل هئا. اهڙن اڳواڻن ۾ [[عمر بونگو]] ([[گيبون]])، [[فيليڪس هوفويٽ بوائني]] ([[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]])، [[گناسنگبي اياديما]] ([[ٽوگو]])، [[دينيس ساسو نگوئيسو]] ([[جمهوريه ڪانگو]])، [[ادريس ديبي]] ([[چاڊ]]) ۽ [[هماني ديوري]] ([[نائيجر]]) جا نالا شامل ڪيا ويندا آهن. فرانس ۽ فرانسيسي ٻولي ڳالهائيندڙ آفريقي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل دفاعي معاهدن ذريعي خاص طور دفاع ۽ سلامتي جي شعبن ۾ ويجهو تعاون قائم ٿيو. انهن معاهدن سان لاڳاپيل ڳجهن شقن جي بنياد تي فرانس کي فوجي مداخلت جو اختيار پڻ حاصل هوندو هو، جيئن پنهنجي مفادن سان هم آهنگ حڪومتن کي بچائڻ، ساحل واري علائقي ۾ جهادي گروهن خلاف ڪارروائي ڪرڻ، يا گهرو ويڙهن کي ختم ڪرڻ. آفريقي براعظم مان فرانسيسي فوجن جي واپسي هڪ اهڙي دور جي پڄاڻي سمجهي وڃي ٿي، جنهن دوران فرانس چاڊ، ٽوگو، گيبون، روانڊا، جبوتي، زائير، صوماليا، آئيوري ڪوسٽ، مالي، ليبيا ۽ ڪيمرون ۾ فوجي مداخلتون ڪندو رهيو. ان سان گڏ ''فرانس آفريڪ'' واري نظام جي خاتمي جي به علامت سمجهي وڃي ٿي.<ref>{{Cite web |language=fr |title=The end of the Defense agreements between France and its former African colonies |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/ils-ont-change-le-monde/7-10-les-accords-la-fin-des-accords-de-defense-entre-la-france-et-ses-ex-colonies-africaines-7412378 |website=radiofrance.fr |date=2025-07-22 |access-date=2025-07-22}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} mkg3rqdp0gwi4ctk4lxv3wds2dvr8s7 گھاگھر 0 41414 394565 271131 2026-07-15T12:05:21Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|پنجابي موسيقيءَ جو ساز ۽ ڌاتوءَ جو روايتي ٿانوُ}} [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گاگر]] '''گاگر''' ({{langx|pa|ਗਾਗਰ}}) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. پنجاب جي [[پنجابي لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[پنجابي لوڪ ناچ]]ن ۾ گاگر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> گاگر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. [[File:Gagar.JPG | thumb | 220x124px | right | گهاگهر]]گهاگهر: چوندا آهن ته ”جتي وڻ ناهي اتي ڪانڊيرو به درخت“، ڪچهري ۾ جي ڪو ڪافين چوڻ وارو اچي نڪرندو هو، ته وڄت لاءِ پڪواز جي به ضرورت پوندي هئي، پر پڪواز جو هر هنڌ وري ملڻ مشڪل. پوءِ چوندا هئا ته ادا ڪو دلوئي کڻي ٺڙڪائي. بس اتان ٿي دلي جو رواج پيو. پوءِ ته اهو دلو وڄائڻ ايترو ته مشهور ٿيو، جو ڀلي کڻي ڳائڻ واري سان پڪواز جي سنگت به هجي، پر گهڙو به ضرور گڏيندا، ۽ سچ ته گهڙو يڪتاري، پڪواز ۽ ڏنڊي سان لئي به واه جي ٿو ڪري، پهرين ته معمولي ٺڪر جو دلو وڄائيندا هئا پوءِ اهو دلو ٿيو گهڙو ۽ گهڙو ٿي گهاگهر، اهو رڳو نالي جو ئي ڦير آهي،پر بناوت ۾ به ڦير قيندو ويو. پهرين ننڍو دلو هوندو هو، پوءِ خاص وڄائڻ لاءِ انهيءَ کي وڏو ڪري ٺاهيو ويو، پوءِ انهيءَ کي اڃا به وڏو ڪري ٺاهيائون. ۽ نالو رکيائونس گهاگهر. وڄائڻ وارا هڪ هٿ گهاگهر جي منهن تي رکندا آهن، ۽ ٻيو هٿ پاسي تي، پوءِ واري سر تار آهر، ٻنهي هٿن سان وڄائيندا آهن. ڪاريگر ته گهاگهر تي سڀ تار به وڄائي ويندا آهن، ۽ سهڻا ٽڪا ۽ پنجا به رکي ويندا آهن. اڄڪلهه سنڌ ۾ ڪافين سان گهاگهري وڄائڻ جو عام رواج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از:سيد منظور نقوي ؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن 1978، پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄامشورو {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}} </ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} sm5wakywmhv3vvlfv4t21fts4kua19c 394567 394565 2026-07-15T12:09:41Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394567 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گھاگھر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. [[File:Gagar.JPG | thumb | 220x124px | right | گهاگهر]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} olmv666f44fcfa5uovpsb8qkimt6x0y 394568 394567 2026-07-15T12:10:29Z Intisar Ali 8681 394568 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> [[File:Gagar.JPG | thumb | 220x124px | right | گهاگهر]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} f34y975uea9wfy8g5a97u2tbp2fffqa 394569 394568 2026-07-15T12:10:46Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394569 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> گھاگھر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> [[File:Gagar.JPG | thumb | 220x124px | right | گهاگهر]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} kvwrmxs31dpxle1s8hxvlrr7mlujkz4 394570 394569 2026-07-15T12:11:50Z Intisar Ali 8681 394570 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> گھاگھر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 6mk4a9h5ku8l487s32hrkq8hwn5bei9 394573 394570 2026-07-15T12:12:50Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال */ 394573 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> گھاگھر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> [[File:Milk_vender_with_typical_traditional_brass_containers_,_Gagar_,used_in_Majha_Region_of_Punjab_01.jpg|thumb|گھاگھر سان کير وڪڻندڙ]] [[File:Milk_vender_with_typical_traditional_brass_containers_,_Gagar_,used_in_Majha_Region_of_Punjab_02.jpg|left|thumb|گھاگھرن سان کير وڪڻندڙ]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} max3f2s2tggmmhvsg00qdjrgdfajz1m 394576 394573 2026-07-15T12:14:33Z Intisar Ali 8681 394576 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gagar.JPG|thumb|300px|پاڻي رکڻ ۽ موسيقيءَ ۾ تال پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڌاتوءَ جي گھاگھر]] '''گھاگھر''' (Ghaghar) پتل يا ٻين ڌاتن مان ٺهيل هڪ روايتي ٿانوُ آهي، جيڪو اڳئين زماني ۾ پاڻي رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. [[لوڪ موسيقي]] ۽ [[ لوڪ ناچ|لوڪ ناچن]] ۾ گھاگھر کي هڪ [[ساز]] طور پڻ وڄايو ويندو آهي. ان کي ٻنهي هٿن سان، آڱرين ۾ پاتل ڌاتوءَ جي منڊين يا ڇلن جي مدد سان وڄايو ويندو آهي. هي ساز [[گهڙو]] سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل آهي، جيڪو مٽيءَ جو ٺهيل ٿانوُ هوندو آهي.<ref name=va>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|title=PUNJAB'S BHANGRA INSTRUMENTS|publisher=www.vikramasentamritsar.com|access-date=10 Mar 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521211810/http://www.vikramasentamritsar.com/bhangra.html|archive-date=2012-05-21}}</ref> گھاگھر روايتي طور پنجاب جي [[ماجها علائقو|ماجها علائقي]] (امرتسر، گرداسپور ۽ ترن تارن ضلعن) ۾ کير وڪڻندڙن پاران کير رکڻ ۽ کڻڻ جي ٿانوَ طور پڻ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. === سنڌ ۾ گهاگهر جو استعمال === سنڌ ۾ [[گهاگهر]] روايتي طور [[ڪافي]] ۽ ٻين صوفيانه راڳن جي سنگت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهم سازن مان هڪ آهي. روايت موجب، جڏهن ڪچهريءَ ۾ [[پکواج]] موجود نه هوندو هو ته ان جي بدران ٺڪر جي [[دلو]] کي تال لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. وقت سان گڏ دلو وڄائڻ هڪ باقاعده روايت بڻجي ويو، ۽ پوءِ پکواج جي موجودگيءَ ۾ به گهاگهر کي سنگتي ساز طور شامل ڪيو وڃڻ لڳو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو [[يڪتارو]]، پکواج ۽ ڏنڊي سان سٺي لئي ۽ تال پيدا ڪندو آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> شروعات ۾ وڄائڻ لاءِ عام ٺڪر جو ننڍو دلو استعمال ٿيندو هو، پر موسيقيءَ جي ضرورتن موجب ان جي بناوت ۾ تبديليون آنديون ويون. پوءِ ان کي وڌيڪ وڏو ۽ موزون بڻايو ويو، جنهن کي ''گهاگهر'' سڏيو وڃڻ لڳو.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> گهاگهر وڄائڻ وقت سازنده هڪ هٿ ان جي منهن تي ۽ ٻيو هٿ ان جي پاسي تي رکي مختلف تالون وڄائيندو آهي. ماهر فنڪار ان مان مختلف سُر، تال ۽ ڌنون پيدا ڪرڻ جي مهارت رکندا آهن. موجوده دور ۾ سنڌ ۾ ڪافي ڳائڻ جي روايت سان گڏ گهاگهر وڄائڻ عام طور رائج آهي.<ref>{ڪتاب: سنڌ جي مدنيت؛ از: سيد منظور نقوي؛ ٻيون ايڊيشن، 1978ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو. {{cite web|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/History/Book22/Book_page10.html}}}</ref> [[File:Milk_vender_with_typical_traditional_brass_containers_,_Gagar_,used_in_Majha_Region_of_Punjab_01.jpg|thumb|گھاگھر سان کير وڪڻندڙ]] [[File:Milk_vender_with_typical_traditional_brass_containers_,_Gagar_,used_in_Majha_Region_of_Punjab_02.jpg|left|thumb|گھاگھرن سان کير وڪڻندڙ]] ==پڻ ڏسو== *[[گھڙو]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} mx9cy3ggjur6kiq0ee8zjjxlsfqd4ry اسلامي امارات افغانستان 0 45159 394733 270119 2026-07-16T01:24:39Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394733 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country |native_name = |د افغانستان اسلامي امارات |conventional_long_name = اسلامي امارات افغانستان |common_name = افغانستان |Holders = [[طالبان]] حڪومت |capital = {{plainlist| *[[ڪابل]] <small>(سرڪاري)</small> *[[ڪنڌار]] <small>(حقيقي)</small><ref name=Reuters>{{cite web| title = FACTBOX: Five Facts on Taliban Leader Mullah Mohammad Omar| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/17/us-afghan-taliban-omar-idUSTRE4AG1EM20081117| date = 17 November 2008| accessdate = 29 September 2014}}</ref>}} |national_motto = [[شهادت|لا اله الا الله محمد رسول الله]] |national_anthem = ڪو به نه (موسيقي کي حرام قرار ڏنو ويو) |common_languages = {{plainlist|*[[پشتو]] <small>(سرڪاري)</small><ref>{{cite web|title = Role of the Taliban’s religious police|url = http://lhvnews.com/en/news/2579/role-of-the-taliban’s-religious-policeThe|date = 27 April 2013|accessdate = 29 September 2014}}</ref> *[[دري ٻولي|دري]] ۽ [[افغانستان جو ٻوليون]]}} |religion = [[سني اسلام]] |government_type = [[وحداني رياست|وحداني]] [[اسلامي رياست|اسلامي]] [[آپيشاهي]] زير اثر [[مطلق آمريت|مطلق]] [[آمريت]] <!--"Emirate" does not necessarily indicate an absolute monarchy--> |title_leader = [[امير المومنين]] (مومنن جو اڳوڻ)<ref name=Gall>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/31/world/asia/mullah-muhammad-omar-taliban-leader-afghanistan-dies.html?_r=1|title=Mullah Muhammad Omar, Enigmatic Leader of Afghan Taliban, Is Dead|author=Carlotta Gall|publisher=The New York Times|date=30 July 2015 |accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=Britannica>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Mohammad-Omar |title=Mohammad Omar|quote=Emir of Afghanistan |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13501233|title=Proفائل: Mullah Mohammed Omar|publisher=BBC|date=29 July 2015|accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref><br/>سپريم ڪائونسل جو اڳواڻ<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/mullah-mohammed-omar-co-founder-and-leader-of-the-taliban-who-fought-the-soviets-before-presiding-10428546.html|publisher=The Independent|title=Mullah Mohammed Omar |date=31 July 2015|accessdate=13 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://carnegie.ru/2015/08/11/where-will-new-taliban-leader-lead-his-people/ielb |publisher=Moscow Carnegie Center |title=Where Will the New Taliban Leader Lead His People? |date=11 August 2015 |accessdate=13 February 2016 |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017001843/http://carnegie.ru/2015/08/11/where-will-new-taliban-leader-lead-his-people/ielb |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1260772|publisher=CNN|title=Mullah Omar: Life chapter of Taliban’s supreme leader comes to end|date=29 July 2015|accessdate=13 February 2016|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305174422/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1260772|url-status=dead}}</ref> |leader1 = [[محمد عمر]] |year_leader1 = 1996 – 2001 |title_deputy = [[افغانستان جو وزير اعظم|وزير اعظم]] |deputy1 = [[محمد رباني]] |year_deputy1 = 1996 – 2001 |deputy2 = [[عبدال ڪبير]] <small>(قائم مقام)</small> |year_deputy2 = 2001 |legislature = [[جرگا]] |stat_year1 = 2000 |stat_area1 = 587578 |stat_year2 = 2001 |stat_pop2 = 26,813,057 |currency = [[افغان افغاني|افغاني]] |calling_code = 93 |continent = ايشيا |region = ڏکڻ ايشيا |era = [[افغانستان گھرو جنگ (1996 کان 2001)|افغان گھرو جنگ]] / [[دهشتگردي خلاف جنگ]] |image_flag = Flag of Taliban.svg |image_coat = |image_map = Afghanistan politisch 2000.png |image_map_caption = جرمن نقشي ۾ [[اسلامي رياست افغانستان|افغانستان]] جو 2000ع ۾ ڏيکاريل سياسي حالت |date_start = 27 سيپٽمبر<ref>{{cite web|url=http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/taliba.html|title=The Taliban|last=Marcin|first=Gary|year=1998|publisher=[[King's College (Pennsylvania)|King's College]]|accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref> |year_start = 1996 |event_start = [[طالبانن جو طاقت ۾ اچڻ|طاقت ۾ اچڻ]] |date_end = 17 ڊسمبر |year_end = 2001 |event_end = [[طورا بورا جي جنگ]] |p1 = اسلامي رياست افغانستان |flag_p1 = Flag of Afghanistan (1992-1996; 2001).svg |s1 = اسلامي رياست افغانستان |flag_s1 = Flag of Afghanistan (2001-2002).svg |footnotes = }} '''اسلامي امارات افغانستان''' {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي='''Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan''' |پشتو='''د افغانستان اسلامي امارات'''}}، [[ڪابل]] جي زوال کان پوءِ سيپٽمبر 1996ع تي قائم ٿيل [[اسلامي رياست]] هئي. [[طالبان|طالبانن]] جي عروج واري دور ۾ هنن [[افغانستان]] جي 90 سيڪڙو حصي تي قبضو ڪري ورتو، باقي ملڪ جو ڪجهه حصو [[اتريون اتحاد|اترين اتحاد]] جي قبضي ۾ هو، توڙي جو گھٽ طاقت جي سڄي دنيا پاران [[افغانستان]] جي اصل حڪومت [[اتريون اتحاد|اترين اتحاد]] کي مڃيو ٿي ويو.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/12/afghanistan/map.lg.jpg|title=Map of areas controlled in Afghanistan '96|publisher=}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:اڳوڻا خدائي راڄَ]] 5q7cafkggwim78vx36q97u1z772g0no جھرڪلي کيت 0 48684 394580 250704 2026-07-15T12:19:38Z Intisar Ali 8681 394580 wikitext text/x-wiki '''جهرڪِلِي کيت''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= '''Jhirkili khait plant '''}} هي ٻوٽو نرم زمين ۾ گهڻو، ۽ سخت زمين ۾ ٿورو اڀرندو آهي. هي زمين تي پکڙندو آهي. ڏانڊيءَ جو رنگ هيڊو ۽ پن سائي رنگ جا سنها، لوڻڪ جي پنن جهڙا، پر البت لاٺيرا ٿيندا آهن. هن ۾ ڦل گول گول سنها داڻا سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن. هن کي ”چڙيال“ به چوندا آهن<ref name =" رائچند هريجن " > ڪتاب جو نالو ؛ تاريخ ريگستان (ڀاڱو ٻيون) -مصنف؛ رائچند هريجن -ايڊيشن؛ ٽيون- سال؛ 2005ع -ڇپائيندڙ؛ سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو </ref>. == حوالا == {{حوالا}} 9qe96wss45vn2g9z3vpo935fim7vb7g 394581 394580 2026-07-15T12:22:06Z Intisar Ali 8681 /* */ 394581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox | name = جهرڪِلي کيت <br/> چڙيال | image = | image_caption = | status = | genus = | species = | binomial = | binomial_authority = | synonyms = }} '''جهرڪِلي کيت''' ({{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=''Jhirkili khait''|ٻيو=چڙيال}}) سنڌ جي ريگستاني ۽ نيم ريگستاني علائقن ۾ ملندڙ هڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو خاص طور نرم زمين ۾ گهڻي مقدار ۾ اڀرندو آهي، جڏهن⁠تہ سخت زمين ۾ ان جي واڌ نسبتاً گهٽ ٿيندي آهي. هي ٻوٽو زمين تي پکڙجندڙ واڌ ويجهه رکي ٿو. ان جون ڏانڊيون هيڊي رنگ جون ٿينديون آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ پن سائي رنگ جا، سنها ۽ شڪل ۾ [[لوڻڪ]] جي پنن سان مشابهت رکندڙ، پر انهن کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ ڊگها ۽ لاٺيرا هوندا آهن. هن ٻوٽي ۾ ننڍڙا گول، سائي رنگ جا داڻن جهڙا ڦل ٿيندا آهن. سنڌ جي ڪن علائقن ۾ هن ٻوٽي کي '''چڙيال''' جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="رائچند هريجن">رائچند هريجن. ''تاريخ ريگستان'' (ڀاڱو ٻيون). ٽيون ايڊيشن، 2005ع. ڄامشورو: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ.</ref> == خاصيتون == * واڌ ويجهه: زمين تي پکڙجندڙ * رهائش: نرم زمين، نيم ريگستاني ۽ ريگستاني علائقا * ڏانڊو: هيڊي رنگ جو * پن: سائي، سنها ۽ لاٺيرا * ڦل: ننڍڙا، گول ۽ سائي رنگ جا == پڻ ڏسو == * [[لوڻڪ]] * [[سنڌ جي نباتات]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:سنڌ جي نباتات]] [[زمرو:جهنگلي ٻوٽا]] == حوالا == {{حوالا}} j2u0vcw8adtley0j3lg4w04eqp9ge7x زاگريئوس 0 56179 394754 254798 2026-07-16T06:26:03Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394754 wikitext text/x-wiki [[فائل:Seated Dionysus Zagreus with Aegis Shield.jpg|300px|thumb|زائگوس جو نئين جنم بعد ڊيونيسوس جي روپ جو خيالي مجسمو]] '''زاگريئوس'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= '''Zagreus '''}} يوناني ديومالا جو ھڪ ڪردار آھي جيڪو قديم يونان جي ھڪ مذھب [[آرفزم]] (Orphism)، جنھن کي عربي ۾ آرفڪية چون ٿا، جي ھڪ ديوتا جو نالو آهي. جنھن لاء اھو خيال ھيو تہ اھو زيوس ديوتا ۽ [[پرسيفيني]] ديوي جو پٽ ھيو<ref>Gantz, p. 118; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA35 p. 35]; Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 456.</ref> ھن جو جوڙ [[گائيا (ديومالا)|ديومالا]] يعني زمين سان ملايو ويندو ھو ۽ کيس زير زمين دنيا جو طاقتور ديوتا سمجھيو ويندو ھو. مشھور يوناني الميه نگار [[ايسڪيلس]] ان کي [[ھيڊز]] سان جوڙيو کيس ھيڊز يا ھيڊز جو پٽ قرار ڏنو<ref>Sommerstein, [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-attributed_fragments/2009/pb_LCL505.237.xml?result=1&rskey=f0foz8 p. 237 n. 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111094854/https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-attributed_fragments/2009/pb_LCL505.237.xml?result=1&rskey=f0foz8 |date=2022-01-11 }}; Gantz, p. 118; Smyth, [https://archive.org/stream/aeschyluswitheng02aescuoft#page/458/mode/2up p. 459].</ref> انسائيڪلوپيڊيا برٽنيڪا مطابق اھو زيوس جو سندس پنھنجي ڌيءَ پرسيفيني مان ڄاول ھڪ پٽ ھيو. زيوس کيس پنھنجو وارث بڻائڻ لاء پيدا ڪيو ۽ ان کي لامحدود طاقتن سان نوازيو<ref name="ڪنسائز برٽنيڪا"/>. اڃان ٻار ھيو تہ ان کان [[ھيرا ديوي]] حسد ڪندي [[ٽائٽن]] کي مڇرائي ان تي حملو ڪرايو<ref name="ڪنسائز برٽنيڪا"/>. انھن زاگريئوس کي ٽڪرا ٽڪرا ڪري ان جي دل کي ڇڏي باقي سڀ کائي ڇڏيو<ref name="ڪنسائز برٽنيڪا"/>. ان جي دل کي [[ايٿنا ديوي]] بچائي زيوس وٽ کڻي آئي ۽ دل کي زيوس ڳڙڪائي زاگريئوس کي ٻيھر [[ڪدموس]] جي ڌي [[سملي]] مان [[ڊيونيسوس]] جي صورت ۾ پيدا ڪيو<ref name ="ڪنسائز برٽنيڪا "> Britannica CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA-© 2006 BY ENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICA, INC.-Encyclopædia Britannica and other fine products are available on the Internet at http://www.britannica.com. (Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.) Printed in Peru. -page#.2102 - </ref>. == حوالا == {{حوالا|2}} [[زمرو:زيوس جا ٻچا]] [[زمرو:يوناني ديومالا]] hy17jk8h13vfu61v6mwny6fk77ebwyz اردو 0 57840 394700 314303 2026-07-16T00:11:57Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394700 wikitext text/x-wiki '''اردو''' يا '''اڙدو''' يا '''لشڪري''' ٻولي (اُچار: اُردُو، انگريزي: Urdu) دنيا جي وڏين ٻولين مان هڪ آهي، جيڪا [[پاڪستان]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۾ ڳالھائي وڃي ٿي. ٻين به ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ اردو ڳالهائڻ ۽ سمجهڻ وارا رهن ٿا. [[فائل:Urdu alphabets.jpg|thumb|اردو الف ب]] == اھميت == اردو پاڪستان جي اٺ سيڪڙو ماڻهن جي مادري ٻولي آهي ۽ سڄي ملڪ جي قومي ٻولي آهي. پاڪستان ۾ اها پرائمريءَ کان سواءِ مٿين سطح تائين لازمي مضمون طور پڙهائي وڃي ٿي. مختلف يونيورسٽيون اردو ٻوليءَ ۽ ادب ۾ ماسٽرس ۽ پي ايڇ ڊيءَ جون ڊگريون پڻ ڏين ٿيون. آمريڪا، يورپ جي ملڪن، چين ۽ جاپان جي يونيورسٽين ۾ پڻ هن ٻوليءَ جي تعليم ڏني وڃي ٿي. هندستان ۽ پاڪستان ۾ هن جي هنديءَ يا هندستانيءَ سان هڪجهڙائي ڪري سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته دنيا ۾ ڇهن ڪروڙن جي لڳ ڀڳ ماڻهو هيءَ ٻولي ڳالهائين ٿا. سنڌ جي ناليواري محقق ۽ تاريخدان پير سيد حسام الدين راشديءَ پنهنجي تحقيقي مقالي ۾ اردو ٻوليءَ جو مولد سنڌ کي ڄاڻايو آهي. == تاريخ == اردو ٻوليءَ جي اڪثر عالمن، محققن ۽ لسانيات جي ماهرن جو چوڻ آهي ته اردو هڪ گاڏڙ ساڏڙ ٻولي آهي، جيڪا هندستان ۾ مسلمانن جي اچڻ کانپوءِ اتر هندستان ۾ وجود ۾ آئي ۽ ان تي دهليءَ ۽ ان جي ڀرپاسي جي ٻولين جا نمايان اثر پيا. ان هوندي به مختلف عالمن ان جي پيدائش يا وجود ۾ اچڻ واري علائقي بابت مختلف رايا ڏنا آهن. بقول مسعود حسين خان جي ته اردو، دهلي ۽ ان جي اوسي پاسي وجود ۾ آئي؛ حافظ محمود خان شيرانيءَ جي بقول اها پنجاب ۾؛ سيد سلمان ندويءَ جي مطابق واديءِ سنڌ ۾ ۽ سهيل بخاريءَ موجب اوڀر مهاراشٽر ۾ ڄائي، ساڳيءَ طرح محمد حسين آزاد وري ان کي برج ڀاشا مان نڪتل ۽ گيان چند جين ان کي '''’کڙي ٻولي‘''' مان ٺهيل ڄاڻائين ٿا ٻئي طرف شوڪت سبزواريءَ جو اهو نظريو آهي ته اردوءَ جو سرچشمو '''پالي''' ٻولي آهي. اهي سڀئي ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته ”اردو هڪ خالص هندستاني ٻولي آهي، جنهن جو ڍانچو اتان جي ئي ٻولين جي خمير مان تيار ٿيو آهي. لفظي ذخيري ۾ هند آريائي، عربي ۽ فارسي ٻولين جا لفظ شامل آهن“<ref>(مقالو: پروفيسر مرزا خليل احمد بيگ بحواله ”اردو زبان اور اردو رسم الخط، مرتب: پروفيسر فتح محمد ملک، مقتدره قومي زبان، اسلام آباد 2008ع).</ref> == ادب == قديم اردوءَ ۾ باقاعدي شاعريءَ جو آغاز قطب شاهي درٻار ۾ ٿيو. قلي قطب شاهه (988ھ تا 1020ھ/1580ع تا 1611ع) پهريون شاعر هو، جنهن جو ڪلام مختلف صنفن ۾ '''دکني اردوءَ''' ۾ اسان تائين پهتو آهي. مرزا غالب اردو ٻوليءَ جو تمام وڏو شاعر ٿي گذريو آهي، ان کانسواءِ ٻين اهم شاعرن ۾ مير تقي مير، مير درد، داغ ۽ سودا شامل آهن. نثر نگارن ۾ منشي پريم چند، ڪرشن چندر، عصمت چغتائي ۽ قرة العين حيدر وغيره نمايان آهن. پاڪستان جي موجوده سرحدن اندر ان جا وڏا شاعر ۽ اديب علامه محمد اقبال، فيض احمد فيض، جميل الدين عالي، احمد فراز ۽ پروين شاڪر چئي سگهجن ٿا. نثر نگارن ۾ احمد نديم قاسمي، سعادت حسين منٽو، جميل جالبي، فرمان فتح پوري وغيره شامل آهن. == اردو جو سنڌ ۾ قديم دور ۾ وجود == قديم دور ۾ اسان کي سنڌ ۾ هڪ مقبول عام اردو شاعر جو پتو ملي ٿو. انهيءَ شاعر جو نالو '''مير محمد فاضل بکري''' هو، جيڪو '''”تاريخ مِعصومي“''' جي مصنف '''مير معصوم بکريءَ''' جو ننڍو ڀاءُ هو ۽ هنديءَ ۾ فصيح بليغ شعر چوندو هو، جيڪو گهڻي قدر مقبول عام هو، پر افسوس جو سندس ڪلام ڪٿي به ڪو نه مليو. تاريخ ِ ”ذخيره الخوانين“ ۾ لکيل آهي ته، ”هن اردو ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪمال درجي جي فصاحت جا شعر چيا، جيڪي تمام گهڻا مقبول هئا“. == اردو لپي == [[فائل:Lashkari Zaban in Nastaliq script.png|thumb|نستاليق لپي ۾ لشخاري لبنان]] اردوءَ کي نستعليق نموني تي پنهنجو رسم الخط آهي، جيڪا عربي فارسي اکرن جي مدد سان ٺاهيل آهي ۽ پنهنجي نموني جي آهي. هيءَ ٻولي هنديورپيائي، هند ايراني، هندآريائي وچين خطي جي هندستاني ٻولين مان آهي. هيءَ '''حرفي پدي''' قسم جي لپي آهي، جنهن ۾ سڀاويڪ طور ’آ‘ سر / حرف علت شامل رهي ٿو. ٻيا سر زيرن زبرن ۽ شدن مدن وسيلي ظاهر ڪبا آهن. اردو پاڪستان جي رابطي جي به ٻولي آهي، جيڪا، [[ايران]]، افغانستان، هندوستان، گهانا، آمريڪا، برطانيه وغيره ۾ ڳالهائي وڃي ٿي. اردو، هندي زبان سان هڪجهڙائي رکندڙ زبان آهي، جنهن ۾ عربي ۽ فارسي جا تمام گهڻا لفظ شامل آهن. هن الفابيٽ ۾ وينجنن جو تعداد 35 آهي. بلڪل فارسي خط جو ئي نمونو آهي. هن ۾ واڌو '''ڌوڪڻا''' آواز 15 عدد آهن، جن جي بنياد تي ڪي عالم سمجهن ٿا ته هيءَ اصل هند ايراني ٻولين جي نک مان نه پر شايد دراوڙي ٻولين جي خاندان مان آھي.<ref>{{Citation |title=انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد پھريون، سنڌي لينگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد. |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88 |access-date=2020-04-11 |archive-date=2020-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411142101/http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php%3FDflt%3D%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1%25D8%25AF%25D9%2588 |url-status=dead }}</ref> اڙدو کي قومي ٻولي ڪرڻ جي منصوبي خلاف آغا خان جي ڪيل تقرير اڙدو ٻوليءَ کي قومي ٻولي بڻائڻ تي آغا خان سلطان محمد شاھ لکن مسلمانن جي روحاني رھبر ۽ تاريخ ساز شخصيت پنھنجن هنن خيالن جي اسان کي ڄاڻ ڏني آهي. پاڻ قائد اعظم محمد علي جناح جا به روحاني مرشد ھيا. معتمر عالم اسلامي جي گڏجاڻي تاريخ 9 فيبروري 1951ع تي ڪيل تقرير مان ٽُڪرو ھيٺ ڏجي ٿو: ”قومي زبان بڻائڻ لاءِ توھان جو اڙدو وارو خيال توھان کي ڏاکڻي پاڙيسري ملڪ سان ڪنھن به طرح نه ڳنڍيندو. اوھان ڀلي عربي فارسي اکر اڙدو ۾ ملايو ۽ پر اڙدو جي اصل ترڪيب، نمونو ۽ پاڙون ھنديءَ مان نڪتل آھن. ڇا اڙدو، ھندوستان ۾ مسلمانن جي اوج وارن ڏينھن ۾ مسلمانن جي زبان ھئي؟ مغلن جي شھنشاھيت ۾ ھيءَ ٻولي پڙهيل ڳڙهيل ماڻھو ڪونه ڳالھائيندا ھئا. منھنجي ھر ڪنھن کي دعوت آھي ته ڪو مون کي شھنشاھ اورنگزيب، شاھجھان، جھانگير، اڪبر، ھمايون يا بابر جو اڙدوءَ ۾ لکيل خط يا تحرير جو ڪو نمونو پيش ڪري سگھي. مان اورنگزيب جون ڪيتريون لکتون پڙھيون آھن، اھي فارسيءَ ۾ لکيل آھن. تاج محل کي ڏسو، شھنشاھ ۽ راڻي جي مقبري تي ڇا لکيل آھي ۽ ڪھڙي ٻولي لکيل آھي. اسان کي اکيون کولي تاريخي حقيقتون ڏسڻ کپن. اڙدو ھندوستان جي مسلمانن جي ٻولي ان وقت ٿي، جڏھن انھن جو زوال آيو. ھيءَ زبان زوال جي زبان آھي. ھن جا شاعر پڻ زوال جي دور جي پيدائش آھن. اڙدوءَ جا ليکڪ هارايل ۽ ڏتڙيل دور جي پيدائش آھن.“ <ref>معتمر عالم اسلامي جي گڏجاڻي تاريخ 9 فيبروري 1951ع</ref> ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:اردو]] [[زمرو:انڊيا جون ٻوليون]] [[زمرو:ٻوليون]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان جون ٻوليون]] [[زمرو:سنڌ جون ٻوليون]] [[زمرو:لسانيات]] nzkgwwptqoifzhfysz5fxml7tjlkap0 وڪيپيڊيا:وڪي منصوبو ڪووڊ-19/موت 4 58008 394657 393086 2026-07-15T18:08:41Z ListeriaBot 10240 Wikidata list updated [V2] 394657 wikitext text/x-wiki {{WikiProject COVID-19 tabs}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P509 wd:Q84263196 } |section= |sort=P39/Q15124404/P570 |sort_order=desc |columns=label:مضمون,وضاحت,P27:ڏيھُ,P39/Q15124404/P569:تاريخ پيدائش,P39/Q15124404/P570:تاريخ وفات,P18:فوٽو |thumb=128 |min_section=2 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! مضمون ! وضاحت ! ڏيھُ ! تاريخ پيدائش ! تاريخ وفات ! فوٽو |- | ''[[:d:Q2124|Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (1975).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q26776|Momčilo Krajišnik]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | | | [[فائل:Momcilo Krajisnik crop.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q44752|Angelo Sodano]]'' | | [[اٽلي]]<br/>[[ويٽيڪن سٽي]]<br/>''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]'' | | | [[فائل:Angelo Cardinal Sodano in 2016 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q45495|Elmar Fischer]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q57343|Pierre Nkurunziza]]'' | | [[برونڊي]] | | | [[فائل:Pierre Nkurunziza - World Economic Forum on Africa 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q57446|Pranab Mukherjee]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Secretary Tim Geithner and Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee 2010 crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q71823|George Bălan]]'' | | [[جرمني]]<br/>[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75019|Aleksandr (Ishein)]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Александр (Ищеин).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q81758|Jan Niemiec]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Niemiec.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88876|Klaus Emmerich]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | [[فائل:2014 Klaus Emmerich (14274003686).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q92819|Edmund M. Clarke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Edmund Clarke FLoC 2006.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94333|Michael Laughlin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95926|Wilhelm Knabe]]'' | | [[جرمني]]<br/>''[[:d:Q713750|West Germany]]'' | | | [[فائل:Wilhelm Knabe (15782113727).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97616|Dan van Husen]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:DanvanHusenMar2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100419|Stefan Lippe]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:Stefan Lippe - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2010.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107319|Ferdinand Kinsky]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110986|Maggie Mae]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q117141|Marc-André Bédard]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Marc-André Bédard01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q117439|Ioannis Zizioulas]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:John Zizioulas at IOCS Westcott House.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q117448|Luigi Snozzi]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Snozzi 01m.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q118199|Flavio Cotti]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Dodis-P25146-F4.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q118915|Isao Suzuki]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | [[فائل:Isao Suzuki.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q127219|Casimir Oyé-Mba]]'' | | [[گيبون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q132193|Jožef Smej]]'' | | [[سلووينیا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]] | | | [[فائل:Smej.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q150851|Colin Powell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Colin Powell official Secretary of State photo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q152929|Meat Loaf]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Meatloaf 1971 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q173923|Ilija Petković]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا]]<br/>[[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Ilija Petković in 2006.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q200015|Vladimir Zhirinovsky]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vladimir Zhirinovsky - Ldpr.ru (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q202807|Henrique Soares da Costa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Por Suas Chagas fomos Curados, D. Henrique Soares (Repare, SH Aju - Abril de 2014), cropped.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q204369|Zindzi Mandela]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Zindzi Mandela (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q212990|Kim Ki-duk]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] | | | [[فائل:Kim Ki-duk at the 69th Venice International Film Festival (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q213793|Phil Spector]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Phil Spector 2000.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q215351|Fidel Ramos]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Fidel Valdez Ramos Official Photo as President of the Philippines (1995).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q226030|Irena Veisaitė]]'' | | [[لٿوينيا]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Irena Veisaite 2009 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q249251|Sándor Puhl]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Plaque of association football referee Sándor Puhl, Eger.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q259722|Yuichiro Hata]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | [[فائل:Yūichirō Hata 20190516.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q268961|John Horton Conway]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:John H Conway 2005 (cropped) (2).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q269014|Milkha Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Milkha Singh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q283351|Selma Gürbüz]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Selma Gürbüz01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q296724|Mahmoud Jibril]]'' | | [[لبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Mahmoud Jibril - World Economic Forum Special Meeting on Economic Growth and Job Creation in the Arab World cropped GNC.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q299161|Javier Marías]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Javier Marías (Feria del Libro de Madrid, 31 de mayo de 2008).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q303293|Aarón Padilla Gutiérrez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Aarón Padilla Gutiérrez.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[عبدالقدیر خان|عبدالقدير خان]] | | ''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''<br/>[[ڀارت]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Abdul Qadeer Khan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q310886|Hissène Habré]]'' | | [[چاڊ]] | | | [[فائل:President Hissène Habré of Chad.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q314338|Stanislaw Shushkievich]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Šuškievič bchd.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q316413|Ricardo Bofill]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Ricardo bofill levi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q318424|Abel Gabuza]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q319350|Enzo Mari]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Enzo Mari 1974b.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q323501|Adalberto Álvarez]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q324831|Dick Rutan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:DickRutan.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q326508|Matheus Shikongo]]'' | | [[نميبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q329644|Giuseppe Ros]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Giuseppe Ros 1973.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q334126|Luis Sepúlveda]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Luis Sepúlveda 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q336711|Irinej]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Патриарх Сербский Ириней 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q342045|Đorđe Balašević]]'' | | [[سربيا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | | | [[فائل:2010-11-03 Balašević Arena Zagreb.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q343378|Wallace Roney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Wallace Roney Pori Jazz 2012.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q348565|Mile Bogović]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bogovic mile biskup.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q349212|Adam Dyczkowski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Biskup Adam Dyczkowski (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q350075|Jan Nowicki]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Nowicki2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q351732|Sonny Chiba]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | [[فائل:Sonny Chiba 1961.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q352030|Jiří Menzel]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Jiří Menzel III (2017).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q353036|Henry Orenstein]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q360348|Toots Hibbert]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Toots Hibbert (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q367017|Kenneth Colley]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Kenneth Colley Gen SW 2010 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q370560|David Crosby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:CrosbyDavid1983 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q372086|Leopoldo Luque]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Leopoldo Luque 1978.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q373408|Raymond Cauchetier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Raymond Cauchetier.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q375290|Robert Hossein]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Hossein Cannes 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q380916|Pierre Buyoya]]'' | | [[برونڊي]] | | | [[فائل:Pierre Buyoya at Chatham House 2013 crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q384616|Petar Fajfrić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q386235|Dante Crippa]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Juventus FC (1962) - Salvadore, Crippa, Catella, Giordanetti.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q386550|Fausta Morganti]]'' | | [[سان مارينو|سان مرينو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q387953|Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'' | | [[سوڊان]] | | | [[فائل:Sadiq AlMahdi 12-06-2015.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q389831|Aga Mikolaj]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q401433|Ahmad Radhi]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | [[فائل:احمد راضي (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q403471|Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q428966|Muharrem Fejzo]]'' | | [[البانيا]] | | | [[فائل:Dede Ahmeti (Baba Madhi).jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q430746|Norman Hunter]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Norman Hunter.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q432274|Robert L. Carroll]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q432916|Zoran Simjanović]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Zoran Simjanovic-mc.rs (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q434588|Gerardo Vera]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q436664|Ben Bova]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ben Bova at Minicon 8(1974).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q436869|Philip Tartaglia]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Philip Tartaglia1 (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q442768|Reanna Solomon]]'' | | [[نائورو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q443823|Antonio Sabàto]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Antonio Sabàto.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q445829|Manu Dibango]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:LesEscales2019ManuDibango 03 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q447509|Hal Willner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Hal Willner.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q450643|Ernest Vinberg]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:VinbergEB-wiki-1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q451302|Nur Hassan Hussein]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | [[فائل:Nur Hassan Hussein.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q452606|Irina Antonova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Irina Antonova 03-06-2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q453393|Lee Konitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lee Konitz Bad Mergentheim.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q454927|Kenzō Takada]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Kenzo Takada cropped 2 Kenzo Takada 20170310.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q455728|Charles Konan Banny]]'' | | [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] | | | [[فائل:Visit by Charles Konan Banny, Ivorian Prime Minister, to the EC 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q458290|Barbara Shelley]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Rasputin the Mad Monk (1966) trailer - Barbara Shelley 3.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q459130|Ali Bozer]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Ali Bozer (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q460071|Hayko]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | [[فائل:ESC 2007 Armenia - Hayko.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q462276|Tahani al-Gebali]]'' | | [[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:تهاني الجبالي - مستشارة مصرية 2014.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q462990|Ion Mihai Pacepa]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ion Mihai Pacepa 1975cr.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q464186|Fatma Girik]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q469523|Samantha Fox]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q965475|John Richardson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:John Richardson (actor).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q969048|Yehoshua Kenaz]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q970706|Saeb Erekat]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Saeb Erekat December 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q973020|Víctor Víctor]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Victor Victor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q974836|Henryk Hoser]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Henryk Hoser 2009.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q983418|Kamala]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:KamalaWrestler2009Cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q987791|Egbert Mulder]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Scheidsrechter Mulder met gele kaart, Bestanddeelnr 932-4211 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q996436|Dénes Farkasfalvy]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q999960|Jean-Laurent Cochet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:IMG 20180508 154623 edit1 edit.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1000366|Bucky Pizzarelli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bucky Pizzarelli (14925973538) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1001162|Buddy Deppenschmidt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Buddy Deppenschmidt.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1008502|Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:BenetiJornet MAE 313002-2.tif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1029381|Dobby Dobson]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1033478|György Handel]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1040340|Paul Nihill]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Paul Nihill.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1043133|Carlos Pedro Zilli]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1062335|Leonid Potapov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Potapov in 2004.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1066772|Charley Pride]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Charley-Pride 1981.JPEG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1067412|Lorenzo Sanz]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:LorenzoSanz.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1086279|Christophe]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Festival des Vieilles Charrues 2014 - Christophe - 027.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1088901|Abdullahi Ibrahim]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | [[فائل:Abdullahi Ibrahim (died 24 January 2021).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1089108|Chuck Deardorf]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1093350|Germano Celant]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1106138|Csaba Kelemen]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1124093|Mehrdad Minavand]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Mehrdad Minavand 139410121224417216831434.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1133900|Benito Boldi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1135233|Corrado Olmi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Corrado Olmi 74.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1139415|André Leon Talley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Andre Leon Talley at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1149821|Cástor Oswaldo Azuaje Pérez]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1165610|Gábor Maros]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Maros Gábor egy Seress Rezső-emlékkoncerten, a slágerszerző szerepében.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1172509|Giovanni Sacco]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Juventus FC 1967-1968 Giovanni Sacco.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1174220|David Dias Pimentel]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1193243|John Houghton]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:John Houghton High Wycombe 20050226.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1196262|Fou Ts'ong]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[چين]]<br/>[[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]] | | | [[فائل:Fou Ts'ong 1965b.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1216185|Michel Host]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1218992|Reginald Foster]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Reginald Foster in Arpinum (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1232708|Dmitry Kovtun]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1237349|Jiří Toman]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1240022|Donald Kennedy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Donald Kennedy photo.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1240701|Donato Bilancia]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Donato Bilancia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1240726|Donato Sabia]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Donato Sabia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1241220|Juan Francisco Sarasti Jaramillo]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1248209|Harvey Goldstein]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1249194|Juan del Río Martín]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Mons. del Rio (30279527124).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1249774|Ivan Klajn]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Ivan Klajn.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1250218|Ismael Ivo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:AW BU TAN 4690-9 1609.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1260657|Aldo Giordano]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Aldo Giordano par Claude Truong-Ngoc juin 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1261293|Tarcísio Meira]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Tarcísio Meira, sem data.tif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1267921|Igor Zhelezovski]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Igor Zjelezovski.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1285622|József Sas]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Sas Jozsef 2007.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1287084|Tom Seaver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Tom Seaver 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1287976|Júlia Sigmond]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]]<br/>[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1291091|Eduardo Mirás]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:EVM.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1295235|Edén Pastora]]'' | | [[نڪاراگوا]] | | | [[فائل:Edén Pastora en 2020.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1320080|Ken Shimura]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1327911|Elena Pulcini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1337533|Emilio S. Allué]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1338254|Emmanuel Félémou]]'' | | [[گني|گائينا]] | | | [[فائل:Emmanuel Félémou.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1340521|Henri Weber]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Henri Weber.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1344922|Yvon Douis]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Yvon Douis (1966).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1349129|Robert Opron]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1355980|Alijan Ibragimov]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]]<br/>[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1356172|Ernemann Sander]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:ErnemannSANDER.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1360086|Rafael Albrecht]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Rafael Albrecht.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1361912|Viačasław Kiebič]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Вячеслав Францевич Кебич.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1362757|Alber Elbaz]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1363756|Paul Goma]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q842794|Socialist Republic of Romania]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q203493|Kingdom of Romania]]'' | | | [[فائل:Placa memorială Paul Goma din s.Mana.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1370390|Alfredo Bosi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1372228|Marc Ferro]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Historian Marc Ferro.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1373340|Eugenio Scarpellini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1379110|Tulio Manuel Chirivella Varela]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1379351|Eva Maria Pracht]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:EPseoul1988.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1380592|Krzysztof Krawczyk]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Krawczyk 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1381158|Gustavo Peña]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Gustavo Peña.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1381809|Hamed Karoui]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | [[فائل:Hamed karoui (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1382152|Joël Robert]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:MX Spanish GP 250cc 19730408 Joel Robert (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1382825|Fausto Gresini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Fausto Gresini 1992 Japanese GP.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1383590|Patrick Devedjian]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:UMP regional elections IlM 2010-02-18 n04.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1392426|Philaret]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Mitrapalit Filaret 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1393978|Mohamed El Ouafa]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | [[فائل:Mohamed Louafa (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1398571|Luis Eduardo Aute]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Aute recogida premio.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1401982|Anikó Varsányi]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1402238|Gábor Vass]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Vass Gábor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1406740|Fernando Mario Chávez Ruvalcaba]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Fernando Chávez Ruvalcaba (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1411944|Jaroslav Mostecký]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1423970|Juan Guillermo López Soto]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Monseñor Juan Guillermo López Soto en la Catedral de Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1426480|Manuel Felguérez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:EL MAESTRO FELGUEREZ Y SANTIAGO POLVOS..jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1427902|Frank Klötzli]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:ETH-BIB-Klötzli, Frank (1934-2020)-Portr 16637.tif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1433175|Giovanni D’Alise]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1441576|Francis Rapp]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Francis Rapp par Claude Truong-Ngoc février 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1441997|Francisco Haghenbeck]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Haghenbeckfoto.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1442590|Franco Giraldi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]]<br/>''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1453045|Armando Manzanero]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Bustos de Armando Manzanero (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1475741|Juraj Filas]]'' | | [[سلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1485817|Tarcísio Padilha]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Tarcísio Padilha.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1509146|Georgi Ananiev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Georgi Ananiev.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1528752|Giuseppi Logan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Giuseppi Logan 2010.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1531997|Marco Dino Brogi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1545256|Goyo Benito]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Goyo Benito.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1558046|Atanasije Jevtić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bishop Atanasije (Jevtić) crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q470007|Dawn Wells]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dawn Wells Gilligan's Island 1964.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q470463|Amfilohije Radović]]'' | | [[مونٽي نيگرو]] | | | [[فائل:Amfilohije Radovic-mc.rs (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q481801|Ambrosius of Dorostol]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Доростолски митрополит Амвросий.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q487043|Ellis Marsalis Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ellis Marsalis (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q487927|Anatoly Alyabyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q491019|Herman Cain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Herman Cain by Gage Skidmore 4.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q498025|Segismundo Martínez Álvarez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q499944|João Alves Filho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:João Alves Filho governador Sergipe.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q508497|Fernando Solanas]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Fernando Solanas, 1985.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q508658|Mauro Bellugi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Mauro Bellugi 1973.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q509775|Kadir Topbaş]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Kadir Topbas at 38th Istanbul Vodafone Marathon (2) cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q520296|John Prine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:John Prine by Ron Baker.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q520761|Florentín Giménez]]'' | | [[پيراگوئي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q523020|Peter Sutcliffe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q525806|Eric Wagner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Eric Wagner.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q527026|Vincent Malone]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q528421|Nelly Kaplan]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Nelly Kaplan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q530205|Oscar Cruz]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q532632|Jorge Liberato Urosa Savino]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:Jorge Liberato Urosa Savino.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q536199|Angelo Moreschi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q540134|Trini Lopez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Aankomst Trini Lopez op Schiphol voor bijwonen Grand Gala du Disque Aankomst T, Bestanddeelnr 915-6212 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q542162|Johnny Crawford]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Chuck Connors Johnny Crawford The Rifleman 1960.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q546817|José Freire Falcão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:José Freire Falcão.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q546904|Eusébio Scheid]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q553410|Romell Broom]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q556533|Mauro Aparecido dos Santos]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Mauro Aparecido cropped 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q558837|Lars Norén]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Lars Norén 2012-10-24 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q567965|Abdul Rehman Malik]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Foreign Secretary in Pakistan (4727720266) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q572992|Anthony Casso]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:AnthonyCassoNJmugshot.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q577242|Alfred Leslie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q579253|Jaime Murrell]]'' | | [[پاناما]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q582727|Uruguay Graffigna]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q587249|Lee McNeill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q592160|Antonio Ángel Algora Hernando]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Antonio Ángel Algora Hernando.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q596515|János Kóbor]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Kóbor János (Stekovics Gáspár).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q606354|Szilveszter Csollány]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q607219|Franco Marini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Franco Marini 4.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q609559|Líviusz Gyulai]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Gyulai Líviusz 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q610544|Antón García Abril]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q642708|Giulio Giorello]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Giorello4.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q658507|Jan Gałecki]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Galecki 1987.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q659494|Boris Chochiev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[ڏکڻ اوسيتيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q665951|J. R. Richard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:JR Richard.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q676051|Corey Yuen]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q679049|Vittorio Gregotti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Vittorio Gregotti - Festival Economia 2016.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q679377|Joseph Benz]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q693875|Arnie Robinson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Arnie Robinson 1972.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q699412|Otto Barić]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا]]<br/>[[ڪروشيا]]<br/>[[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q706629|Marko Radosavljević]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Артемије Радосављевић.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q710123|Arthur Keaveney]]'' | | [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q712058|Christian Wiyghan Tumi]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | [[فائل:Wiyghan Tumi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q713358|Lewis Wolpert]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Lewis Wolpert.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q715328|Arturo Lona Reyes]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Mons. Arturo Lona Reyes en la Parroquia del Espinal Orizaba 2019 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q715633|Yevhen Marchuk]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Yevhen Marchuk.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q716656|Alfredo Lim]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Alfredo Lim at Mendiola.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q719759|Henry Grimes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Henry grimes 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q720068|Allen Daviau]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Deyellspielbergdaviau (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q726105|Vladimir Menshov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Владимир Меньшов 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q726615|Alex Kurzem]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q728029|Harold Budd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Harold Budd (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q729048|Olavo de Carvalho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Olavo de Carvalho em 2019 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q732062|Ali Mahdi Muhammad]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | [[فائل:Али Махди Мохамед 08 (2020).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q732608|Michel Kilo]]'' | | [[فرانس]]<br/>[[شام]] | | | [[فائل:Michel Kilo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q740411|Joachim Yhombi-Opango]]'' | | [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q750714|Sandor Zicherman]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Zicherman Sandor Robert.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q758097|Attila Horváth]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q768776|Phyllis Eisenstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Phyllis.eisenstein.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q778094|Fred Dean]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q782651|Michel Parisse]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Michel Parisse.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q789843|Ferenc Balázs]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Balázs Fecó fortepan 125621.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q798810|Badal Roy]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q809046|Barry Harris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Barry Harris 1981.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q809978|Bashkim Fino]]'' | | [[البانيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bashkim Fino (2014).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q810460|Bassam Saba]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q826422|Chris Karrer]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q838648|Diána Igaly]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Igaly Diána 2017 RTG 3213.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q852791|György Bálint]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Bálint György.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q862274|Bill Mack]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q888222|Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:King Goodwill Zwelithini.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q889224|John Y. Brown Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:John Y. Brown Jr. (KY).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q890445|Bogdan Wojtuś]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Bogdan Wojtuś.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q893179|Bootsie Barnes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q893817|Borisav Jović]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا]] | | | [[فائل:Borisav Jović.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q897432|Géza Szőcs]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]]<br/>[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Geza Szőcs (poet) - Transylvanian Hungarian politician.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q904365|Daniel S. Kemp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q909047|Dorce Gamalama]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Dorce Gamalama on Interview Halo Selebriti.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q914201|Tim Brooke-Taylor]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Tim Brooke-Taylor 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q923365|Khosrow Sinai]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Khosro Sinaei 1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q927269|Yukhym Zvyahilskyi]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Yukhym Zvyahilsky 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q927918|Stephen Sulyk]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q928356|Miroslav Tuđman]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q928446|Reynaert]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q932204|Allen Garfield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q932779|Donald Machholz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Donald Machholz.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q943520|Karel Loprais]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Karel Loprais.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q944421|Dmitri Smirnov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Dmitri N Smirnov ©Kompozitor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q948295|Daviz Simango]]'' | | [[موزمبيق]] | | | [[فائل:Daviz Simango.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q957463|Peter M. Neumann]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Peter-Neumann.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q959434|Victoria Kovalchuk]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Wirawika.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q964474|Philippe Nahon]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Philippe Nahon, Porto, 1999.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1559010|Gérard Mulumba Kalemba]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1562744|Milutin Knežević]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bishop Milutin (Knežević) photo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1565285|Predrag Živković Tozovac]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Predrag Zivkovic Tozovac crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1565966|Gordon Forbes]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1566335|Terrence McNally]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Terrence McNally.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1576705|Vlastimil Zábranský]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1585971|Haroldo Rodas]]'' | | [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | [[فائل:Haroldo Rodas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1603952|Helmut Nanz]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1610862|Juventino Kestering]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1625817|James Cross]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1634290|Walter Hooper]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1653757|Moses M. Costa]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1665644|Ryszard Ronczewski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Ryszard Ronczewski.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1667744|Oscar Rizzato]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Oscar Rizzato (cropped, 2).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1680315|James E. Humphreys]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1680463|James Gordon, Baron Gordon of Strathblane]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Official portrait of Lord Gordon of Strathblane crop 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1682267|Jan Szarek]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Szarek (ur. 1936).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1688700|Marcus Lamb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1691384|Joe Diffie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Joe Diffie 10-14-17 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1699253|John Baptist Kaggwa]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | [[فائل:John Baptist Kaggwa Bischof Uganda Masaka Besuch Pfarrei Hannberg Deutschland 2018 Foto Stefan Reinmann.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1700895|John Lutz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lutz, John (WGA).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1701415|John Pfahl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1703488|Vadim Abdrashitov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Вадим Абдрашитов (19-09-2020) (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1709139|José Daniel Falla Robles]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1709264|José Isidro Guerrero Macías]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1709475|Suhaila Seddiqi]]'' | | [[افغانستان]] | | | [[فائل:Sohaila sediq.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1709485|José María de la Torre Martín]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1709519|José Murilo de Carvalho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Josemurilo tvbrasil.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1710489|Juan Giménez]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Juan Giménez, dibuixant de còmic (2006).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1730056|Karl-Josef Neukirchen]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1733939|Rémy Julienne]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Rémy Julienne 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1738072|Keith Nichols]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1738970|Michel Murr]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1753869|Silas Silvius Njiru]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1770882|Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1771679|Vadim Kapranov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1787758|Onésimo Cepeda]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Onésimo Cepeda Silva.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1789955|Carlos Lessa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Lessa economist.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1791614|Duda Mendonça]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:DudaMendonca117188.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1805539|Marc Meneau]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1814289|Martin Ros]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Martin Ros.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1818693|Leo Panitch]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Leo Panitch.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1824877|Cléber Arado]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1850695|Ahmed Patel]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Shri Ahmed Patel.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1860698|Sergei Shmatko]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Sergei Shmatko.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1868688|Mark Blum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1869884|Khalil el-Moumni]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''<br/>[[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1872988|Zaccaria Cometti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1874119|Pierluigi Consonni]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1876296|Luis Adriano Piedrahita Sandoval]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1876339|Luis Armando Bambarén Gastelumendi]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1876397|Luis Feito]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1890518|Aldo Moser]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Aldo Moser 1964.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1893368|Marcelo Angiolo Melani]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1898700|Mario Cecchini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1903976|Willy Kuijpers]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1933279|Mike Longo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1937666|Ricardo Brennand]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Ricardo Brennand, Armando Monteiro e Jarbas Vasconcelos (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1968297|Soumitra Chatterjee]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Soumitra Chatterjee - Kolkata 2011-05-09 2856.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1973622|Necdet Üruğ]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q1975824|Danilo Lim]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:D LIM.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q1985869|Joe Williams]]'' | | [[نيوزيلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Joe Williams 7 April 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2016538|José Luis Cruz]]'' | | [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2034293|Osman Öcalan]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Osman Öcalan (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2035589|Sven Wollter]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Sven Wollter (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2045019|Alexander Vedernikov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Alexander Vedernikov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2049688|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:S. P. Balasubrahmanyam.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2061560|Paul Oscher]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2068950|Guy N. Smith]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2069522|Bart de Vries]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2092123|Harmoko]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Harmoko, The DPR-RI Stance on the Reform Process and the Resignation of President Soeharto, p39.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2093605|Pierre Lacroix]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2147327|Reşit Karabacak]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2154782|Marijke Harberts]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2157518|Robert Hellwarth]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2212292|Ot Louw]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Ot louw-1676624202 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2221582|Sanford Clark]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2243275|Dirk Mudge]]'' | | [[نميبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2252474|Frits Flinkevleugel]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Frits Flinkevleugel (1965).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2268878|Bob Lazier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bob-Lazier-SVRA-IMS-2018-1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2328723|Anto Kovačević]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2332562|Tatyana Lolova]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Tatyana-Lolova-20101208-cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2343159|Loris Dominissini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2348185|Renê Weber]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2360635|Anatoly Kvashnin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Kvashnin (2007-05-15).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2369235|Pyotr Mamonov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Pyotr Mamonov, April 2019-6.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2371573|Milenko Savović]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q37024|Serbia and Montenegro]]''<br/>[[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2376704|Olexander Omelchenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Олександр Омельченко.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2378031|Bram van der Vlugt]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Bram van der Vlugt (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2386112|Marcel Moreau]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Portrait Moreau brouillons wik.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2394296|Tarek El-Bishry]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2405235|Marc Wilmore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2421842|Marco Maciel]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Marco Maciel.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2427354|Gennady Yukhtin]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2434130|Tim Lester]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2439627|Tom Dempsey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Tom Dempsey 1975.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2441262|Tomás Osvaldo González Morales]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Monseñor Tomás González.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2444480|Vlasta Velisavljević]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Vlasta Velisavljević (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2450102|Dave Greenfield]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Dave-Greenfield (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2458606|Nadhum Shaker]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2462506|Ty]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2470863|Porfirio Betancourt]]'' | | [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]] | | | [[فائل:Armando betancourt iu 1981 750.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2484956|Vincent Logan]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2512048|Howard Finkel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Howard Finkel WrestleMania 28.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2521512|Alfons Verplaetse]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:Fons verplaetse-1602852523.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2524068|Vigolvino Wanderley Mariz]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2524635|Elsa Joubert]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2530501|Nadeem-Shravan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Shravan Kumar at the special screening of 'Bol Bachchan' 20.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2567189|James Forbes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2570032|Viktor Zimin]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Viktor Zimin.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2579054|William H. Gerdts]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2580286|William R. Fey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2586848|Wittko Francke]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:Wittko Francke.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2587259|Vladimir Fortov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Science talk (2016-04-27) 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2602273|Yves Ramousse]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Mgr Yves Ramousse 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2609597|Charles Siebert]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Charles Siebert, 2006 (b&w).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2626298|Vasily Lanovoy]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:LanovoiV2001.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2629787|Yevgeny Shaposhnikov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Shaposhnikov170.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2640005|Yevgeny Nesterenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:EENesterenko.PNG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2640500|Aldo Andretti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Andretti pre-flight 070713-F-1234N-003 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2655701|Harry Aarts]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Tweede Kamer, CV ontwikkelingssamenwerking, voorzitter Aarts, Bestanddeelnr 933-2539 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2658232|Cristina Calderón]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Cristina Calderón (8639878993) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2682651|Claes Borgström]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Claes Borgström 2012-06-05 001.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2705740|Suleiman Mahmoud]]'' | | [[لبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2717789|Dzyanis Kowba]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Denis Kovba 2007.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2727991|Luc Versteylen]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2746785|Claude Goasguen]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Claude Goasguen, gymnase Japy 2008 02 27 n7.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2750504|Linda de Suza]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Linda De Suza en 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2756943|Chetan Chauhan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:The Union Minister for Textiles, Smt. Smriti Irani lighting the lamp at the convocation ceremony of the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), in New Delhi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2777120|Hasu Yajnik]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Hasu Yagnik.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2784407|Hans Prade]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Hans Prade (1981).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2784436|Hasan al-Lawzi]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2798280|Ing Yoe Tan]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2821111|Abdelkhalek Louzani]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2821348|Abdoul Aziz Mbaye]]'' | | [[سينيگال]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2824007|Adam Schlesinger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Adam-Schlesinger-(in-Tinted-Windows).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2830175|Alain Pluchet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2830569|Alan Pastrana]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Alan Pastrana.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2831441|Alberto Carpani]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2848905|Andréa Guiot]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2850116|Anis al-Naqqash]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:Anis Al-Naqash.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2862088|Armando Romero Manríquez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2863379|Arnold Sowinski]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2871915|Aurlus Mabélé]]'' | | [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2886724|Baselios Mar Thoma Paulose II]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Catholicos Patriarch H.H. Baselius MarThoma Paulose II.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2894948|Leib Groner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ahron Daum Schneerson.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2896274|Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:רבי משולם דוד הלוי סולובייצ'יק.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2898193|Carlos Escudé]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]]<br/>[[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos escude.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2907092|Nawaf Massalha]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:Nawaf Massalha, 1993 Dan Hadani Archive.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2909679|Yehuda Barkan]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:Dan Hadani collection (990044478710205171).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2915906|Teruyuki Okazaki]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Teruyuki Okazaki 2006 07 17.gif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2915985|Denis MacEoin]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2918270|Alan Merrill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Alan Merrill 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2919712|Víctor Crisólogo]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2920357|Otar Patsatsia]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[جارجيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2926450|Bruce Myers]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2929679|Béchir Ben Yahmed]]'' | | [[فرانس]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | [[فائل:PortraitBechirBenYahmedAvril1984.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2949959|Lev Shcheglov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2961945|Chedly Ayari]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | [[فائل:Chadly ayari.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q2964883|Chris Trousdale]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q2977352|Claude Evrard]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Identite-ClaudeEvrard-1974-Sacem.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3002872|Cristina]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3013834|Daniel Cauchy]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Daniel Cauchy.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3015089|Danilo Barozzi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3032232|Paul Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Paul Johnson 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3032943|Djibril Tamsir Niane]]'' | | [[گني|گائينا]]<br/>[[سينيگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3047247|Eddie Borysewicz]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Eddie "Eddie B" Borysewicz.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3048569|Edward Jay Epstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Edward Jay Epstein (32802723452) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3050992|Elijah Moshinsky]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3051483|Ellinah Wamukoya]]'' | | [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Ellinah Wamukoya.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3054705|Enrique Múgica]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Enrique Múgica en la rueda de prensa posterior al Consejo de Ministros.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3081861|Francisco Hernando Contreras]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Francisco Hernando en Alcalá de Henares.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3084441|Steve Dalkowski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3093517|Gabi Luncă]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3100743|Genival Lacerda]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Genival Lacerda (2017).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3104996|Ghyslain Tremblay]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Ghyslain Tremblay.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3111408|Gosaku Ota]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3121597|Guy Brice Parfait Kolélas]]'' | | [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3121620|Guy Camberabero]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Guy Camberabero (1971).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3121642|Guy Chaty]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Guy-chaty.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3124154|Gérard Mannoni]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Gerard Mannoni.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3124366|Gérard Voulouzan]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Voulouzan.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3126373|Hamdi Benani]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3131533|Henri Madelin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Henri Madelin-FIG 2002.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3131915|Henri Richelet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:RicheletAutoportrait.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3132075|Henri Tincq]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3144732|Hélène Châtelain]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3157537|Jacob Desvarieux]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jacob DESVARIEUX 2012.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3158941|Jacques Frémontier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3159292|Jacques Le Brun]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3159696|Jacques Oudin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jacques Oudin-IMG 3689.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3159726|Jacques Pellen]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jacques Pellen - Festival de Cornouaille 2018 - 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3159913|Jacques Rosny]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3165934|Jean-François Voguet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jean-François Voguet.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3166986|Jean-Louis Servan-Schreiber]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jean-louis Servan-Schreiber.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3167959|Jean-Michel Boris]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3169816|Jean-Pierre Vincent]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jean-Pierre Vincent - portrait de Fernand Michaud - btv1b10329544j.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3172048|Jean Fontaine]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3173461|Jean Matouk]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3173769|Jean Obeid]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:Jean Obeid - 1988.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3750130|Francesco La Rosa]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3751683|Raghunath Mohapatra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Raghunath Mohapatra.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3753357|Carlos Seco Serrano]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3757094|Gaetano Rampin]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Gaetano Rampin 1.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3758095|Gangchen Tulku Rinpoche]]'' | | [[چين]]<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Lama Tulku Gangchen Rimpoche.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3761230|Geronimo Meynier]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Totò, Fabrizi e i giovani d'oggi 05.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3762524|Giampiero Grevi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3762585|Gian Battista Odone]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3762710|Gian Mario Bravo]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3764085|Gigi Dall'Aglio]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3766838|Giovanni Blandino]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3772436|Gloria Piedimonte]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3788117|Héctor Luis Silva]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Hector silva pumas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3798974|Innocenzo Donina]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3804395|Italo De Zan]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Italo de Zan 1946.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3810475|José Luis Capón]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3816656|Rodolfo González Rissotto]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3817497|Kurt Stettler]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Kurt-stettler.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3829209|Lea Vergine]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Lea Vergine 1974.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3832043|Lidia Menapace]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Lidia Menapace (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3836866|Lorenzo Acquarone]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Lorenzo Acquarone.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3837545|Lou A. Kouvaris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3838576|Luciano Federici]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3845680|Federico Roncoroni]]'' | | [[اٽلي]]<br/>''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]'' | | | [[فائل:Federico Roncoroni 1989.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3845853|Marcio Veloz Maggiolo]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | [[فائل:MARCIO vELOZ mAGGIOLO.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3846460|Marco Santagata]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3848217|Marino Quaresimin]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Marino Quaresimin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3848323|Mario Benedetti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3849205|Mario Valdemarin]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Nata di marzo 5 (Mario Valdemarin).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3852649|Maurizio Mattei]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3852820|Mauro Favilla]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Mauro Favilla datisenato 1987.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3854273|Melo Mafali]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Melo Mafali.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3857269|Miguel Jones]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3858870|Mirko Pavinato]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Bologna FC - 1961 Mitropa Cup - Renato Dall'Ara, Mirko Pavinato.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3892458|Ron Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:1985 Nashville Ron Johnson.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3894504|Paolo Taggi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3903362|Piero Schlesinger]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3905292|Pino Scaccia]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3920003|Roman Viktiuk]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207272|Second Polish Republic]]''<br/>[[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Roman Viktuk 2-1 by Alexey Nikishin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3929115|Raffaele Masto]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3930163|Raoul Casadei]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Raoul Casadei.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3938207|Robert Beck]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Lee Beck 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3938263|Robert Durst]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Alan Durst.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3938637|Roberto Brivio]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3938885|Roberto Lavorenti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3939577|Rocco Filippini]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Rocco Filippini ©Cosimo Filippini 2009.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3941597|Rossana Di Bello]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3956022|Sergio Bassi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:SergioBassi2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3956296|Sergio Staino]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Sergio Staino - Lucca Comics & Games 2016 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3960891|Silvio Lega]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Silvio Lega daticamera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3972445|Stefano D'Orazio]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Stefano (primo priano).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3981101|Tarcisio Stramare]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3993232|Tony Fuochi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4006322|Urano Navarrini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4059734|Hakob Hakobyan]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4067585|Nikolay Antoshkin]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:2019 Nikolay Antoshkin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4069097|Gregory Areshian]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آرمينيا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:GEA istanbul.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4072594|Anatoly Afanasyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4073544|Baloğlan Əşrəfov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4074396|Valeriy Babych]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:НДУ 3 Бабич Валерій Георгійович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4084007|Maurice Berger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Maurice Berger PR (centré).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4095066|Patricia Bosworth]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4095606|Douglas Bravo]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:Douglas Bravo 1.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4098970|Sergej Aleksandrovič Bulyga]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Sergey Bulyha.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4100792|Bhakti Charu Swami]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Bhakti Charu Swami at Santiago de Compostela.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4104601|Dmitry Vasilyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4107168|Beniamin]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4112721|Anatoly Vishnevsky]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Anatoly Vishnevsky.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4114833|Anastasia Voznesenskaya]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4121380|Sol Tolchinsky]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4128446|Alexander Vustin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vustin2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4135231|Vladimir Gendlin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4148136|Boris Grachevsky]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Boris Grachevskiy 2018.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4152147|Sven Gundlakh]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4152247|Seyfaddin Gurbanov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4162412|Sixto Brillantes]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Sixto Brillantes (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4167363|Yury Dokhoian]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Yury Dokhoian 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4173011|Eulogius (Smirnov)]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Eulogius (Smirnov).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4173593|Gurgen Yeghiazaryan]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | [[فائل:Gurgen Yeghiazaryan 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4183618|Yevgeniy Zagorulko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4195359|Aydin Ibrahimov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4197538|Mikhail Ignatyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Mikhail Ignatyev (2013-10-30).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4219061|Gulnazar Keldi]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[تاجڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Gulnazar Keldi 03.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4219653|Hennadiy Kernes]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Кернес Геннадий.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4221830|Vladimir Kirsanov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vladimir Kirsanov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4232862|Vladimir Korenev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Владимир Коренев 01 (13-04-2019) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4233774|Caesar Korolenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Короленко Цезарь Петрович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4234678|Irina Koryukina]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Корюкина Ирина Петровна.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4236363|Ryszard Kotys]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Ryszard Kotys 2009.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4249854|Gennady Kutsev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4262971|Farida Pasha]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4264242|Viktor Likhonosov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Viktor Likhonosov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4264879|Martin Lovett]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:AmadeusQuartet1.gif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4267240|Vladimir Loskot]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4269192|Anatoly Lukyanov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Anatoly Evgenievich Lukyanov.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4272534|Lyudmila Lyadova]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Lyudmila Lyadova.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4273958|Arif Musa oğlu Məhərrəmov]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4276406|Nikolay Maksyuta]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Nikolay Maksyuta 007.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4281196|Vitaly Margelov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vitaliy Margelov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4284352|Ben Masters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ben masters.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3173832|Jean Panisse]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3179571|Joan Dougherty]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3180252|Joel M. Reed]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Joel M. Reed at his apartment December 2018.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3180277|Joeli Vidiri]]'' | | [[فجي]]<br/>[[نيوزيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3180917|Ebrahim Amini]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Ebrahim Amini in Ministry of Interior 1394.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3187822|Juan de Dios Castro Lozano]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3189161|Julie Bennett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Julie Bennett.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3191682|Kabran Appiah]]'' | | [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3192352|Kambuzia Partovi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Kamboziya Partovi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3216625|Lambert Amon Tanoh]]'' | | [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3219186|Laurent Dona Fologo]]'' | | [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] | | | [[فائل:Fologo1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3229123|Lehlohonolo Ledwaba]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3265068|Waldir Lucas Pereira]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3265525|Lucien Gourong]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Lucien Gourong.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3265723|Lucien Sève]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3282984|Koos van den Berg]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Koos van den Berg.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3285700|Mangala Samaraweera]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Mangala Samaraweera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3288102|Marc Hamilton]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3289453|Marcel Uderzo]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Marcel Uderzo - Salon du livre de Paris 2010 bis.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3289573|Marcelle Ranson-Hervé]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3290692|Marguerite Aucouturier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3297752|Massimo Cuttitta]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:MausCuttitta.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3300367|Maurice Barrier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3303356|Franciszek Kokot]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3306991|Messaoud Nedjahi]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Messaoud Nedjahi et le groupe Iwal (espoire) 1.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3308616|Mikhail Studenetsky]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3310166|Michel Lelong]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3310736|Michel Robin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Michel Robin - portrait de Fernand Michaud - btv1b10329519j.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3312928|Miguel Angel Castellini]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Castellini-Perez-Galindez-10DIC1976.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3313368|Mike Huckaby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3318485|Mohand Cherif Hannachi]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3326196|Moussa Benhamadi]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3339641|Hassan Firouzabadi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Hassan Firouzabadi 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3340026|Nicolas Alfonsi]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3348270|Obren Joksimović]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3349343|Tarun Gogoi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Tarun Gogoi - Kolkata 2013-02-10 4885.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3355833|Adam Alsing]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Adam Alsing 2015-09-17 001.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3356966|Oscar Castro]]'' | | [[چلي]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Óscar Castro Ramírez (25966264435) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3362625|Paolo Giordano]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3362634|Paolo Graziosi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Paolo Graziosi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3362788|Pape Diouf]]'' | | [[فرانس]]<br/>[[سينيگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3379373|Philippe Bodson]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3380286|Philippe Malaurie]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3386032|Pierre Lumbi Okongo]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | [[فائل:MONUSCO Headquarters, Kinshasa, RD Congo- president of the G7, Pierre Lumbi. (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3386113|Pierre Marcotte]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Les Tannants Brossard.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3390432|Benito Joanet]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3399496|Justo Jorge Padrón]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3421020|Raymond Lévesque]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Raymond Lévesque, Laurent Gascon, 2011. (50808482641).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3427126|Renée Claude]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Renée Claude.tif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3430000|Riad Ismat]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | [[فائل:Riad Ismat.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3433512|Joe Long]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Joe Long musician (1966) (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3434303|Tommy DeVito]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Tommy DeVito (musician) (1966) (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3434789|Robert Chaudenson]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3435833|Roviros Manthoulis]]'' | | [[يونان]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3436216|Robert Saint-Cricq]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3443079|Jens Erik Fenstad]]'' | | [[ناروي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3453638|Ruth Roberta de Souza]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3471309|Samvel Gasparov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3473390|Sarah Maldoror]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Sarah Maldoror.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3479678|Sergio Onofre Jarpa]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Sergio Onofre Jarpa (1965) cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3491740|Soumaïla Cissé]]'' | | [[مالي]] | | | [[فائل:Soumaïla Cissé 2013 Portrait.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3498879|Steve Carver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3513750|Marina Tucaković]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3515979|Tasso Adamopoulos]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Tasso Adamopoulos.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3532513|K. V. Anand]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:KV Anand at MovieBuff First Clap Awards Function (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3533955|Touriya Jabrane]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | [[فائل:Touriya Jabrane.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3547896|Ezio Vendrame]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Ezio Vendrame.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3551677|Victor Wood]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3569608|Abraham J. Twerski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Twerski (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3570660|Xavier Dor]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Dr Xavier Dor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3572419|Santiago Lanzuela]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:(Santiago Lanzuela) José María Aznar recibe al presidente de la Diputación General de Aragón. Pool Moncloa. 16 de mayo de 1996 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3575702|Zoltan Sabo]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا]]<br/>[[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3592141|Étienne Draber]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3593648|Óscar Chávez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Óscar Chávez en el Zócalo 2016 - 6.JPG|center|128px]] |- | [[وحيدالدين خان|مولانا وحيدالدين]] | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Maulanawahiduddin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3608395|Alberto Malavasi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Alberto Malavasi Palermo.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3615732|Andrea Galasso]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Andrea Galasso.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3615807|Andrea Lo Vecchio]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3618360|Ansley Truitt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3622555|Juan Carlos Copes]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Juan Carlos Copes Día del Tango.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3634905|Raghuvansh Prasad Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Raghuvansh Prasad Singh briefing the press about various achievements of Total Sanitation Campaign highlighting the revised unit cost norms under TSC, in New Delhi on August 22, 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3645774|Bruno Ghedina]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Bruno Ghedina 1970.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3645814|Bruno Longhi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3651544|Camillo Milli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Amore in 4 dimensioni - Giuffré Milli.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3656048|Leonid Bujor]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | [[فائل:Leonid Bujor (crop).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3659617|Carlo Meliciani]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Carlo Meliciani.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3659902|Carlo Tognoli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Carlo Tognoli.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3664107|Cecilia Fusco]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Cecilia Fusco - collezione Tino Barindelli.tif|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3680239|Claudio Sorrentino]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3694250|Corrado Lamberti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:CorradoLamberti.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3700324|Piotr Machalica]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Piotr Machalica2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3703087|David Anthony Kraft]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3706229|Detto Mariano]]'' | | [[اٽلي]]<br/>''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]'' | | | [[فائل:Detto Mariano.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3731997|Ermes Polli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3732244|Ernesto Galli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3732324|Ernesto Ros]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3737689|Fabio Enzo]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3743804|Ferruccio Pisoni]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Ferruccio Pisoni daticamera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q3745178|Umbu Landu Paranggi]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q3749916|Francesco Di Carlo]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Francesco di carlo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4290811|Viktor Merezhko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Viktor Merezhko.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4302604|Nicette Bruno]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Nicette Bruno.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4319727|Viktor Nikitin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4322836|Vyacheslav Novitsky]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4334832|Chylgychy Ondar]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Chylgychy Ondar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4355718|Maria Piątkowska]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:MariaPiatkowska.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4356594|Scott Erskine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Scott T. Erskine 2001.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4357649|Raghunandan Lal Bhatia]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:R. L. Bhatia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4365356|Boris Plotnikov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Борис Плотников 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4382246|Tatyana Protsenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4404372|Kenzhegaly A. Sagadiyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4416595|Seraphim (Glushakov)]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4420621|Sergey Sinyakin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4422543|Anatoly Skripkin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4442473|Alexander Stefanovich]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4443470|Gennady Strakhov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4464627|Anatoly Trushkin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Trushkin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4468157|Billie Lee Turner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4477044|Andreï Ouritski]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Andrey Uritsky.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4517602|Marietta Chudakova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Mariehtta Chudakova 2017 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4525695|William Schmidt]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Шмидт В. В.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4527351|Viktor Shudegov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Viktor Shudegov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4528002|Valentin Shurchanov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Valentin Shurchanov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4540413|Abd as-Sattar Qasm]]'' | | [[اردن]]<br/>[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4662382|Aaron Rubashkin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4669126|Abraham Palatnik]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Abraham palatnik cni.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4669133|Avrohom Pinter]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Rabbi Avrohom Pinter Z’L.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4681741|Adelaide João]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4683852|Adnan Abdallat]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4684841|Adrian Barber]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4687771|Aeneas Chigwedere]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4695942|Ahmed Mumin Warfa]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | [[فائل:Ahmed Mumin Warfa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4699805|Ajit Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Ajit Singh at press conference.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4703486|Al Angrisani]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4710395|Albert Hale]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1783171|Navajo Nation]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4713827|Aldir Blanc]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4720226|Alexander Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4722019|Alfonso Cortina]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4724658|Ali Ansarian]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Ali Ansarian.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4738568|Aly Zaker]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Aly-Zaker.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4746478|Aminu Isa Kontagora]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4757445|Andrew Jack]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Andrew Jack, Dialect Coach.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4760733|Andy Gray]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Andy Gray, Perth born Actor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4764670|Anil Panachooran]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4765474|Anisuzzaman]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:আনিসুজ্জামান ২০১০.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4768323|Anne Feeney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4769295|Annie Glenn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Annie Glenn in 1965.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4770680|Anshuman Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4776555|Antonio Cuenco]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Rep. Antonio V. Cuenco (8th Congress).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4776662|Antonio Giménez-Rico]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4776961|Antonio Sanchez]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Antonio Sanchez Politician 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4792170|Arlene Saunders]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4794109|S. I. Padmavati]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Si-padmavati.webp|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4795016|Arnold Demain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4804549|Ashalata Wabgaonkar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4808284|Hasan Muratović]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا]]<br/>[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | [[فائل:HasanMuratovic.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4822123|Haydar Baş]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Prof. Dr. Haydar Baş.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4831235|Ayhan Ulubelen]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Ayhan Ulubelen during her 60 years.pdf|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4832169|Azam Khan]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4838863|Bachi Singh Rawat]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4841138|Badruddin Shaikh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4889708|J. Bennett Johnston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:John Bennett Johnston.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4893517|Bernard P. Randolph]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bernard P Randolph.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4900648|Bhagirathi Majhi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4900699|Bhagwati Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4900762|Nirmal Singh Khalsa]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Nirmal Singh Khalsa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4907449|Bikramjeet Kanwarpal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Kanwarpal Bikramjit.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4910396|Bill Olner]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4910565|Bill Pursell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4928876|Frank Mdlalose]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4932376|Bob Enyart]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bob Enyart in radio studio.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4934739|Bobby Ball]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Bobby Ball.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q4941401|Ingamay Bylund]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4949186|Rosita Sokou]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4960104|Annette Kullenberg]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4966749|Bridget Rowe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q4977068|Rita Sargsyan]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | [[فائل:Rita Sargsyan nimg.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5000739|Burt Wilson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Burt Wilson 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5015068|C M Chang]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5026605|Camilla Wicks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:25806 Camilla Wicks.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5043614|Carmen Vázquez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Carmen Vasquez.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5057941|Celestino Bonifacio Bacale]]'' | | [[ايڪوئٽوريل گني|استوائي جيني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5067804|Chaim Dov Keller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5069439|Chaman Lal Gupta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5071333|Robert M. Laughlin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5071476|Chandrawati]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5082746|Charles Stuart Bowyer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5103384|Cho Se-hui]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5104483|Abla al-Kahlawi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5105543|Chowdhury Kamal Ibne Yusuf]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5112720|Christopher Lee]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5121945|Ciro Pessoa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Ciro Pessoa 2010.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5128707|Claude Beauchamp]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5128778|Claude Crabb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5162670|Conrado Miranda]]'' | | [[ايل سيلويڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5171422|Cornelius Mwalwanda]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5172694|Corra Dirksen]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5173979|Cosmas Magaya]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | [[فائل:Cosmas-Magaya-Zim2010.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5181398|Craig Ruddy]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | [[فائل:Craig Ruddy.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5181443|Craig Shergold]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5212769|Damodar Barku Shingada]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5213280|Dan Collins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5213508|Dan Foster]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5219264|Daniele Cioni]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5228272|Dave Bacuzzi]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5231508|David Boe]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5231741|David Bright]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5232007|David Driskell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:David C. Driskell.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5233307|David Egerton]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5234349|David Green]]'' | | [[نڪاراگوا]] | | | [[فائل:David Greenwiki 1983.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5237631|David Mixner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:15.DavidMixner.NEM.Rally.USC.WDC.11October2009 (53581387587) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5239194|David Romero Ellner]]'' | | [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5248630|Debu Chaudhuri]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Pandit debu chaudhuri 2014-06-24 10-36.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5253272|Henk Overgoor]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Henk Overgoor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5273153|Dick Lucas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5274838|Diego Verdaguer]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Diego Verdaguer en junio de 2016.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5276823|Dilipkumar Mansukhlal Gandhi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5294991|Donald Perry Polsky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5295091|Donald Rowe]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dee Rowe.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5300456|Doug Ericksen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Doug Ericksen in 2021.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5300613|Doug Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Doug Jones Indians.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5304908|Dragan Vučić]]'' | | [[اتر مقدونيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5305018|Dragoljub Đuričić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Dragoljub Đuričić.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5336214|Eddie Large]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Eddie Large.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5336223|Eddie Lee Jackson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5350512|Eknath Gaikwad]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5362050|Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5362067|Eliyantha White]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dr-eliyantha-white-treats-sachin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5367651|Elsimar Coutinho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Dr.Elsimar Coutinho.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5379762|Enrique Molina]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | [[فائل:Enrique Molina4 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5386649|Eric Hall]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5435227|Fariborz Raisdana]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5441062|Federico Salas]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5444074|Fereshteh Taerpour]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Fereshteh Taerpour.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5470446|Forrest Compton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5476150|Luisa Molina]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5484875|Frank A. Howard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Frank Howard 1956.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5485058|Frank Arok]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5493306|Mohammad Shahabuddin]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Mohammad shahabuddin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5495767|Fred Levin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Fred Levin - Pensacola, Florida - 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5496221|Fred Sasakamoose]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5497310|Frederick B. Chary]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5498180|Frederick K. C. Price]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5512123|G. Anand]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5531217|Gene Fraise]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Gene Fraise - Official Portrait - 84th GA.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5531445|Gene Shay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5531517|Gene Ward Smith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5534035|Geoff Barnett]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:GeoffBarnett1972.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5540004|George H. Carley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5542916|George Nock]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5543953|George Robertson]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:GeoRobertson.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5549047|Daniel Velázquez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Daniel Velázquez (1975).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5549344|Gerald Locklin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5561073|Gilbert Centina]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Authorgilbertluisrcentinaiii.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5562310|Gillian Wise]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5569175|Glenn Wheatley]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5569181|Erik Belfrage]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5574061|Isael Villa Villa]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5576708|Ramón Martínez]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:RAMON MARTINEZ.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5586441|Hassan Brijany]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5596280|Grant Jackson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Grant Jackson Orioles.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5618246|Heherson Alvarez]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Heherson Alvarez.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5628238|H. G. Carrillo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5628624|H. Vasanthakumar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:H. Vasanthakumar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5644603|Hamid Jasemian]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Hamid Jasemian 139209021934598431597814.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5650308|Hans Knudsen]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q756617|Kingdom of Denmark]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5657289|Haribhau Jawale]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5662859|Alberto Canapino]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Alberto Canapino (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5663596|Alberto Szpunberg]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Alberto Szpunberg.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5665087|Alejandro Guzmán Brito]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5670811|Harry M. Rosenfeld]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5679000|Riay Tatary]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:(Riay Tatary) El Arzobispado de Valencia y la Comisión Islámica colaboran en la atención de refugiados (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5697713|Antonio Alcántara]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5702560|Helen Jones Woods]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5703827|Helène Aylon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Helene Aylon (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5710392|Kioumars Derambakhsh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Kioumars Derambakhsh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5710665|Khosrow Seif]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Khosrow Seif 2006-09-13 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5711988|Aurelio Iragorri Hormaza]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Aurelio Iragorri Hormaza.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5717242|Balfre Vargas Cortéz]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5728387|Henry Slaughter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5728685|Henry Stephen]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5736171|Herbin Hoyos]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Herbin Hoyos ceremony.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5744458|Hershel Shanks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5749726|Carlos Armando Biebrich]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5750208|Carlos Eduardo Enríquez Maya]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5757661|Csaba Szabó]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Szabó Csaba.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5760952|Hilary Dwyer]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Hilary Dwyer.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5791581|Cristián Cuturrufo]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Cristián Cuturrufo - 2247945022 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5798779|Daniel Vélez]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5799587|Darío Vivas]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:Darío Vivas, Vicepresidente de la Asamblea Legislativa de Venezuela y miembro del Grupo Geopolítico de Latinoamérica y el Caribe (GRULAC), en compañía de José Gavidia, diputado de Venezuela e (8486684250) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5808715|Manuel Dammert]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Manuel Dammert Ego Aguirre.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5830829|Emilia Currás]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5833760|Enrique Rodríguez Galindo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5836757|Ernesto Contreras]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Ernesto Contreras - El Gráfico 1942.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5846421|Rinat Ibragimov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5848817|Estanislao de Grandes]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Estanislao de Grandes Pascual (13423607215).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5865148|Francisco Aritmendi]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5865636|Ezzatollah Mehravaran]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Ezzat-mehravaran.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5879998|Gino Renni]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Gino Renni (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5886305|Esmail Shangaleh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Esmaeil Shengeleh 3476646.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5888565|Guillermo Galeote Jiménez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5896244|Hernán Pinto]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Hernán Pinto (2009) 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5902375|Horacio González]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Horacio gonzález.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5904665|Hugo Stuven Cangas de Onís]]'' | | [[اسپين]]<br/>[[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Hugostuven2012.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5906851|Abbas Saffari]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:عباس صفاری.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5908946|Hossam Mohammed Amin]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5918706|Houshang Seddigh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Houshang Seddigh-Official photo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5922098|Howie Pyro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5922865|Israel Beltrán Montes]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5930117|Jesús Fichamba]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | [[فائل:Jesús Fichamba.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5932104|Hugh Newell Jacobsen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Hugh Newell Jacobsen.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5937444|Gunnar Larsson]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5938530|Changiz Jalilvand]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Changiz Jalilvand 13920408.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5939731|José Folgado]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:José Folgado 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5939778|José Francisco Gallardo Rodríguez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5940793|José Joaquín Puig de la Bellacasa]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5941462|Siamak Atlasi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Siamak Atlasi (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5942704|José María Calleja]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Presentación del libro ‘Cómo informar sobre violencia machista’.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5943690|Parviz PoorHosseini]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:1828481-parviz pour hoseini.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5945510|Badr al-Zaman Gharib]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Badrzaman Gharib 139610041445358512884434.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[فاطما رهبر]] | | ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Fatemeh Rahbar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5950619|Kambiz Derambakhsh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:کامبیز درمبخش - Kambiz Derambakhsh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q5955737|Hassan Zare Dehnavi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5966302|Mats Lundegård]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5971996|Lazarus Takawira]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5973562|Stig Malm]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5976814|Sigvard Marjasin]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5979729|Roger Matthews]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5997337|Ildegarda Taffra]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q5999378|Marissa Garrido]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Marisa Garrido 2011 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6001514|Ilya Shtemler]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6009560|Allan Nilsson]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6019655|Olle Nygren]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Olle Nygren.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6026759|Ayla Karaca]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6027175|Indu Jain]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Indu-jain.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6042168|İrfan Gürpınar]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6044824|Norberto Oyarbide]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Norberto Oyarbide.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6051778|Yılmaz Atadeniz]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6055650|Ayten Erman]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6059131|Tuncay Mataracı]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6063093|Haydar Dümen]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6065858|Ülkü Azrak]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6068274|Pedro Bastidas]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:Pedro Bastidas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6070306|Iris M. Zavala]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Iris Zavala.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6073889|Luran Ahmeti]]'' | | [[اتر مقدونيا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6074227|Irvin Baxter Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6089269|Aytaç Yalman]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6096528|Iván Izquierdo]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]]<br/>[[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:IvanIzquierdo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6097742|Rafael Navarro González]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6097749|Burhanettin Uysal]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6104592|J. Anbazhagan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6105727|René Juárez Cisneros]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Rene Juarez Cisneros 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6117269|Jackson Mthembu]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6120010|Sandro Cohen]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6120818|Jacques Puisais]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6120996|Santiago Manuin Valera]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Santiago Manuín Valera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6122347|Jagdish Singh Rana]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6140367|Yukio Okamoto]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | [[فائل:Yukio Okamoto 2002.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6148664|Tomás Vidiella]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Tomás Vidiella 2000.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6150166|Jan Waszkiewicz]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6165767|Víctor Valencia de los Santos]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Victorvalenciadelossantos.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6166387|Jay Benedict]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6166776|Jay Johnstone]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jay Johnstone Dodgers.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6169679|Jean-Michel Bokamba-Yangouma]]'' | | [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6182507|Jerold Ottley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6183301|Jerry Brandt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6195534|Jim Henderson]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6197321|Jim Pace]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6210297|Joe Hernandez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6214060|Thorleif Torstensson]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6220532|John Bangsund]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6240700|Kay Wiestål]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Kay Wiestål, IFK Holmsund 1960 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6243015|John Keston]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6244212|John Laws]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Lord Justice Laws 2012.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6246730|Jhon Mario Ramírez]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6248589|John Meyer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6251147|John Ogilvie]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6267108|Johnny Leeze]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6268369|Johnson Mlambo]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6278435|Jorge Oñate]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jorge Oñate.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6285854|Joseph Nyagah]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6293085|José Maranhão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:José Maranhão.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6297452|Joyce Davidson]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6300926|Juan Roldán]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Juan Domingo Roldán.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6324079|K. T. Oslin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:K.T. Oslin 1987 Promo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6324114|K. Thangavel]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6344324|Kabori Sarwar]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Sarah Begum Kabori Receives Lifetime Achievement Award National Film Awards Dhaka 2015-04-04 (PID-0060031) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6356800|Kamen Tchanev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Kamen Chanev.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6373666|Karuna Shukla]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6388519|Ken Snow]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6389975|Kenneth Church]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6390090|Ken Farnum]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6396195|Kevin Duffy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Kevin Duffy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6408465|Kim Chernin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Kimchernin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6414812|Kiran Maheshwari]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6416282|Kirunda Kivejinja]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6416528|Kishan Rungta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6419024|Kiyoko Ono]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''<br/>[[جاپان]] | | | [[فائل:Kiyoko Ono 1964d.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6444091|Kumutha Rahman]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6445132|Kunwar Bechain]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Dr Kunwar Bechain.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6455079|Kōbō Kenichi]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6474309|Lajim Ukin]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6480359|Lalit Behl]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6480683|Lam Quang Thi]]'' | | [[ويٽنام]] | | | [[فائل:General Lâm Quang Thi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6490204|Larry Dixon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6491294|Larry Willoughby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6517024|Lefteris Hapsiadis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:LefterisHapsiadisNew.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6520721|Leland Christensen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6524568|Leon Claire Metz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6550228|Linah Mohohlo]]'' | | [[بوٽسوانا]] | | | [[فائل:Linah Mohohlo - Closing Plenary- Africa's Next Chapter - World Economic Forum on Africa 2011 crop.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6552990|Lindy McDaniel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lindy McDaniel Yankees.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6555796|Hashem Bathaie Golpayegani]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Hashem Bathaie Golpayegani 2160728.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6557470|Rahnaward Zaryab]]'' | | [[افغانستان]] | | | [[فائل:Rahnaward Zaryab (2016, cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6587520|Yitzchok Scheiner]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:הרב יצחק שיינר.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6711768|Lệ Thu]]'' | | [[ويٽنام]] | | | [[فائل:Lệ Thu.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6733203|Maharaj Krishan Kaushik]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6733563|Mahaveer Bhagora]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6733859|Mahesh Kumar Kanodia]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6752754|Manuel Morato]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6756606|Marcelo Peralta]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6757838|Marcos Cruz Molina]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6762954|Hassan Abdullah al-Sharafi]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | [[فائل:الشاعر حسن عبدالله الشرفي- من اليمن.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6766164|Marjan Lazovski]]'' | | [[اتر مقدونيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6769832|Mark Steiner]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6771327|Shamsur Rahman Faruqi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Shamsur Rahman Farooqi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6776522|Martin Sandoval]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6778086|Marv Luster]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Marv Luster - Southern Campus 1960.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6781944|María Colombo de Acevedo]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:María Colombo de Acevedo - Diputados.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6791209|Matthew Seligman]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Matthew Seligman, Alexandra Arms, Cambridge, UK (April 2018).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6814633|Abdul Hadi Majali]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6817775|Meor Aziddin Yusof]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6830619|Michael Gilkes]]'' | | [[گيانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6831484|David Refael ben Ami]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:דדי בן עמי 1.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6832740|Michael McKinnell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6834517|Michael Sorkin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Michael Sorkin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6835123|Elias Rahbani]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:Elias Rahbani.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6844641|Miguel Lifschitz]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Miguel Lifschitz en conferencia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6845046|Mihai Cotorobai]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6851247|Milena Jelinek]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Milena Jelinek on Cinema Then, Cinema Now (1986).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6853968|Muhammad Tariq Al-Khadra]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6885751|Mluleki George]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6893246|Mohammed Nasim]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:Mohammed Nasim in New Delhi on April 13, 2016.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6893292|Mohammed Sabila]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6909686|Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6917707|Motilal Vora]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Motilal Vora.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6939760|Murtoza Bashir]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Mortaza Bashir.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6944629|Mwalimu Masudi Mwahima]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6947701|Itzhak Ilan]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:יצחק אילן.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6957551|Nader Dastneshan]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Nader Dastneshan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6963057|Nancy Walker Bush]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6963293|Nandi Yellaiah]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6965785|Narendra Kohli]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Narendra Kohli (Dec. 2008).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q6965830|Naresh Kanodia]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6980389|Natty Hollmann]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q6986729|Neela Satyanarayanan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7000421|Omar Pirrera]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Omar-Maria.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7035671|Nikola Spasov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Nikola spasov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7044225|Itzhak Jacky Edry]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:גקי אדרי.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7045291|Noach Dear]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7046976|Noel Guzmán Boffil Rojas]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | [[فائل:Noel Guzmán Boffil Rojas.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7063903|Noureddine Saâdi]]'' | | [[الجزائر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7070307|Nurul Islam Babul]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:Nurul Islam Babul, Jamuna Group.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7085856|Olle Holmquist]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7106297|Oscar W. McConkie, Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7121484|Paatje Phefferkorn]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Paatje Phefferkorn.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7143415|Pat Dye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Pat Dye on His Homestead Before Christmas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7151698|Paul Karslake]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7154144|Paul Varelans]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7155119|Paulinho Paiakan]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7167845|Perence Shiri]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7173124|Peter C. Clapman]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7173657|Peter DiFronzo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:DiFronzo Pete.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7173914|Peter F. Secchia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Peter F. Secchia & Gerald Ford.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7174885|Peter J. N. Sinclair]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7174966|Peter Jenkins]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7177692|Peter Whiteside]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7181551|Phi Nhung]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ويٽنام]] | | | [[فائل:Phi Nhung (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7182506|Phil Valentine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Phil Valentine in 2019.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7184198|Philip Paul]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Philip Paul at The Cincinnatian Hotel in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7184510|Philip Voss]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7193787|Pilar Pellicer]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Pilar Pellicer in the 1960s (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7225858|Pollycarpus Priyanto]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7228895|Poovachal Khader]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Poovachal-Khader.jpg.image.845.440.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7262061|Kakhi Kavsadze]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[جارجيا]] | | | [[فائل:Kakhi Kavsadze in R. Harwood's "Quartet" 2003.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7277337|Aleksandr Dubyansky]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Dubyansky1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7279488|Rachhpal Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7282307|Rafael Roncagliolo]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Rafael roncagliolo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7283319|Rahat Indori]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Rahat Saab At Ahmedabad.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7287844|Ralph McGehee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7292463|Randy Tate]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Randy Tate Mets.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7294844|Rasheed Masood]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7295860|Ratnakar Matkari]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:A still of Shri Ratnakar Ramakrishna Matkari Rest.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7302790|Abdul Ghani Gilong]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7322819|Ricardo Silva Elizondo]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Ricardo Silva en 2014.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7324359|Richard L. Brodsky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7325646|Richard Fenno]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7331216|Rick Baldwin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Rick Baldwin 1978.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7333210|Rifat Chadirji]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | [[فائل:Rifaat-jaderji.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7347307|Robert Mandell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Mandell American Conductor.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7352565|Robin Jackman]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7364094|Ron Lurie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7369214|Ross Browner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7373072|Roy Lester]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Roy Lester 1969.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7373430|Roy Torrens]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7395978|Sabbam Hari]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7399497|Sahara Khatun]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Ms. Sahara Khatun in New Delhi on 24 February 2012.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7403307|Sal Rocca]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Sal Rocca.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7404974|Salleh Abas]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7406368|Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7407423|Sam Domoni]]'' | | [[فجي]] | | | [[فائل:PNC2010 (40).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7408775|Samar Banerjee]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Samar Badru Banerjee.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7423706|Sardar Muhammad Aslam]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7423826|Sardool Sikander]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7426286|Satish Kaul]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7426298|Satish Prasad Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7438419|Siti Sarah]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7442806|Sebouh Chouldjian]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | [[فائل:BishopSebouh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7446652|Seif Sharif Hamad]]'' | | [[تنزانيا]] | | | [[فائل:Seif Sharif Hamad.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7461426|Shahadat Hossain Khan]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7462294|Shahrum Kashani]]'' | | [[ايران]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Shahrum Kashani.webp|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7488743|Shankha Ghosh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Sankha Ghosh - Kolkata 2011-05-09 2833.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7505951|Shyama Charan Gupta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7508832|Sidik Mia]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | [[فائل:Sidik Mia 2010 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7518233|Simon Barrington-Ward]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Simon Barrington-Ward 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7557756|Soli Sorabjee]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Soli Sorabjee lecture (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7562042|Sonny Fox]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Sonny-fox.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7599168|Stanisław Kogut]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Stanisław Kogut Kancelaria Senatu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7609172|Stephen F. Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Stephen Fain Williams.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7612166|Steve Carter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7612907|Steve Ingle]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7613158|Steve Lightle]]'' | | | | | |- | [[اسٽيو ولھائيٽ]] | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7635072|Sugathakumari]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Sugathakumari.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7635151|Sugrib Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7635912|Sukumar Hansda]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7645674|Surendra Prakash Goyal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7645718|Suresh Angadi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Ambigara chouwdayya jayanti procession mp suresh angadi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | [[سید منور حسن]] | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7660970|Sylvia Murphy]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7666107|Sérgio Sant'Anna]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Feira de Frankfurt 2013 (10276676994).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7679487|Talib Jauhari]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7804179|Tim Robinson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Tim Robinson photo by John Drever.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7814981|Tom Blackwell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7816000|Tom Green]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7816917|Tom Moody]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7822149|Tony Curcillo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Football player Tony Curcillo, no. 99 Le joueur de football Tony Curcillo, no 99.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7822625|Tony Ingle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7824296|Tootie Robbins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7827796|Toshiro Kandagawa]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | [[فائل:Toshiro Kandagawa famous Japanese Cook 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7916745|Vasilis Botinos]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7924918|Vic Stelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Vic Stelly (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7931761|Vincent Di Maio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7932723|Vinod Dua]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Vinod Dua.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7938377|Vladimir Ivanov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q7945731|W. J. M. Lokubandara]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | [[فائل:WJM Lokubandara.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7966917|Wambali Mkandawire]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | [[فائل:Wambali Mkandawire in 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q7970391|Warren Mitchell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Warren Mitchell basketball.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8003575|Willem Konjore]]'' | | [[نميبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q8009341|William Frankland]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Dr Bill Frankland.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8018795|William Stern]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q8040173|Wynn Handman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Wynn Handman Studio photo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8046301|Yaakov Perlow]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:הרב מנובומינסק.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8053832|Yisa Sofoluwe]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q8059945|Yu Lihua]]'' | | [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]<br/>[[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q8061948|Yusuf Grillo]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | [[فائل:Yusuf Grillo, 'Yoruba Bride'.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8066134|Zanele kaMagwaza-Msibi]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Zanele KaMagwaza Msibi (NFP President).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8201895|Antonio Álvarez Solís]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Antonio Alvarez Solis 2012an.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q8353446|Daisy Lúcidi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Daisy Lucidi cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9012220|Joaquín Carbonell]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Joaquín Carbonell cantando en el acto de recogida medalla de oro de los amantes CITT Teruel 2020 -primer plano (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9012935|Jorge Trías Sagnier]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9015433|Juan Cotino]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Juan Cotino.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9025128|Luis Ibero]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9026939|Maguito Vilela]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:ELEIÇÕES- MAGUITO VILELA FALA SOBRE PLANO DE GOVERNO.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9055167|Papaléo Paes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Papaléo Paes em 2015.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9066796|Raymundo Capetilo]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Raymundo Capetillo (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9139800|Adam Kopczyński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9147802|Alfred Rzegocki]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9152862|Andrzej Maryniarczyk]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9179979|Bronisława Kowalska]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Bronisława Kowalska w swoim biurze poselskim 1997.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9200218|Célio Taveira Filho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9202000|Dariusz Gnatowski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Dariusz Gnatowski 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9250881|Edward Gnat]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9319012|Yaghoub Zoroofchi]]'' | | [[ايران]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9324836|Ryszard Miazek]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9341835|Stanisław Dulias]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9375799|Witold Paszt]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Witold paszt.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9376370|Wojciech Borowik]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9388447|Zbigniew Zysk]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9621049|Antônio Bivar]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9630040|Arolde de Oliveira]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Arolde de Oliveira em abril de 2016.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q9631197|Artenir Werner]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9674168|Calane da Silva]]'' | | [[موزمبيق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9697014|Carlos Eduardo Cadoca]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q9697147|Carlos José Ramos dos Santos]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10263911|Daniel Azulay]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Lançamento da cartilha do artista Daniel Azulay “Juntos, dizemos não ao crack e outras drogas”.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10267669|Djalma Bastos de Morais]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Placa Correio (Altos).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10270686|Eduardo Galvão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Eduardo Galvão cropped.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10278098|Euclides Scalco]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Aécio Neves - Caminhada em Curitiba - 02 08 2014 (14625368348).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10278404|Evaldo Gouveia]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:00 evaldo gouvea bsb.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10280059|Farid Abrahão David]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Neguinho da Beija-Flor and Farid Abrahão David.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10285766|Frederico Campos]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Frederico Campos.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10286851|Fábio Campana]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10287856|Gabriel Donato de Andrade]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10289133|Gerardo Juraci Campelo Leite]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10293304|Gésio Amadeu]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10293637|Hamilton Carvalhido]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Hamilton carvalhido.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10293964|Haroldo Lima]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Haroldo Lima ANP.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10294485|Helenês Cândido]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Crédito Obrigatório-Carlos Costa da ALEGO.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10294895|Henrique do Rego Almeida]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10303554|Irani Barbosa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Iranibarbosa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10304355|Ivair Nogueira do Pinho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10306865|Jesús Martín-Barbero]]'' | | [[اسپين]]<br/>[[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jesús Martín Barbero & Manuel Ángel Vázquez Medel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10306940|Jimy Raw]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10308683|José Adauto Bezerra]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Adauto Bezerra.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10310137|José Mentor]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Mentor141122.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10310270|José Paulo de Andrade]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10312042|João Peixoto]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Dom João Câncio Peixoto.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10320776|Luiz Humberto Carneiro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10321916|Irmão Lázaro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Cantor evangélico Lazáro.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10321989|Líber Gadelha]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10325015|Marcelino da Mata]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | [[فائل:Marcelino da Mata.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10325178|Marcelo Veiga]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Marcelo Veiga (2019).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10326164|Maria de Sousa]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | [[فائل:Maria de Sousa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10326942|Martinho Lutero Galati]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Luther kingw.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10336064|Nelson Bornier]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Nelson Bornier 2016.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10336108|Nelson Proença]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10336785|Nicolau dos Santos Neto]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10340557|Olga Savary]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10341534|Orlando Duarte]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10346369|Paulinho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Paulinho.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10346618|Paulo Gustavo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Paulo Gustavo em novembro de 2019 no Humor Multishow (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10346700|Paulo Medina]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:João Paulo Medina, presidente do conselho e fundador da Universidade do Futebol.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10346832|Paulo Stein]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10347522|Pedro Ivo Ferreira Caminhas]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10349697|Pietro Mário]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10358966|Reinaldo Rayol]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10359396|Renato de Jesus]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10361058|Ricardo Akinobu Yamauti]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10361074|Ricardo Archer]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10363213|Robert de Almendra Freitas]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10363935|Rodrigo Rodrigues]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10364607|Roseli Machado]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10365459|Ruy Scarpino]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10370805|Severiano Mário Porto]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10371761|Simão Sessim]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Simão Sessim em novembro de 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10390246|Vicente Fialho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10393782|Wilson Braga]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10395021|Zenóbio Toscano]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10515493|Ian Palmer]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10554334|John Rowlands]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10857537|Zdeněk Hoření]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Horení foto z pohrbu (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10920570|Zhou Qingjun]]'' | | [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]<br/>[[چين]]<br/>[[تائيوان]] | | | [[فائل:周慶峻.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10951750|Sunnam Rajaiah]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q10964510|Myoma Myint Kywe]]'' | | [[ميانمار]] | | | [[فائل:Myoma Myint Kywe.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q10999909|Dalal Abdel Aziz]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11101097|Yang Xiaobo]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11154007|Ragaa Al Geddawy]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:Ragaa El Geddawy 1960s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11299490|Gurbanmuhammet Kasymow]]'' | | [[ترڪمانستان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11417946|Shū Wada]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11423265|Takashi Tsuchiya]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11437791|Fujio Ōmaki]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11451301|Sanechika Andō]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11460203|Hideo Kojima]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11467981|Tsutomu Yamazaki]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | [[فائل:Yamazaki Tsutomu (Parliamentary Secretary).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11473366|Kumiko Okae]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11605203|Yukio Beniyama]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11632964|Tomoichi Tanimura]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11685350|Alfred Kucharczyk]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11685938|Andrzej Koprowski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Andrzej Koprowski SJ.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11686026|Andrzej Owczarek]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Andrzej Owczarek 2015.08.24.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11699820|Gildardo García]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Gildardo Garcia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11720447|Janusz Sanocki]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Janusz Sanocki Sejm 2016.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11724981|Jerzy Limon]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jerzy Limon.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11765368|Maciej Grubski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Maciej Grubski VII kadencja Kancelaria Senatu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11779890|Mieczysław Morański]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11865551|Jaakko Syrjä]]'' | | [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jaakko Syrjä (1958) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11912441|Carles Trullols i Clemente]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11915238|Vlastimil Marek]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | [[فائل:AutoportretWiki.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11928824|Josep Mussons i Mata]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:JosepMussons.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q11952113|Toni Coromina]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q11954665|Vicenç Capdevila]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12017014|František Filip]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12017274|František Lízna]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | [[فائل:Frantisek Lizna 2009.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12022755|Jan Křen]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jan-Křen-(2014).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12023229|Jan Vodňanský]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Vodnansky 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12023238|Jan Vrba]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12023387|Jana Andresíková]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12024163|Jaroslav Šaroun]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12026421|Josef Nekl]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12032649|Ladislav Štaidl]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | [[فائل:L.Štaidl.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12036766|Michal Mejstřík]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | [[فائل:Michal Mejstřík (1952-2021).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12036789|Michal Polák]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Brno, Šelepka, Synkopy 61 (02).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12040463|Naďa Urbánková]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Nada Urbankova 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12044941|Petr Kužel]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12073214|Vladislav Yegin]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12098532|Vitaliy Hurnak]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12104430|Viktor Zhenchenko]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Viktor Zhenchenko.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12111312|Oleksandr Kozarenko]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Oleksandr Kozarenko in Krushelnytska museum 02.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12118151|Timur Litovchenko]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Forum vydavtsiv 2017.235.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12120757|Vitalii Malakhov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Віталій Малахов.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12122416|Anatolii Melnyk]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12124173|Anatolii Mokrousov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:НДУ 4 Мокроусов Анатолій Олексійович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12130376|Mykola Moshyk]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12140136|Mykola Petrenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12146863|Vasyl Raichynets]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Райчинець В.Ф..jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12153381|Ihor Skochylias]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12165467|Vasyl Fedoryuk]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12178780|Ahmed bin Yahya Al-Bahkali]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12178851|Ahmed Khalil]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:Ahmed Khalil 1.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12199735|Bahjat Suleiman]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | [[فائل:السفير د- بهجت سليمان في مكتبه 2013-10-25 23-05.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12205315|جريس سماوي]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12205653|Galal El-Sharkawy]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12205887|Jamal Salameh]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12208000|Hassan Alwan]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12211513|Dakhil Allah bin Shilwan]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12215887|Saad Al Tmami]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12216684|Souleymen Bakhelili]]'' | | [[الجزائر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12217290|Sawsan Rabie]]'' | | [[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12218187|Shākir ʻAbd al-Ḥamīd]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12219578|Saleh al-Shehi]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12219707|Sabah Abdul-Jalil]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12220206|Salah Abdel-Fattah Al-Khalidi]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | [[فائل:صورة شخصية صلاح عبد الفتاح الخالدي.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12222428|ʻAbbas Tarabili]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12222559|عبد الحكيم الطاهر]]'' | | [[سوڊان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12223917|Abdul Wahab Al-Dailami]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12224294|Abeer Al Khader]]'' | | [[ڪويت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12224793|Eizzaldin al-Manasrah]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | [[فائل:عز الدين المناصرة.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12228063|Ali Hasan al-Halabi]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12240387|Muhammad Hasan al-Amin]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:Mhmdhassanamine02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12240900|Mohammed Atassi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12241232|Mahmoud Khedri]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12242111|مرزوق سعيد]]'' | | [[ڪويت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12243038|Mashari Al-Ballam]]'' | | [[ڪويت]] | | | [[فائل:Mashari Al-Ballam.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12247638|Nadia Al-Iraqia]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12249124|Noureddine Saïl]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | [[فائل:Noureddine Saïl, Al Jasra Cultural and Social Club - Apr 10, 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12249589|Hady El Gayar]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:هادي الجيار - مسلسل شطرنج.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12250383|Wael el-Ebrashy]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:Wael El-Ebrashy.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12252122|Youssef Chaban]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12276288|Georgi Belev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12276521|Georgi Koritarov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Georgi koritarov.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12282041|Ioannis Tassias]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:Metropolitan Bishop of Lagada Ioannis.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12293596|Seraphim Papakostas]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:Serafeim Papakostas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12297558|Fidel Beev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Fidel Beev (40NS).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12344974|Anatoly Goncharov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Анатолий Гончаров.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12355047|Sen Rodin]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12383193|Araceli Herrero Figueroa]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Araceli Herrero Figueroa (AELG)-3.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12447464|Mridula Sinha]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Governor Mridula Sinha.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12470547|Abdul Gafur]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Abdul Gafur, The DPR-RI Stance on the Reform Process and the Resignation of President Soeharto, p39.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12472162|Anicetus Bongsu Antonius Sinaga]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Mgr Anicetus Bongsu Antonius Sinaga.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12472429|Aria Baron]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12480859|Dani Anwar]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Dani Anwar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12487277|Jane Shalimar]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jane Shalimar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12496129|Mahyuddin N.S]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Vice Governor of South Sumatra Mahyuddin NS.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12499829|Naek Lumban Tobing]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12507600|Rachmawati Sukarnoputri]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Rachmawati Soekarnoputri, 2020.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12508669|Rina Gunawan]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12511451|Saefullah]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Saefullah as the Administrative Mayor of Central Jakarta.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12512106|Santosa Doellah]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12515951|Soraya Abdullah]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12520062|Tasiman]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bupati Pati 2001 - 2011 H. Tasiman SH.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12572362|Gaziza Abdinabiyeva]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12636953|Milka Babović]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15102440|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]''<br/>[[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[ڪروشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Milka Babović 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12647422|Albinas Stankus]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Albinas Stankus.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12687567|Harussani Zakaria]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12720803|Anton Gămurari]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12722975|Bruce Williamson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12723353|Camil Marinescu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12725593|Constantin Simirad]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12736493|Nelu Ploieșteanu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12737850|Petrică Mîțu Stoian]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Petrică Mâțu Stoian.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12746078|Miloš Šobajić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Miloš Šobajić.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12748222|Sanja Ilic]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Aleksandar Sanja Ilić.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12755511|Miodrag Lazić]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Mural dedicated to dr Lazić in Inđija.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12755659|Mićo Mićić]]'' | | [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Mićo Mićić (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12803861|Tadej Hrušovar]]'' | | [[سلووينیا]] | | | [[فائل:Tadej Hrušovar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12808962|Burhan Kuzu]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Burhankuzu.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12835999|Arif Ali Guliyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12840776|Kamil Ibrahimov]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12842530|Məcnun Hacıbəyov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12844831|Rafael Cəbrayılov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12845273|Rasmi Dzhabrailov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12846537|Teymur Əhmədov]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12848564|Çingiz Briya]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12850214|Amiraslan xan Avsar]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12861745|Anzor Erkomaishvili]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Anzor Erkomaishvili 2025 stamp of Georgia.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12875379|Giorgos Tragas]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12877939|Theodoros Katsanevas]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12880973|Metropolitan Aetolia και Acarnania Cosmas]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:Μακαριστός Μητροπολίτης Αιτωλίας και Ακαρνανίας Κοσμάς.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12906548|Zafir Hadžimanov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12906617|Zoran Dzhorlev]]'' | | [[اتر مقدونيا]] | | | [[فائل:С.Спасовска и З.Џорлев во вториот блок на концертот.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q12960757|Đurđa Ivezić]]'' | | [[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q153128|Independent State of Croatia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12963488|Douglas Cagas]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q12969927|Reynaldo Umali]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13024946|Sergio Víctor Palma]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Elgrafico 3314 palma duran.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13028014|Ivan Pratasenya]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13028248|Aleh Makušnikaŭ]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13050762|Aharon Adibekjan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13054711|Sergo Karapetyan]]'' | | [[آرمينيا]] | | | [[فائل:Sergo-Karapetyan-Armenia-Minister.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13055374|Ranjit Sinha]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13057474|Kamal Lohani]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Kamal Lohani.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13058789|Badar Uddin Ahmed Kamran]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13059317|Mahbubey Alam]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:Mahbube alam 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13071314|Min Yu Wai]]'' | | [[ميانمار]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13110295|Alleppey Ranganath]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Alleppey ranganath DSC 0671.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13112872|Narayan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Narayan DSW.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13159219|Chennaveera Kanavi]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Dr Chennaveera Kanavi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13207856|Fäyrüzä Möslimevä]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13512620|Hamish Wilson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q13560249|Lucille Times]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lucille Times & Historical Marker.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13570123|Lalli Partinen]]'' | | [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Lalli-Partinen-1965.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q13742419|Kees Bakker]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q14492130|Leo Goodman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q14857056|Wout Holverda]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Wout Holverda (1984).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q14949590|Augustine Mahiga]]'' | | [[تنزانيا]] | | | [[فائل:Augustine Mahiga (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q14950917|Jim Fraser]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jim Fraser - Germantown Academy 1954.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q14981932|Patrick Hanks]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15077049|Sergej Sokolkin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15077313|Blas Camacho Zancada]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15131268|Michel Tibon-Cornillot]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15141208|Marco Ferrari]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:MarcoVirgilioFerrari.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15260378|Carlos Casamiquela]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Casamiquela.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15379160|Beatriz Yamamoto Cázarez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15429090|Joel Shatzky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15442290|Joel J. Kupperman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15443253|Swapan Kumar Chakravorty]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Swapan Kumar Chakravorty - Kolkata 2011-08-02 4503.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15445520|Judy Irola]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15455926|Manuel Juárez]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Manolo Juárez at Biblioteca Nacional 2014 (15701603999).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15485954|Nicholas Rinaldi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15531146|Roza Sabiryankyzy Akkuchukova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15618745|Manglesh Dabral]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Manglesh Dabral. Dec 1993. New Delhi. By Amarjit Chandan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15636630|Marek Pivovar]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Marek Pivovar 2015.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15711854|Jan Veentjer]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:HockeyNL-HDM1963.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15723603|Ajit Das]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15723647|Amarendra Mohanty]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Amarendra Mohanty Odia Film Music Director.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15724226|Tapu Mishra]]'' | | [[اوڙيسا|اوڙيسيا]] | | | [[فائل:Tapu Mishra Bengaluru Odia Ganesa Puja1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15725319|Shantiraj Khosla]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15730390|Kamal Rani]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15731459|Turi Simeti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Turi Simeti.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15819842|Ibrahim Mbombo Njoya]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | [[فائل:Ibrahim Mbombo Njoya KdfsultanIb.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15835700|Moses Hamungole]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15876044|Jarmila Rýznarová]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15883033|Yauhien Anischanka]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15896972|Ho Chau-chu]]'' | | [[تائيوان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15921673|Franz Marx]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q15942109|Eugenio Minasso]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Eugenio Minasso.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15943581|Bartolomeo Pepe]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Bartolomeo Pepe datisenato 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q15994807|Michael Wakelam]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16046136|Houshang Mansourkhaki]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16052047|Karim Akbari Mobarakeh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Karim akbari mobarake 02.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16052285|Mohammad Mirmohammadi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Seyyed Mohammad Mirmohammadi 2018-06-23.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16053060|Hossein Sheikholeslam]]'' | | [[ايران]]<br/>''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]'' | | | [[فائل:Hossein Sheikholeslam.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16090540|M. Narasimham]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16091761|Aurora Cornu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16093542|Anthony Bailey]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:AnthonyBailey.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16093633|Stanley Chera]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16104508|Janos Mohoss]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16104930|Shyam Bihari Misra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16104964|Renzo Gattegna]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16105298|Roger Chappot]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16105431|Basil Pesambili Mramba]]'' | | [[تنزانيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16105794|Stephen Susman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16105925|Robert H. Garff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16106394|John Palmer]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16106734|Aubrey Mokoape]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16116741|Željko Mavrović]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | | | [[فائل:Zeljko Mavrovic Sarastro.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16117386|David Shepard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:David Shepard (13860572183) (1).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16118380|Abdelkader Jerbi]]'' | | [[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16119295|Ahmed Halawa]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:أحمد حلاوة.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16121789|Mahmoud El Idrissi]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16123725|Kamal Amer]]'' | | [[مصر]]<br/>''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16124469|Marwan Mahfouz]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:Marouan Mahfouz, Damascus Opera House - Aug 13, 2020.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16124968|Saleh Abdullah Ali Al-Sanabani]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16128982|Oleg Zalotnev]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16138667|Thanwa Raseetanu]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16138911|Somsak Jaikaew]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16143657|Agnaldo Timóteo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Agnaldo Timóteo (8488377495).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16144880|Abdul Hamid Sebba]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16145812|Ferenc Tóth]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16151657|Nand Kumar Singh Chauhan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16151874|Benny Napoleon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Benny Napoleon.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16162589|Mohamed Nejib Berriche]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16166855|Yaakov Schwei]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16184437|Jeanne PMR Winaktu]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16185240|Miša Aleksić]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[سربيا]] | | | [[فائل:Misa Aleksic 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16191015|Isidro Pedraza Chávez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16195218|Olan Montgomery]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16197612|Gerry Cottle]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16200336|Eve Branson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Eve Branson.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16202862|Lance Carson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16204248|José Alberto Ciurana]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16205288|David Cook]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16207131|Little Walter DeVenne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Little Walter Devenne.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16215977|Lee Nurse]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16263095|André Manaranche]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16269511|Howard Schoenfield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16297882|Heikki Aarva]]'' | | [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16301834|Eugenio Rojas Apaza]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | [[فائل:Eugenio Rojas Apaza en 2019.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16307459|Boonruen Choonhavan]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1081620|Siam]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16327525|Dimitris Talaganis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16328064|Sakēs Totlēs]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16336402|Almeida Henriques]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16336608|André Zacharow]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16336792|Arnaldo Faria de Sá]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Arnaldo Faria de Sá ABr.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16336946|Bonifácio José Tamm de Andrada]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Deputado Federal Bonifácio Andrada.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16337113|Cecília Guimarães]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16337360|Domingos de Freitas Diniz Neto]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16337378|Dulce Nunes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16337681|José de Oliveira Fernandes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Museu da Cidade de Manaus - 15.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16337792|Lúcia Braga]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Plenário do Congresso (39777958125).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16337889|Maria José Valério]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | [[فائل:Maria José Valério, 1968 (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16366590|Elbrus Abbasov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16371865|Nizameddin Quliyev]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16376838|Zöhrab Alıyev]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16377555|Ingilab Nasirov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16382689|Leon Adyan]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16466511|Laxman Giluwa]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16485758|Antonio González Pacheco]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16490286|Carlos Holmes Trujillo]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Holmes Trujillo.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16493623|Aritana Yawalapiti]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16494414|Artur Portela Filho]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16498472|Kerstin Behrendtz]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16518797|Sabina de la Cruz]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Sabina de la Cruz.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16526878|André Osi]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:Andre Osi 20100207 Bagnols-sur-Ceze 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16530501|Aslanbek Fidarov]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16534529|Aron Atabek]]'' | | [[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Aron Atabek imprisoned poet Kazakhstan Astana 2012.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16538862|Danil Khalimov]]'' | | [[قازقستان|قازڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16559534|Giorgio Gatti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16562408|Guido Stagnaro]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16595738|Marianne Lundquist]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | [[فائل:Marianne Lundquist SOK.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16624314|Ramón Romero Roa]]'' | | [[پيراگوئي]] | | | [[فائل:RamonRomeroRoa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16625708|Roberto Valcárcel]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | [[فائل:Roberto Valcarcel.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16631776|Vladimir Voronov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Vladimir Voronov i Aleksandr Michkov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16632989|Kjell Grane]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16647536|Arthur Whistler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16656949|Mishik Kazaryan]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Kazaryan Mishik, cutted.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16670158|Pino van Lamsweerde]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Pino van Lamsweerde 3.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16672105|Vladimir Lopukhin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Lopukhin Vladimir.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16701731|Roy Horn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q713750|West Germany]]'' | | | [[فائل:Las Vegas, Nevada's headlining illusionists Siegfried & Roy (Roy Horn cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16727899|Ben Chafin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16728415|Bill C. Davis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16728630|R. Doraikkannu]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16728723|Nasir Durrani]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16729376|Gordon Van Wylen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16729793|Marlene Herrera Díaz]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16729954|Hudeidi]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16730231|Omar Jazouli]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16730710|Brandis Kemp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16732661|José Babel Mireles Valverde]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:José Manuel Mireles Valverde.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16732956|Alia Muhammad Baker]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16744309|Butana Komphela]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16746913|Mykola Myatlitski]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2895|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''<br/>[[بيلاروس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16842006|Corky Lee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Corky Lee at the Chinese American Museum DC in 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16847056|Nick Cordero]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16865759|Enrico Comba]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16885966|Suresh Kumar Srivastava]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16910068|Florentino Domínguez Ordoñez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16910076|Gilberto Ensástiga]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16912496|Philippe Lécrivain]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16939853|Cláudio Petraglia]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16940061|Dinaldo Medeiros Wanderley]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16940336|Nelson Meurer]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:NELSON MEURER.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16940411|José Itamar de Freitas]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16940797|Sérgio Olímpio Gomes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Deputado Major Olimpio no Senado 2 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16977833|Syed Muhammad Fazal Agha]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q16979865|Azmeera Chandulal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Chandulal Ajmeera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16979978|Neil D. Jones]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q756617|Kingdom of Denmark]]''<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Neil D. Jones.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q16999679|Rafel Tur i Costa]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17032692|África Lorente Castillo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Africa Malaga.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17034981|Trần Ngọc Châu]]'' | | [[ويٽنام]]<br/>''[[:d:Q180573|South Vietnam]]'' | | | [[فائل:Dân-biểu đơn-vị Kiến-Hòa Trần Ngọc Châu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17123751|Ismail Bhamjee]]'' | | [[بوٽسوانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17126490|Tullio Abbate]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Tullio Abbate and Ayrton Senna.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17154848|Паращенко Владимир Михайлович]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Паращенко Владимир Михайлович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17198221|Dennis Johnson]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17279336|Robert Martin Gumbura]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17285375|Luigi Reitani]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17305968|Henry Graff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Henry F. Graff.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17322473|Iris Love]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17370650|Jean-Pierre Jossua]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17388929|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]'' | | [[نيپال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17395359|Arianna W. Rosenbluth]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Arianna W Rosenbluth.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17410598|Imam Suroso]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Anggota DPR RI Komisi IX, Imam Suroso.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17410704|Masud Yunus]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wali Kota Mojokerto Mas'ud Yunus.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17411404|Soegiharto]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:KIB Sugiharto.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17453217|Vinicio Bernardini]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Vinicio Bernardini.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17486036|Henri Kichka]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:Henri Kichka au Ciné-Club Educatif et Culturel le 11 mars 2010 à Mons (Crop).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17489803|Nipper Read]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q17505073|Amaranth Ehrenhalt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Étienne Hajdu et Amaranth Ehrenhalt photo Olivier DUMAY.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17505980|Muhammad Amin]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wagub NTB Muhammad Amin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17622463|Miguel Ángel Furones]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Miguel angel furones.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17632923|William Izarra]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:William Izarra.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17661487|Unnikrishnan Namboothiri]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Unnikrishnan Namboothiri.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17746498|Kanybek Isakov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]] | | | [[فائل:Kanybek Abduvasitovich Isakov. 14.05.2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q17859863|Kalsoom Perveen]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18037895|Chrístos Sikánis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18043515|Evgeny Mikrin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18057030|Bennie G. Adkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Medal of Honor (15257829652).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18129450|Daniel Yuste]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18162113|Vekuii Rukoro]]'' | | [[نميبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18209595|Oyewusi Ibidapo Obe]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18217421|Rao Dharampal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18236146|Yulyen Balmusov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18246554|Enio Mainardi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18249366|Theodore Bugas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18249465|Othón Cuevas Córdova]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18275399|Gláucio Ary Dillon Soares]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18280349|Vladimir Shnitke]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18327523|György Snell]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:SnellGyorgyFotoThalerTamas.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18350877|Alberto Amador Leal]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18390781|Roberto Leitão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Roberto Leitão.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18391983|Sekhar Basu]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Sekhar Basu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18405881|Nikiforos]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18421453|Subiakto Tjakrawerdaya]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Subiakto Tjakrawerdaya.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18538499|Adrian Bărar]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Adi Barar (Cargo) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18539289|Cornelia Catangă]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18546585|Hilary S. Chapman]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18549704|Nicolae Sabău]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18618827|Igor Bogdanoff]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Igor Bogdanov.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18618829|Grichka Bogdanoff]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Grichka B, Présentation équipe DMBC, 10 septembre 2016 - 6.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18634038|Anfim (Tudos)]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18649004|Avelino Méndez Rangel]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Avelino Mendez Rangel 1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18683826|Krishan Kumar Aggarwal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18685775|Jim Dornan]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18685824|Ayatullah Durrani]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18687827|Morris Hood III]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18688035|Jitendra Nath Pande]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18738911|Mack Walker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18747673|Reynaldo Salazar]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18750351|Maulana Ameer Zaman]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18750460|Ram Lal Rahi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18752973|Tiit Lilleorg]]'' | | [[اسٽونيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18764064|Martin S. Fox]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18810088|Elidio Espinoza]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Elidio Espinoza Quispe.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q18811939|Terry Doran]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q18921500|Felicia F. Campbell]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19271880|Sami Hasan Al Nash]]'' | | [[يمن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19281555|Manzoor Ahtesham]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19301055|María Araujo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19361829|Giovanni Battista Rabino]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Giovanni Battista Rabino.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19517945|Pir Noor Muhammad Shah Jillani]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19518853|Luis Enrique Mercado]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19547762|Munirathna Anandakrishnan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Anandakrishnan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19547902|கோ. இளவழகன்]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19561531|Nolan Mettetal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19564424|Dietmar Seyferth]]'' | | [[جرمني]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19605243|Ashok Kumar Walia]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19608131|Caio Narcio]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Caio Narcio.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19609869|Chandro Tomar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19611679|Yusuf Kenan Sönmez]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19635577|Dimitris Kremastinos]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:KremastinosDimitris.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19665021|Helen Damico]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19667174|Shingoose]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19667683|Kim H. Veltman]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Kim Veltman at EVA London 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19668626|Rajkumar Keswani]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19710290|José Carlos Schiavinato]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19725072|Dadang Wigiarto]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bupati Situbondo Dadang Wigiarto periode kedua.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19787577|Rubén Anguiano]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19871563|Frank Brew]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19872432|Ken Colvin]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19880661|Miguel Ángel Gutiérrez Machado]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19895787|Brijendra Singh Rathore]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19915711|Abdulmanap Nurmagomedov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Abdulmanap Nurmagomedov in 2021.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q19942870|Dadang Hawari]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19953017|Abd ar-Rahman ibn Khalifa]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q19974584|Lukman Niode]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20004583|Josep Ferrer Peris]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20004758|Josep Sala i Mañé]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Primera actuacio castellers de barcelona.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20016600|Alberto Sonsol]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20045601|Antônio de Jesus Dias]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20048117|José Júlio Venâncio Antunes]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | [[فائل:José Júlio VFXira 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20049141|Mário Coelho]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | [[فائل:Monumento a Mário Coelho, Vila Franca de Xira 03.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20054063|John M. Squire]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20064152|Kuo Nan-hung]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20069206|Vasyl Pisnyi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20090063|Vakha Agaev]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vaha Agaev.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20403285|Tony Moussa]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20418100|Riyāḍ Najīb Al-Rayyis]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20426392|Bens Leo]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20426512|Hilmi Aminuddin]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20479636|Venelin Mitev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20480938|István Kozma]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]<br/>[[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Kozma István NB.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20501917|Avraham Yeshayahu Heber]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:הרב הבר.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20507884|Karen Babayan]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آرمينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20509962|Grigor Brutyan]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آرمينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20513641|Harutyun Topikyan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20525356|Benjamin Tolić]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Benjamin Tolić.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20528490|Tõivo Sarmet]]'' | | [[اسٽونيا]] | | | [[فائل:Toivo sarmet2.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20533125|Dositeo Rodríguez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20559646|A. Yunus Kunju]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:A younus kunju x mla.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20560624|Mehman Aghayev]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20560807|Naini Narshimha Reddy]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Nayini Narsimha Reddy.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20565316|Alasgar Gurbanaliyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20605416|Bakari Mwapachu]]'' | | [[تنزانيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20610736|Tasoltan Mamsurov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20665651|Pydikondala Manikyala Rao]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20670029|Dalenda Abdou]]'' | | [[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20685591|Troy Sneed]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20751292|Mostafa Khorramdel]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:دوستان دکتر خرمدل، کمال مولودپوری و سایر دانشجویان مهاباد.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20856252|Giorgio Mondino]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Giorgio Mondino.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20871871|José Ramón Fernández Gordo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20873631|Kanstancin Sieviaryniec]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20888651|Mikhail Vinogradov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q20891855|Elena Hrenova]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | [[فائل:Elena Hrenova (2015-01-19).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q20985282|Aqel Biltaji]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | [[فائل:Hayder Murad Death anniversary 75 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21002307|Abba Kyari]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21035340|Rick May]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21039937|Anatoli Bondarenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21064276|Gertrude Rwakatare]]'' | | [[تنزانيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21074108|Jaugen Bialassin]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Jaugen Bialassin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21104193|Achyut Madhav Gokhale]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21338525|Pakshirajan Lakshminarasimhan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:6472-Image-32531-1-17-20200727.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21339879|Zlatko Kvaček]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21341636|Nina I. Strelnikova]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21391159|Amnon Freidberg]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:אמנון פרידברג, סירה.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21400588|Hafez Abu Seada]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:HafezAbuSeada.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21405631|Hamid Kahram]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21440948|Jerzy Zacharko]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21463610|Walter Spitzer]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21464665|Philip Morsberger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21467243|David Leverett]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21480753|Juanjo Rocafort]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21513748|Edayathumangalam Kandaswamy Ganesan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21515658|Edman Ayvazyan]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Edman Ayvazyan 1(Cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21572745|Firsat Sofi]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | [[فائل:فرسەت سۆفی.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21597734|Georges Trussart]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21651710|Nomula Narsimhaiah]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21663093|Musa Yerniyazov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21663972|Alexander Vasserman]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21674648|Mohammad Kiavash]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''<br/>[[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:سید محمد علوی تبار.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21682616|కె.కె.రంగనాథాచార్యులు]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21685126|Narendra Kumar Swain]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:NKS2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21747070|Dan Tătaru]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21827250|Sarat Kumar Kar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Sarat Kumar Kar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q21833015|Gaetano Rebecchini]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21933841|Suresh Gore]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q21974445|Charan Ramdas]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22003024|Riyaz Ahmad]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22004843|Nate Hawkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22006946|Mita Haque]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Mita haque cropped from the image of Sheikh Hasina presents Ekushey Padak 2020, Osmani Memorial Auditorium, Dhaka, 2020-02-20 (PID-0034166) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q22087194|Baddegama Samitha Thero]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22095691|Thandika Mkandawire]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22277578|Rajendra Devlekar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22690302|Michel Tabet]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22812069|Θανάσης Αγγέλου]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22921036|Sergio Rossi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q22926728|Cristopher Mansilla]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Cristopher Mansilla (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q22947427|Abdul Hameed Abu Al-Naeem]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23062821|Mahamane Jean Padonou]]'' | | [[نائيجر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23302699|Yosiwo George]]'' | | [[مائڪرونيشيا جون فيڊريٽيڊ اسٽيٽس]] | | | [[فائل:Federated States of Micronesia Opening Ceremony 150622-N-MK341-013 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23304286|P. R. Krishna Kumar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23561648|Bernd Grimmer]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:2015 Bernd Grimmer (Landesparteitag AfD Baden-Württemberg) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23674715|Edward Sienkiewicz]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23753137|Salvador Vives]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23815604|Carol Sutton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23837608|Rubén Tierrablanca González]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23887677|Dhanare Paskal Janya]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23893571|Angelo Perugini]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Perugini.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23908916|K. V. Vijayadas]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:K.V. Vijayadas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23914052|Nelu Bălășoiu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23920645|Ömer Döngeloğlu]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:Ömer Döngeloğlu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23927424|Želimir Altarac Čičak]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Želimir Altarac Čičak .jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q23927812|Claudio Zupo]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q23930665|Daniel-Ștefan Drăgulin]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24009927|Yuri Ponomarev]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Пономарёв Юрий Иванович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24021020|Ion D. Aliman]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24083233|Ionel M. Michiu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24230776|Lyavon Hryshuk]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24248306|Orlando McDaniel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24251127|Joel Otim]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24294484|Ducange Sylvain]]'' | | [[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24351545|Abrek Ayupov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Abrek Ayupov 03.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24431331|Andrzej Jan Noras]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24525349|Vasile Gherasim]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24565738|Joe Hand Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Joe Hand, Sr. at Joe Hand Promotions, Inc. 40th Anniversary Party.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24572394|Appaji M. J.]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24572544|Tanveer Akhtar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24809974|Vladimir Gerdt]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24852023|A. M. M. Safiullah]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q24877346|Jiří Ventruba]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:JiriVentruba.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24940009|Miguel Ángel Troitiño]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Miguel Angel Troitiño.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24941932|Michele Serio]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Michele Serio.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q24949382|Asit Bandopadhyay]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25111059|Anusuya Prasad Maikhuri]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25136946|Kamel Lemoui]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25189922|Colin Jones]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25423626|Ali Soleimani]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Ali Soleimani at the Eighth Ammar Film Festival (01).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25438009|Danilo Pertsov]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Д. Перцов.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25463188|Neta S. Pane]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25463883|Edy Oglek]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25466692|Ade Firman Hakim]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25468009|Frederik Batti Sorring]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Frederik Batti Sorring, Bupati Toraja Utara.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25468371|Nadjmi Adhani]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Nadjmi Adhani, Wali Kota Banjarbaru.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25468378|Sudjati]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Sudjati Bupati Bulungan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25469512|Kuryana Azis]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Drs. H. Kuryana Azis.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25471296|Muharram]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Muharram berau.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25471771|Shazni Munir Mohd Ithnin]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25473657|Irena Alijošiūtė]]'' | | [[لٿوينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25542625|Knyaz Hacıyev]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25588647|P. Gopinathan Nair]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q25640123|Guus Smeets]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Guus Smeets.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q25998965|Marius Dinulescu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26251738|Shamsuzzaman Khan]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Shamsuzzaman Khan - Kolkata 2016-02-02 0543.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q26256181|Sálvio Dino]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26466079|Onkar Nath Srivastava]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26677234|David Stypka]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26856800|Muhammad Hamza]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26923140|Emil J. Freireich Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26924548|Rohit Sardana]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q26971502|Jan Žižka]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27022448|Adlin Mair-Clarke]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27044994|Hooshang Mirzaee]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27062983|Muhammad Mohaiminul Islam]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27063489|MA Hashem]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27063631|B.J. Marsh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27195991|Valeria Gagealov]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | [[فائل:Valeria Gagealov 2014 Romania stamp.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q27207944|Najma Chowdhury]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:Najma Chowdhury speaking.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q27514682|Samuel Wembé]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27525876|Gyula Horvath]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27589327|Pablo Cámbar]]'' | | [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]] | | | [[فائل:Pablo José Cámbar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q27662830|Ann Katharine Mitchell]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27664982|Carlos Falcó, 5th Marquess of Griñón]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Falcó.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q27690287|Ruth Lewis]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27734548|Bill Bullard, Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27804545|Maqbul Ahmed]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27835309|Félix Mendonça]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:BA10200 div Felix Mendonça 2006.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q27862807|Walmir Oliveira da Costa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27950616|Munir Al-Aboushi]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]<br/>[[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q27975003|Alícia Guri i Canivell]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28001421|Jerry Relph]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Minnesota State Senator Jerry Relph.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28007795|Hella Brock]]'' | | [[جرمني]]<br/>''[[:d:Q16957|German Democratic Republic]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28039797|Nicolaie-Sebastian-Valentin Radu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28086077|Kebby Maphatsoe]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28121682|Arpik Hasratyan]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Arpik Asratyan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28122480|Brian Arrowsmith]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28370205|Surendra Singh Jeena]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Jeena Bhaiya.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28370231|Gopal Singh Rawat]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Gopal Singh Rawat.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28403467|Jaybee Sebastian]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28420151|Buruji Kashamu]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | [[فائل:Buruji Kashamu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28485065|Aptripel Tumimomor]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Aptripel Tumimomor.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q28498255|David Brooks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28555913|José Carlos da Silva Júnior]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28664898|Mikhail Plotkin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28708192|Llorenç Cassi i Morató]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28716759|حمد الريح]]'' | | [[سوڊان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28843094|Luís Macedo]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28867793|Jacques Thobie]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28911753|Branislav Blažić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q28962630|Gladys Beckwith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29078601|Nedal Abu Tabaq]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Nedal Abu Tabaq portret 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29079958|Bogusław Cygler]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29358941|Vladimir Zuykov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29370558|Ujwal Thapa]]'' | | [[نيپال]] | | | [[فائل:Ujwal Thapa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29452463|Pradeep Maharathy]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Pradeep Maharathy.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29462882|Alan Abel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Alan Abel of The Philadelphia Orchestra (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29505408|Lew Hill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29525790|Marc Engels]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29527515|Abdul Mahdi Hadi]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29568123|Tohami Khaled]]'' | | [[لبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29639760|Luis Arias Graziani]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29640879|Surat Mathur]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29727768|Francesco Perrone]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Francesco perrone Olimpiadi Roma 1960.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q29887876|Israel Zelitch]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q29944026|Richard Mendani]]'' | | [[پاپوا نيو گني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30081749|Hadi Khosroshahi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:هادي خسروشاهي.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q30231744|Piotr Wowry]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30320385|Walter Robb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30404445|José Évrard]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Saint-Laurent-Blangy - Congrès fondateur des Patriotes le 18 février 2018 (061).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q30687590|Vijay Kumar Kashyap]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Vijay Kashyap BJP Minister.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q30687834|G. P. Venkidu]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:GPV Gobi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q30728097|Yves Vander Cruysen]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30729040|Jean-Marc Manducher]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30789633|Huba Rozsnyai]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30930334|Gil Vianna]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30934103|Ibsen Henrique de Castro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q30935116|Herzem Gusmão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Herzem Gusmão em 23 de julho de 2019 (2).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q31199474|Baldo Podić]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31201089|Subhadra Sen Gupta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31296778|Anvar Nahmadov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31451910|Mukar Cholponbayev]]'' | | [[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31724199|Sadek Bachchu]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31724856|Mirza Mazharul Islam]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q31741007|Pearson Jordan]]'' | | [[بارباڊوس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q32291770|Thomas H. Kunz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q32362040|Olga Domuladzhanova]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q33236658|Jean-Philippe Ruggieri]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q33239234|Fábio Hissa Vieira Hazin]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q34113948|Giovanni Pretorius]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q34970774|Olga Levko]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2895|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q35342309|Tawfiq al-Yasiri]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q36489247|Muhammad Jadam Mangrio]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q36514477|Brian J. Axsmith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q36657949|R.Y. Anderson]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q38002088|Cesare Leonardi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q38583129|N. Appaji Gowda]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q39058126|Anand Mohan Zutshi Gulzar Dehlvi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Gulzar dehlvi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q39070358|Habib ur Rahman]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q40038189|Naoteru Nabeshima]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q40232921|Hasna Begum]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Hasna Begum 2.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q40331041|Rajan Mishra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q41596279|Johan van Zyl]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Johan Van Zyl 1 (Toyota Motors Europe) at Toyota Press Conference IAA 2017 by Nicolas Völcker.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q41791790|Debashis Panigrahi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Dr. Debasis Panigrahi (Author).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q42303508|Marius van Heerden]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42331566|Hamid Rashid Ma`ala]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42389822|Waldemar Silva]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42428973|Jamshed Uddin Kakakhel]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42429343|Waldemar Post]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42571276|Gita Ramjee]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q42800040|Elizabeth Muyovwe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q43106474|Henri-Thomas Lokondo]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q43180489|Sibusiso Moyo]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | [[فائل:Sibusiso Moyo, Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Republic of Zimbabwe (28014487638) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q43210860|Farida Mansurova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[تاجڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q43274270|Rodela]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Rodela (Luiz Carlos Ribeiro).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q43377246|Joshua Kyeremeh]]'' | | [[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781300|James Kamwambi]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781379|John Chikalimba]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45781626|Lingson Belekanyama]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45843259|Leïla Menchari]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q45996744|Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie]]'' | | [[گھانا]] | | | [[فائل:Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie - 2019 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q46250843|Danial Jahić]]'' | | [[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q46644655|Konstantin L. Ivanov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q46995325|Hans Cohen]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47011474|Asdrubal Bentes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Asdrubal Bentes 2014.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q47011506|Roberto Torres]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47030659|Narinder Bragta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47357805|Ole Hansen-Løve]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47387297|Sardar Dur Muhammad Nasar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47389631|Ghulam Murtaza Baloch]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47389945|Jam Madad Ali Khan]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47392395|Muhammad Adil Siddiqui]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47402338|Lea Harpaz]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:לאה הרפז.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q47411298|Shaukat Manzoor Cheema]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47465350|Shani Mahadevappa]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47507023|Tamás Böröndi]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47528906|Carl Tighe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47529646|Priscilla Tozama Mantashe]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47529773|Martha Mmola]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47529782|Esteban Bocaranda]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47537495|Amdi Bajram]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Амди Бајрам.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q47544874|Sabbaruddin Chik]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47639046|Antonín Nedbal]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q47668952|Duan Zhengcheng]]'' | | [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]<br/>[[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q48167728|Indra Mohan Rajbongshi]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q48315912|Bernard Stalter]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Bernard Stalter.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q48719857|Ramu]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q48872746|Naomi Munakata]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Naomi Munakata (2011).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q48951979|Viktor Koval]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:2007-01-26 kovalskie 1010450 .jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q49250207|Muladi]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Menteri Sekretaris Negara Muladi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q49254213|Adang Sudrajat]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Adang Sudrajat.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q49561853|Anwarul Kabir Talukdar]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q50049590|A. K. M. Mosharraf Hossain]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q50396635|Sindisiwe van Zyl]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dr Doreen Sindisiwe van Zyl.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q50660601|AKM Jahangir Hossain]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q50828767|Moisés Mamani Colquehuanca]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Moisés Mamani.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q51048751|Angela Salazar]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q51120523|Christine McHorse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q51336938|Fiona Denison]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q51461749|El Príncipe Gitano]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q51670534|Teimuraz Tsiklauri]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[جارجيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q51670771|Vladimir Kharchenko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Vladimir Kharchenko.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q51881137|Katalin Korinthus]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q52274178|Dave Nalle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Davenalle.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q52315000|Md. Israfil Alam]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q52369511|Lorina Kamburova]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Lorina Kamburova in Bulgaria promotional video.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q52723219|SK. Md. Nurul Haque]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q53086459|Ugo Tessitore]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q53544897|Antonio Beneyto]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Antonio Beneyto.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q54861257|Nizar al-Haraki]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q54862182|Fayeq Azab]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q54875090|Kamal Ballan]]'' | | [[شام]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Kamal Ballan in Durova Theater.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q54932411|Sandra Nyaira]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55020621|François de Gaulle]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55178473|Tauba Katzenstein]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55459951|Alí Humar González]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55585267|Lefteris Mytilineos]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55622382|Massoud Achkar]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55624059|Muhammad Afzal]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55628232|P. Vetrivel]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55641249|Neville Fernando]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55688673|Manuel Domecq Zurita]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55694390|Ziauddin Ahmed Bablu]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:Ziauddin Ahmed Bablu.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q55694406|Abdul Matin Khasru]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Abdul Matin Khasru.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q55694715|Mahmud Us Samad Chowdhury]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55943735|Mario Roberto Morales]]'' | | [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55971501|Adolf Lüchinger]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q55998474|Princess María Teresa of Parma]]'' | | [[فرانس]]<br/>[[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:María Teresa of Bourbon Parma (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q55999120|Antonio García-Moreno]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:AGMoreno2003.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q56000305|Jacqueline Rubellin-Devichi]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56065281|Munira Yamin Satti]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56065399|Shaheen Raza]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56173541|Margarita Lambrinou]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56195647|Vitor Sapienza]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56223573|Milan Hurtala]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56248458|Cyril Lawrence]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56257287|Fabio Restrepo]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:Fabio Restrepo.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q56299115|Nomvuzo Francisca Shabalala]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56393467|Jalaludin Rakhmat]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jalaludin Rakhmat.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q56399697|Yopie Latul]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56399754|Burhan Abdurahman]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wali Kota Ternate Burhan Abdurahman.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q56410339|Camille Bonnet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:L'équipe du SU Agen finaliste du championnat de France de rugby, en mars 1943 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q56600042|Younus Soomro]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56630743|Vincent Mhlanga]]'' | | [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56641288|László Gróf]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56651269|Waqar Ahmed Seth]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56678261|Bernie Juskiewicz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56678450|Dick Hinch]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56743555|Martha Sánchez Néstor]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56841045|Mongameli Bobani]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q56862871|Brian Crowe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q57037216|Marcello Brunelli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:Brunelli Marcello.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q57342370|Nikhil Nandy]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:The Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Youth Affairs & Sports, Dr. M.S. Gill felicitated the Indian Football Heroes, who reached the semi - finals of Melbourne Olympics, 1956, in New Delhi on February 23, 2009 (1).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q57617645|Fernand Turcotte]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q57829968|Faith Alupo]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q57903860|Elmer Pato]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q57973856|Ambrose Mandvulo Dlamini]]'' | | [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:10.08 總統接見「史瓦帝尼王國總理戴安伯伉儷」 (48863175906).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q57986405|Ndifor Afanwi Franklin]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q58004322|Ulfat Mustafin]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q58175439|Ajay Kumar Tripathi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Justice Ajay Kumar Tripathi.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59226203|Cabo Almi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q59245275|Silvio Favero]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q59327278|Raj Mohan Vohra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | [[فائل:Raj Mohan Vohra.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59387154|Dennis G. Peters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dennis G. Peters (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59594563|Shin So-gol]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] | | | [[فائل:신소걸.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q59822632|David Corrêa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:David Corrêa na Tradição 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q60048453|Carlos Burga]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60428775|Ron Wright]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ron Wright, official portrait, 116th Congress.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q60578644|Khaled Al Amir]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60676275|Anthony Mwamba]]'' | | [[زيمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60676348|István Turu]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60682885|Nikolay Petrunin]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Петрунин Н.Ю.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q60684463|Hussain Ahmed]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:The Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Youth Affairs & Sports, Dr. M.S. Gill felicitated the Indian Football Heroes, who reached the semi - finals of Melbourne Olympics, 1956, in New Delhi on February 23, 2009 (3).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q60734385|Jim Cross]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60734833|Danny Campbell]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60735860|Jack Page]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60829798|Rebeca Guber]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q60944987|Roger Maes]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61029386|Gérard Gire]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61080701|Abu Hena]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61080791|Sheikh Md Abdullah]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:State Minister for Religious Affairs Alhaj Advocate Sheikh Md Abdullah delivers speech at Hajj management meeting 2019-05-16 (PID-0038640) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q61101983|מנחם מנדל]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61161331|Stephen Schwartz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61221263|Jean Luc Rosat]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61229497|SM Mohsin]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | [[فائل:S. M. Mohsin cropped Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina awards Ekushey Padak 2020 at Osmani Memorial Auditorium Dhaka 2020-02-20 (PID-0034165) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q61283036|Azmi Mohamed Megahed]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | [[فائل:عزمي مجاهد.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q61314646|Kartikeswar Patra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61355370|Godfrey Grima]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61375379|Skariah Thomas]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Scariah Thomas.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q61481724|Luigi Roni]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61556012|Bikram Keshari Barma]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61625027|Mac Jack]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61670448|Leanid Dziejka]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Пасведчанне дэпутата Вярхоўнага Савета Рэспублікі Беларусь 12 склікання на імя Леаніда Дзейкі.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q61707992|Stephen C. de St. Jeor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61746483|Pierre Housieaux]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61781035|Hans Grotz]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61893591|Ravi Shankar Patnaik]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q61945598|Marc Pilcher]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q62072676|Adebayo Osinowo]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q62081852|José Daniel Guccione]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:José Guccione.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q62126551|Roberto Rivas Reyes]]'' | | [[نڪاراگوا]] | | | [[فائل:Roberto Rivas 2013.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q62381879|Nick Mourouzis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q62570988|John Obiero Nyagarama]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q62691119|Mutko Tsvetkov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q62713325|Viktor Kelner]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63004552|Wilberforce Kisamba Mugerwa]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63197527|Florence Ridley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63198327|Dora Werzberg]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63342260|Miguel Ángel Giubergia]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Miguel Giubergia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q63381257|Pascal Monkam]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63457716|Mohammed Oreibi Majid al Khalifa]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q63999140|Sangram Keshari Jena]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64019473|Ludwig Wiedenmann]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64095652|Фелікс Уладзіміравіч Шкірманкоў]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64097038|Jos De Man]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64141250|Balli Durga Prasad Rao]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64149281|Bernard Grégoire]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64348965|Nitsa Tsitra]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64399281|Zamuxolo Joseph Peter]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64399294|Pumza Patricia Dyantyi]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64399328|Jacqueline Mofokeng]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64399347|Dorah Dunana Dlamini]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64399408|Tandi Gloria Mpambo-Sibhukwana]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64681381|Rayyān, Aḥmad ʻAlī Ṭāhā]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64855254|Alexandros Isaris]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64859158|Gouri Sankar Dutta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64860750|Anish Deb]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Anish Deb - Kolkata 2015-10-10 5402.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q64918366|Zdeněk Preclík]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64929872|Joseph Ferris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q64949184|Aminul Islam Mintu]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65030790|Richard Laird]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65038140|Svatopluk Kasalý]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Svatopluk Kasalý 28. 3. 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65166902|Joselito Falcão de Amorim]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Joselito Falcao de Amorim.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65174387|Flaviola]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65199622|Saeid Tashakkori]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:تشکری.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65275379|Zaur Kantemirov]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65428531|Chavalit Soemprungsuk]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65548621|Suresh Amonkar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65561109|Satya Deo Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65587383|Jacques Lajeanne]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65587693|François Lantz]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65590587|Alain Lescouet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Hazan Lescouet Quénard Pinon 743 (M Lescouet).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65592292|Gérard Marulier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65600672|Muslihan DS]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65602099|Claude Schoettel]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65602496|Patrick Simon]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Patrick Simon 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65602566|Fernande Singer]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65606835|Jean-Marie Zoellé]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jean-Marie Zoellé 18122010.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q65925031|Karim Salman]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q65945406|Miguel Ángel Tábet]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | [[فائل:Miguel Angel Tabet.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q66087270|Lakhdar Bouregaa]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:لخضر بورڤعة.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q66124526|Ubong King]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Ubong King in 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q66144602|István Bérczi]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q66765131|Ramesh Tikaram]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q66777086|Ma. Bernardita Ramos]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q67100745|Myron J. Echenberg]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q67930607|Giovanni Gastel]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | [[فائل:2017 02 03 Pizzarotti Ferraris mostra le 100 facce della musica italiana Giovanni Gastel-1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q68213462|Quarto Pianesi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q68696106|Samsuddin Ahmed]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q68797025|Ada Bello]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ada C. Bello-LSU-1961.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q69802933|Ziaur Rahman Khan]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q69908032|Charles Bukeko]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q70250846|Felix Malyarenko]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | [[فائل:Felix Malyarenko (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q70278592|William B. Helmreich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q70554553|Amzad Hossain Sarker]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q70991299|Marcel Meys]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Marcel Meys1943.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q71965647|Vassilis Sevastis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | [[فائل:Sevastis long-jump.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q74477144|Meyer Rubin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q74751689|René Sylvestre]]'' | | [[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75313948|Jocelyn Feilding]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75388941|Princess Diana of Bourbon-Parma]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75390661|Lord David Douglas-Hamilton]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75599416|Michael Conybeare Sender]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75620301|Clotilda Douglas-Yakimchuk]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75661811|Alexander Brunton Badenoch]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75866189|Sally Yolanda England]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75904125|Maria-Alice de Marsillac Plunkett]]'' | | [[برازيل]]<br/>[[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q75936458|Melanie Forestier-Walker]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76044131|Raja Kollure]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76079057|Andrew Moncreiff]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76120799|Morgan Rees-Williams, 3rd Baron Ogmore]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76170613|Christopher Sanders]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76367719|Ostap Lozynsky]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76429596|Kostas Kleftogiannis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76433189|Farid Ahmed]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76814385|AKM Amanul Islam Chowdhury]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76836042|Mockbul Hossain]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q76945602|Theo Jubitana]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Theo Jubitana.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q76947388|Osvaldo Cochrane Filho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q77058159|Fernando Sandoval]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q77254925|Jean-Charles Nègre]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q77324578|Geoff Makhubo]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Geoff Makhubo, Mayor of Johannesburg.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q77353829|Mohamed Melehi]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | [[فائل:Mohamed Melehi, Le360 - May 4, 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q78575739|Bhekizizwe Peterson]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q78626233|Ana Magdalena]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q78933325|Charles Ehlinger]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q79275451|Ricardo Valderrama Fernández]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q79666066|Kiing Shooter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q80253264|Carlos Marincovich]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Marincovich 1970s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q80308776|Marc Daniëls]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:Marc daniels-1720510798 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q80505957|Horacio Luis López]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q82504773|Mohammed Yaseen Mohammed]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q82925403|Pino Grimaldi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q83135813|Morris J. Viljoen]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q83214686|San'yūtei Takasuke]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q83618559|Jean-Claude Menand]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q83630761|Francisco Daniel Rivera Sánchez]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q84138873|Caterina Emili]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q84174794|Lorna Irungu]]'' | | [[ڪينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q84497471|Li Wenliang]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | [[فائل:LiWengliang.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q84596019|Michel Rosenblatt]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q84737258|Hong Ling]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q84975812|Yoshio Tateishi]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85005219|Lin Zhengbin]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85098459|Mohammad-Reza Rahchamani]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:MohammadReza RahChamani 1397-08-23.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q85245727|Liang Wudong]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85332141|Liu Shouxiang]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85354114|Wang Xianliang]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85504174|Liu Zhiming]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85755827|Roy Edwards]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85770058|Isaac Robinson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85853174|Liu Xiaoxian]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85853305|Xu Defu]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85853522|Xiao Jun]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85853556|Peng Yinhua]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85861427|Grzegorz Guziński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85867731|Robert Znajomski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Znajomski.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q85873158|José Gentil Rosa]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85877322|Simão Almeida]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85881430|Liu Fan]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85967536|Azizur Rahman]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85969531|Habibullah Peiravi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q85991636|Ibnu Saleh]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Ibnu Saleh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q85991691|Imran]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Anggota DPR Imran.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q85994920|Tengku Zulkarnain]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Tengku Zulkarnain.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q86206276|Xia Sisi]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q86206710|Huang Wenjun]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q86426444|Sami Shousha]]'' | | [[مصر]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q86550970|Carlos Tapia García]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Tapia en LaMula.pe 2-38 screenshot.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q86709709|Mohammad Ali Ramazani Dastak]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87066622|Ahmad Songi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87072653|Gonzalo Cerezo Barredo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87186121|Buchanan Sharp]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87205979|Dukha Bhagat]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87219910|Valerio Moro]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87451176|Benon Magezi]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87495680|Ikenwoli Godfrey Emiko]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | [[فائل:The Olu of Warri, Ogiame Ikenwoli.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q87511491|Lee Cha-su]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87558710|Roberto Stella]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87652750|Nasser Shabani]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Nasser Shabani.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q87697765|Wen Zengxian]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87830378|Francesco Saverio Pavone]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87849018|Jiang Xueqing]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87967184|Aris Dijksman]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87975501|Narjes Khanalizadeh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87975990|Reza Mohammadi Langroudi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q87976706|Esmail Yazdi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Esmaeil Yazdi 2017-09-04.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q87999700|Hipólito Chaiña]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88036515|Ashutosh Mohanta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88094808|Antonio Michele Stanca]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88179804|Joan Cuadrench i Aragonès]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88181154|Aileen Baviera]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Aileen Baviera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88196412|António Vieira Monteiro]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88206609|Jean Leber]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88209709|Larry Edgeworth]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88223813|Admir Džubur]]'' | | [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88326495|Jean-Jacques Razafindranazy]]'' | | [[فرانس]]<br/>[[مڊگاسڪر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88332749|Sérgio Trindade]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88364089|José María Loizaga Viguri]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88373250|Sylvain Welling]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88373576|Jean-Marie Boegle]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88376163|María José Rubio Fuentes]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88382284|Calogero Rizzuto]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88386281|Nashom Wooden]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88387865|Hassan Milani]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88387896|Peter Myles]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88394294|Zororo Makamba]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88420752|Olivier Schneller]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88430796|Borja Domecq Solís]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88461558|Maroof Afzal]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88465219|Dez-Ann Romain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88465409|David Edwards]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88465891|Lee Green]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88471669|Qiu Jun]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88505446|Orlando Staton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Orlando Staton with the Fabulous Flemtones on February 28, 2020 at Tierney's Tavern in Montclair, New Jersey.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88529356|Abraham Levy Bressler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88552871|Black N Mild]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88553411|Floyd Cardoz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Floyd Cardoz demonstrating Indian cuisine (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88564303|Lillo Venezia]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88592566|Jenny Polanco]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88602759|Giuseppe Berardelli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88605041|Steven Dick]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88660090|Mohamed Farah]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88696349|Vasile Ouatu]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88719792|John F. Murray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88720437|Kious Kelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88720923|Rose Marie Compaoré]]'' | | [[برڪینا فاسو|برڪينا فاسو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88788580|Alan Finder]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88799719|Usama Riaz]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88862963|Ruben Melogno]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88866458|Jésus Gayoso Rey]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88876722|Narciso Arranz Cerezo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88919704|Jörn Kubicki]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88928087|Jacob Plange-Rhule]]'' | | [[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88946519|Romi Cohn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88948586|Freddy Rodriguez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88960423|Chato Galante]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Chato Galante Premios Goya 2019 - Mejor Película Documental (cropped) (2).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88961624|Daniel Davisse]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Daniel Davisse, Journée mémoire Holocauste, Esch-sur-Alzette-103.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q88963159|Angelo Rottoli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88974861|Amged S. El-Hawrani]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88975447|Adil El Tayar]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88978483|Maria Mercader]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q88979371|Javier Docampo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89018986|Denise Millet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89034303|Manuel Adolfo Varas]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89043679|Peregrine Broadbent]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89044367|Lorena Borjas]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89047239|David Hodgkiss]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89058562|James T. Goodrich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89090767|Viktar Dashkevich]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | [[فائل:Viktar daszkievicz 01.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89107781|Tomas Oneborg]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89108362|Ángel Sánchez Mendoza]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89118435|Rafael Gómez Nieto]]'' | | [[اسپين]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Inauguración del Jardín de los Combatientes de la Nueve en Madrid 14.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89126458|Pat Midgley]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89127551|Antonio Nonato Lima Gomes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89190157|John Hartwall]]'' | | [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89193385|José Antonio Martínez Bayo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Jose Antonio Martinez Bayo en Villel de Mesa.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89250938|April Dunn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89251950|Bernardita Catalla]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Ambassador Bernardita Catalla (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89266944|Cemil Taşcıoğlu]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89271759|Bob Glanzer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89272139|Reggie Bagala]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89277337|Miquel Àngel Vaquer]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89278617|José Luis González Novalín]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89284961|Jacques F. Acar]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Jacques-F-Acar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89290024|Constantino Juri]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89300558|William Wolf]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89328137|Chang Kai]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89336547|Liu Li]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89336556|Mei Zhongming]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89337077|Zhu Heping]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89355538|Avram Goia]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89358641|Bernard Epin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89388448|Omar Quintana]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90274240|Elio Armas Nahón]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90278503|Kapil Deo Kamat]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Kapil Deo Kamat during his term as Panchayati Raj minister (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q90314365|Syed Haider]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90324980|Azar Ahrabi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90324982|Fayaz Ayache]]'' | | [[شام]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90324987|Habib Zaidi]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90347409|Gustavo Orellana]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90404814|Eulàlia Amorós Solà]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90405588|Kishen Bholasing]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Kishen Bholasing 2015 - 3.PNG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q90409657|Lionel Longueville]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90412083|Bas Mulder]]'' | | [[سورينام]]<br/>''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90415987|Leilani Jordan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90416143|Zafar Sarfraz]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90419272|Lila Fenwick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90419878|Baldiri Alavedra]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90424601|Victor Batista Falla]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90433310|Valeria Viveros]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90435726|Maria Krier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90457604|J. Ronald Verrier]]'' | | [[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90463320|Jaime Ruiz Sacristán]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90465882|Fevzi Aksoy]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90478547|Alby Kass]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90479494|Ann Sullivan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90482625|Jason Hargrove]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90509901|Marylou Armer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90515325|Jacqueline Cruz]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90531405|Gerald O. Glenn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90561312|Tom Moore]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Tom Moore (soldier) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q90605392|Robby Browne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90642033|John Driscoll]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90683696|David Katzenstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90701193|Jorge Sebá]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90723872|Jerzy Eligiusz Główczewski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Witkacy - Jerzy Główczewski - 1931-12.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q90732093|Clida Martinez Ellison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90792247|Gabriele Baldassini]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90812370|David Méresse]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90849569|Glider Ushñahua]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90852078|Gil Bailey]]'' | | [[جميڪا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Gil Bailey.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q90855527|Richard Passman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90878164|Julio Andrade Malde]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90902581|Elio Peretto]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90909454|Ernesto Gutiérrez Vera]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90925826|Rajesh Jayaseelan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90959889|Alexander Ivan Bedini Guthrie]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90961853|Margit Feldman]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90963525|Anjanette Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91017527|Gian Carlo Ceruti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91023351|Brian R. Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91023739|Deon M. Crowell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91024228|James Norvell Flowers Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91024238|Annis Creese]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[سينٽ ونسنٽ ۽ گريناڊائنز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91024446|Dave Roland]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91024806|Kenneth J. Moore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91025303|Sterling Matthews]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91025490|Jerry Manley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91025565|Gary Holmberg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Gary Holmberg - 1959.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91025695|John-Sebastian Laird-Hammond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91027383|Marie-France Chabanel]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91033075|Chad Capule]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91036102|Augusto Itúrburu]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91073092|Louis Wilsenach]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91075109|Eastern Stewart]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91077024|Terrance Burke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91077402|Noel Sinkiat]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91079038|Maria Linda Villanueva Sun]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91079360|George Valentine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91079952|Keith Redding]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91079959|Susan Rokus]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91080484|Sterling Maddox]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Sterling Ruffin Maddox, Jr. - 1959.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91083307|Krishan Arora]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91085228|Jane Murphy]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91087157|Gladys Mujajati]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91087664|Mary Agyeiwaa Agyapong]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91088331|Gérard Willocq]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91088373|Amrik Bamotra]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91088921|René Rosset]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91089299|Peter Tun]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91089367|Maureen Ellington]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91089388|Cheryl Williams]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91089696|Josiane Zauma Ebonja Ekoli]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91090296|Melujean Ballesteros]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91090318|Yves Latour]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91090338|Sara Trollope]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91090369|Julie Omar]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91102468|Gareth Roberts]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91106049|Edmond Adedeji]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91110677|ATM Alamgir]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91115657|Louis Jeannin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91116120|Joseph Djivélékian]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91118642|Elsie Sazuze]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91120080|Alice Kit Tak Ong]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91120760|Leilani Dayrit]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91121189|Janice Graham]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91121613|Syed Zishan Haider]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91121930|Aimee O'Rourke]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91122088|Areema Nasreen]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91122861|Lynsay Coventry]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91146921|Ted Monette]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:FEMA - 40478 - Ted Monette, FEMA's Director of the Office of Federal Coordinati.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91151546|John Percy Leon Lewis]]'' | | [[گيانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91159963|Jerry Givens]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91167491|Claude Lafortune]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:Claude Lafortune - 04 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91231278|Hamza Pacheeri]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231280|Fayez Ayache]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231284|Eric Labeja-Acellam]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231288|Alfa Saadu]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231290|Liz Glanister]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231294|Rahima Bibi Sidhanee]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231299|Barbara Sage]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231302|Linda Clarke]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231306|Liz Shale]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231311|Mandy Siddorn]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231314|Glen Corbin]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231316|Thomas Harvey]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231319|Andrew Treble]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231321|Michael Allieu]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231325|Barbara Moore]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231330|Donna Campbell]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231333|Abdul Gellaledin]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[سوڊان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231338|Donald Suelto]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231341|Stephen Pearson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231346|Linnette Cruz]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231351|Elvira Bucu]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231354|Amor Padilla Gatinao]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231356|Andy Howe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231361|Ade Raymond]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231364|Leilani Medel]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231368|Pooja Sharma]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231371|Emily Rose Perugia]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231375|John Alagos]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231379|Jenelyn Carter]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231384|Joan Grimshaw]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231386|Amanda Forde]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231391|Elbert Rico]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231394|Oscar King Jr.]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231398|Gilbert Barnedo]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231399|Charles Kwame Tanor]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231403|Kevin Smith]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231406|Gladys Nyemba]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231408|Amarante Dias]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231411|Lourdes Campbell]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231414|Barry England]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231416|Ruben Muñoz Jr.]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231420|Brian Mfula]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231424|Simon Guest]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231426|Brian Darlington]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231430|Rajesh Kalraiya]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231432|Wilma Banaag]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231435|Nick Joseph]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91231774|Jayne Harvey]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91245547|Martin Loveday]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91250620|Guri Melleby]]'' | | [[ناروي]] | | | [[فائل:Guri Melleby - Skytterprinsesse (1967) (14495766559).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91252955|Manjeet Singh Riyat]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91262852|José Marroquín Yerovi]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91290519|Mahen Ramloll]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91308531|Skylar Herbert]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91332046|André Charon]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91332579|Pierre Gilet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91333378|Jean Pouaha]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91333451|Ali Djemoui]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91334108|Sami Reda]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91336641|Gerallt Davies]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91381549|Saburō Matsushita]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91383699|Philippe Lerche]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91384778|Kabkéo Souvanlasy]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91388450|Guy Pfister]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91389053|Serge Bokobza]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91428965|Benjamin Levin]]'' | | [[لٿوينيا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91437271|Beryl Bernay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91449519|Rino Clerici]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91461341|Alain Le Garrec]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91503406|Ella King Russell Torrey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91584337|Sudhir Sharma]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91595066|Keith MacVicar]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91595238|Jean MacVicar]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91621670|Belco Bah]]'' | | [[مالي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91655944|Shahin Shahablou]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91665169|Joel Rogosin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91669146|Khalif Mumin Tohow]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91670963|Jérôme Valette]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91672058|James Hakim]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]]<br/>[[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91672124|Patrick Delalaing]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91672457|Mohammad Hassen Hossenbux]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91686786|Sékou Kourouma]]'' | | [[گني|گائينا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91693470|Donald Reed Herring]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91707058|Danny Delaney]]'' | | [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91717351|Éric Loupiac]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91719339|Ton van den Heuvel]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91756690|Fred the Godson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Fred the Godson, late 2016.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q91756983|Jean-Paul Michel]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91767492|Emeterio Gómez]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91769815|Shree Vishna Rasiah]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91776753|Tom Scully]]'' | | [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91783720|Annette Blier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91789659|Hannes Schedel]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91824964|Anthony Tsai Brooks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91840218|Ceybil Jefferies]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91861707|Julian Perry Robinson]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91892839|Melonie Mitchell]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91893996|Angie Cunningham]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91911557|Mario César Romero]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91962972|Burton Rose]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91964956|Carole Brookins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91976803|Philip Kahn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91976807|Bertha LaForest]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q91976809|Kenneth Saunders III]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92022576|Mark Appelbaum]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92037433|Ronald Newman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92041406|Marco DiFranco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92045123|Clifford Martin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92054378|Noureddine Zidouni]]'' | | [[الجزائر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92059713|Gunnar Seijbold]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92079066|Valentina Blackhorse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92104585|Joyce Pacubas-Le Blanc]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92106989|Thomas Wetzen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92110448|Kenneth Roseman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92152403|Princy Xavier]]'' | | [[اٽلي]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92157950|Milan Stevanovich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q240592|Socialist Republic of Macedonia]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92158826|Robert Francisco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92159374|Mohamed Ben Omar]]'' | | [[نائيجر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92168119|Martine Crefcoeur]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Martine Crefcoeur 1961.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q92174131|Fernando Miteff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92179738|Peter Gill]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92196478|Jonathan Coelho]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92197171|Jack Lotz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jack Lotz.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q92199833|Sher Enriquez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92202893|Nicholas Lee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92203480|Leslie Pieroni]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92204901|Jeffrey Pendleton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92205981|Katy Davis]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92205988|Emma Davis]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92206621|Zafar Rasheed Bhatti]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92208184|Édith Arnoult-Brill]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Édith Arnoult-Brill-FIG 2001.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q92212507|Celia Yap-Banago]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92215337|Zoe Mungin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92216910|Jacques Fribourg]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92219835|Gonzalo Lopez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92262595|Alicia Cruz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92264934|Celia Lardizabal Marco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92279689|Richard Charles Canazzi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92304326|Corliss Henry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92307070|Francisco Méndez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92310023|Janissa Delacruz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92359243|Claude Barouch]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92378558|Madhvi Aya]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92391135|Robert E. Proell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92394499|Joseph M. Assyd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92409837|Syahrul]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Syahrul Wali Kota.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q92419043|Wilford Kepler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92419274|Mary Kepler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92455638|Andrea Circle Bear]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92464475|Edgar Heidorn]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92472344|Conrad Buckley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92474565|Barbara Gaines]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92476562|Wayne Haskell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92480593|Cherie La Pelusa]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92495796|Dieter Hofmann]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q16957|German Democratic Republic]]''<br/>[[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92518002|Henry Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92539116|Daniel S. Paletko]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92541835|Luis Modesto Páez]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92542838|Deborah Gatewood]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92545047|Matthew Stehr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92548855|Antonio Martinez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92594539|Louise Coles]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92606215|Juan Martinez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92611638|Louise Endel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92620791|William Nguyen]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92624775|Pamela Orlando]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92635842|Jun Maeda]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92637621|Sławomir Sokół]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92649435|Gulshan Ewing]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92715252|T. Norman Van Cott]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92732453|Daniel Demetrius Newell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92750722|Mark Barisonek]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92751809|Francis Boccabella III]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92766758|Victor Chung]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92768859|Dian Phipps]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92768870|Alberto Camacho]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92768893|Ketty Herawati Sultana]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92771548|Joseph Feingold]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92774800|José Torres]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92774810|Orlando Moncada]]'' | | [[پيرو]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92776593|Idris Bey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92777833|Matteo De Cosmo]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92780896|Brittany Bruner-Ringo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92790696|Bill Gladstone]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92791254|Sylvie Vincent]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92798976|Miguel Marte]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92800215|Alfonso Salazar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92800742|B. Narayan. Rao]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92801627|Paul Cary]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92805303|Randall French]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92826239|Samuel Hargress II]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92843284|Yang Chongqi]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92849109|Ke Huibing]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92861205|Don DiPetrillo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92864552|Don Osceola]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92865607|Calvin Harrison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92867489|David Goulette]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92878926|Madeline Kripke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92891982|Ed Schilling]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92896391|Li Yangbo]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92901064|Allah Yar Ansari]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92920768|Boualem Benkhelouf]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92934641|Robert Suit]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92949314|David Beyl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92957910|Josephine Seier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92967426|Marie June Skender]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92968758|Annelda Holtkamp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92972473|Bernadette Kelter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92974044|Mary Francele Sherburne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92974147|Mary Regine Collins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92977116|David Berg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92985221|Irvin Herman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q92987708|Dan Spano]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93075844|Rien Smits]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93076125|Rina Smits]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93088160|Kyle Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93096025|Jim Kearnan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93115047|Venko Kanev]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93120505|Cornelius Watkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93122022|Muhammad Ahmad Asha]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93129383|Adamu Suleiman]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93130940|Mary Hackett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93130944|Jessie Ancona]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93142529|Lamoyne King]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93146061|Tadashi Tsufura]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93146187|Justa Barrios]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93160858|Sérgio Bueno de Camargo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93169354|Altamiro Moyses Zimerfogel]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93171213|Philip Foglia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93211513|Kareem Haji]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93222035|Daniel Thomas Carr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93233292|Beppe Del Colle]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93242709|Nyla Moore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93244599|Willem Balke]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93245406|Cosimo Semeraro]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93267085|Preston Olive]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93270562|Glenn Wefel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93270951|Beverly Wefel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93275468|Jesse Willard Hathorne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93278657|Joan Cunnane]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93295914|Gary Washington]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93296429|Rafael Cargill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93297721|Priscilla Carrow]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93298301|Edward Becote]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93299047|Wayne Edwards]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93300107|Derik Braswell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93303617|Anita Robinson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93309744|Mehmet Şah Demirhan]]'' | | [[جرمني]]<br/>[[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93338240|Eduardo Robles-Holguin]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93340743|Leonard Auerbach]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93341845|Stephen Cino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93345570|Rex Damon Begay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93345895|Bradley James Ghilarducci]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93345899|Michael Fleming]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93351605|André Egri]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93377076|Suleiman Adamu]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93377516|Rory Price]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93380491|Clifford Childs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93394215|August Pauger]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93395406|Roman Stadelmann]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93421326|Jack Taylor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93427505|Pedro Tenorio Matanzo]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Pedro Tenorio Matanzo 2017.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q93431342|Antonio Rodríguez de las Heras]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:RH en Zafra.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q93431362|Johnny Copeland]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93436209|Fryni Arvaniti]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93443209|Raquela Mesa-Acosta]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93449034|Barry Webber]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93453945|Conrad Razidlo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93473479|Carlos Ernesto Escobar Mejía]]'' | | [[ايل سيلويڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93488824|Gerald Glisson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93494556|Mohamed Hamud Omar]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93498853|Gerald Slater]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93506856|Gerson Peres]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Deputado Federal Gerson Peres.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q93512574|Maureen Ciolek]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93512807|Aharon Walkin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93514005|Jorge Ortiz-Garay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93521975|Anthony Szczygielski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93525826|Helen Molina]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93530184|Eli Klausner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93584226|Jimmy Glenn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93587125|Maria Lopez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93593932|Wendy Bishop]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93598095|William Dean Brame]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93607966|Raymond Scholwinski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93614577|Yoshio]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93615558|Nancy Bisschop]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93630916|Kim Blanchar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93633102|Willie Levi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93636186|Raymond Mitchell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93641586|Eric Frazier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93643731|Antonia Leon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93683887|Tam Mai]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93698550|Abdelmajid Ben Aicha]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93705140|Jacques Reymond]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93707459|Paul Alloun]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93768263|Sushil Kumar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93774007|Daniel Walters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93776347|Raymond Geraci]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93784704|Murat Dilmener]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93838244|Vicente André Gomes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93860270|Sue Gargett]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93868410|Jesus Chediak]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93875993|Sandy Pratt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93876058|Johannes Beck]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93881569|Abdelfattah Abdrabbo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93898822|Unique Clay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93903544|Guadalupe Ramos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93929514|Noel Walsh]]'' | | [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93939001|Hari Vasudevan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93943136|Michael Clegg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93943796|Joan Neudecker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93956977|Paul Vasquez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Paul Bear Vasquez by Gage Skidmore.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q93957499|Rose Liberto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93962279|Celso Mendoza]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q93967506|Gérard Cocrelle]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94016601|James Andres]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94018988|Tiffany Mofield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94019590|Tom Omaña Luna Jr.]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94043719|Anna Mohr]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94061081|Jack Berg]]'' | | [[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94070745|Alan Ortiz]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94073090|Charles Roberts]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94087538|Belly Mujinga]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94096258|Dorothy Pearl Davis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94128948|Motoko Fujishiro Huthwaite]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Monuments Men Honored - Heroes protected art work in WWII-(2015) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94217572|Magomed Aliomarov]]'' | | [[روس]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94249876|Shōbushi Kanji]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | [[فائل:Shokiri-1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94311480|Denith Deason]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94349561|Marion Goldetsky Klein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94353812|Maurice Dotson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94365464|Clayton Snare]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94412286|Óscar López Acosta]]'' | | [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94434142|Edward Crogan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94440981|Munir Mangal]]'' | | [[افغانستان]] | | | [[فائل:Defense.gov News Photo 100707-F-7552L-006 - Commander of the International Security Assistance Force Gen. David H. Petraeus 3rd from left U.S. Army speaks with Afghan Minister of Security.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94477252|Marie Pino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94477711|Abdikani Mohamed Wa’ays]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94511714|Richard Cramer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94523479|John Paul Eberhard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94524203|Marcus Pino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94528806|Hellyn Moore Pawula]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94530576|Genyte Dirse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94531325|Billy Farrell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94547938|Mary Santiago]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94550864|Nino Cassanello]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94567016|Gloria Jameson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94572548|Alex Ruperto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94573130|Bobby McCoskey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94574829|Halil Karabulut]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94575477|Paul Odighizuwa]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94579153|Douglas Roberts]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Douglas Roberts - 1968.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94579402|Henry Camacho]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94579891|Ruth Median]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94580968|Tendol Gyalzur]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94583822|Hans Bär]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94613962|Jim Pruett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94616677|Ernesto Guzman Lara]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94643983|unnamed medical worker]]'' | | [[مڊگاسڪر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94648405|Benjamin Smalls]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94657640|James Mahoney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94690321|Mojibur Rahman Talukder]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94694236|Georgia Litwack]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94699977|Tin Aye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94700336|Randy Narvaez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94700689|Joseph Santaguida]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94709855|Berisford Anthony Morse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94713622|Peggy Ndubisi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94799520|Donnell Kirchner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94864655|Joey Giambra]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94924250|Frankline Ndifor]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94941476|Patricia Forster]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94944470|Esteban Yáñez Pazos]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94945959|Hatsy Yasukochi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94966479|Lenora Garfinkel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94972710|Wilson Roosevelt Jerman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Wilson Roosevelt Jerman (crop).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94973282|William Crain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94981721|Vanessa Mackey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94987056|Mark Hall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94994278|Miquéias Fernandes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94994310|João Kabeção]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94994337|Lourdes Catão]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Foto de Lourdes..png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q94994347|Mário Chermont]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94994352|Rafael Fragoso]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94994691|Joshua Yasuo Suzuki]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94995489|Rommel Bernarte]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94995575|Ralphy Campos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94997568|Rachel Verbaan]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94997852|Hernán Alemán]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94997878|Alberto Tejedor]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q94998033|Reber Zandi]]'' | | [[سويڊن]]<br/>[[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95128547|Ken Nightingall]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95147136|Alyce Chenault Gullattee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95151336|Petr Šmaha]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Petr-Šmaha.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95152882|Trevor Belle]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95153930|Keith Wade]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95155945|Jaromír Joo]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95175836|Vladimír Řehořek]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95176753|Jiřina Kumstátová]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95190573|Carlos Arturo Garcia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95207707|Charlie Burrell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89388934|Rodrigo Pesántez Rodas]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89392342|Carlo Colombara]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89412554|Florindo Corral]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89416505|Ismail Mohamed Abdulwahab]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89417365|Montserrat Sabater Bacigalupi]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89444493|Yang Jun]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89445395|Carlos González-Artigas]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89452309|Jorge Orlando Semería]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89455052|Muhammad Sirajul Islam]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89465759|Ito Curata]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Ito Curata in his Mansion (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89469646|Silvio Devoto]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89472100|Sa'ad Galadiman Patigi]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89477474|Mel Boyaner]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89477590|Arlene Stringer-Cuevas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89499451|Anick Jesdanun]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89499594|Shona Ferguson]]'' | | [[بوٽسوانا]]<br/>[[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Shona Ferguson.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89499996|Cyril Boulanger]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89500010|Fernando Labra Hidalgo]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89501894|Ahmad Taheri]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89502052|Fuad Nahdi]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89502662|Kalil Haché]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89503586|Mary Roman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89514702|Feriha Öz]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89520802|Giovanni Coppiano]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89526192|Wilhelm Burmann]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89532539|Patrick Gibson]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Gibson Brothers - 2018082190008 2018-03-23 Radio Regenbogen Award 2018 - Sven - 1D X MK II - 0178 - AK8I9908.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89552274|Abhay Bhardwaj]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Abhay Bharadwaj.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89559728|Wilson Villa]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89562034|Jorge Chica]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89564475|Lee Fierro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89573517|Ahmad Tuyserkani]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89575597|Hervé de Buyer]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89579907|Seyed Mohsen Habibi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89580542|Ali Khalafi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89580736|Farzad Tazari]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89580754|Jean-Jacques Gressier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89580995|Shahriar Sharifi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89582186|Ezzat Khamoshi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89582543|Seyed Abdullah Zavieh]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89582558|Plato Sohrabi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89582564|Reza Neghaban]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89582569|Frida Wattenberg]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89584157|Jean-Jacques Siegel]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89584521|Terry Cutmore]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89584637|Brian Lambert]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89588532|Henri Ecochard]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | [[فائل:Ecochard.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89589522|Laurent Gruson]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89590162|Ron Rich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89592254|Israel Carrera]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89599147|Jitendra Rathod]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89620524|Michael Yun]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89637292|Dolors Sala Carrió]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89656990|Juan Martín Velasco]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89666393|Ruben Burks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89669404|Vincent Lionti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89679283|Vicente Villagrá Blanco]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89690342|Eli Velder]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89697563|Anton Sebastianpillai]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89703537|Anita Fial]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89703948|Patrick Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89768813|Charlotte Figi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89795205|Marguerite Lescop]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89799501|Art Paleczny]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89819791|Joaquim Tosas i Mir]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89819849|Conrad Buchanan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89826765|Rebecca Mack]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89860442|Marcelino García Pérez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89888640|Christophe Pras]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89898390|Alex Layne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89912075|Eddy Davis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Eddy Davis Lisbon 2006.JPEG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89918324|Abdul Mabud Chowdhury]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89918929|Manolo Navarro]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89919082|Laneeka Barksdale]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89919363|Ricardo Castaneda]]'' | | [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89919484|Roberto Román Valencia]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89924623|Liliane Marchais]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89932032|Sam McGhee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89933671|Lee Bossom]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89934267|Ronnie A. Dixon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89936212|Kiminobu Okada]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89938688|Giorgio Valoti]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89939488|Raimondo Balicco]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89952002|Leila Benitez-McCollum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89957906|Ronald William Lewis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q89986954|Sento Masià]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:SentoMasia.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q89998424|Ben Hirschmann]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90025534|TM Giasuddin Ahmed]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90025619|Ugo Rozzo]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90027431|Hannes Schopf]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90030093|Edoardo Valli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90046004|L. Douglas James]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90060899|Santiago Llorente Fernández]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90078508|Gonzalo Dasilva]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90121082|Ho Kam Ming]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90136425|Frank Gabrin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90143887|Burt Ballanfant]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90153083|Abdurakhman Martazanov]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90162943|Richard Richardson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90250643|Hamid Manouchehri]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q90251510|Ali Behzad]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95216366|Sorin Iftimi]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95232940|Eugene J. Sayfie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95250542|Donna M. Morrissey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95345195|Emilio DiPalma]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95377523|Daniel Kopál]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95381440|Libuše Holečková]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95381819|Miroslav Jirounek]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95390382|Sally Rowley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Sally Rowley - freedom rider arrest 1961 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95391797|Lydia Baštecká]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95393540|Marie Mudrová]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95399285|Edith Irvine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95416463|Hussain Ahmad Kanjo]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95423359|Kamrun Nahar Putul]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95434619|Wegene Debele]]'' | | [[ايٿوپيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95446434|Stephen P. A. Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95491073|Fred Westbrook]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95502391|Santiago Baten-Oxlaj]]'' | | [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95507915|Jose Ayala]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95573131|Judith Bemis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95577004|Wang Bing]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95577281|Feng Xiaolin]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95577358|Zhang Kangmei]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95578805|Douglas Linn Hickok]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95579452|Elizabeth Fulop]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95613600|Salvatore Pica]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95629701|Pepe Tapia]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95638573|Jeffrey Ronald Henry Muzljakovich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95645973|James Leach Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95650616|Samuel Joseph Lococo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95660168|Paul McCurrie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95670840|Hugo Ryckeboer]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95676290|Fakhruddin Syed]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95692819|David Ford]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95694247|Yehudah Jacobs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95701122|Brahm Kanchibhotla]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Brahm Kanchibhotla.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95702276|Zubair Ahmed]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95727053|Barbara Ossenkopp]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95737055|Mário Veríssimo]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95747603|Flossie Lee Bournes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880217|Alan Michael Twofoot]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880218|Ronald R. Erdman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880219|Charles Robert Keal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880220|Shirley Crute]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880221|Kenneth Richard Coombs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880222|Bobby Joseph Hebert]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880229|Robert N. Winsor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880231|Andrew Kowalczyk]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880233|David F. Savitt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880234|Thomas William Campbell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880239|Lawrence Littig]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880243|Antoinette Tosco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880244|Marvin L. Thomas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Marvin Thomas - 1956.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880245|Dalma Holloway Torres]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880246|Ethel R. Fonti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880247|Michael Giangrande Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880248|Philip Braverman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880255|Ralph Plaisance]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880258|Pierina D. Borsoi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880259|Willard John Hoyt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880260|Timothy J. Liszewski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880265|Barbara J. Norris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880269|Donald Raymond Haws]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880270|Mattie F. Adams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880271|Ruth E. Shinn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880272|Robert Dugal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880274|Roberta Gulick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880283|Carol Davis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880284|Gomer Richards Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Gomer Richards Jr. - high school graduation 1954.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880285|Steven L. Freedman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880286|Vincie Teresa DeRose]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880292|Delia Regina DiTullio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880295|Ken Caley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880296|Jean-Claude Henrion]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880297|Grace Lee Hargrave Cradeur]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880298|Ronnie Estes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880303|Mary Ellen Houle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880307|Patrick C. Parks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880308|Daniel S. Pincu]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880309|Norman Gulamerian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880310|Patricia L. Henry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880311|Angel Escamilla]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880317|Russell D. Green]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Russell Dale Green - 1945.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880325|Scott Douglas Woodard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880337|Russell Arnold Nielsen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880362|Helen Wall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880375|Richard Edward Rutledge]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Richard Rutledge - 1950.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880383|Daniel Blume]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880778|Richard J. Conway III]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880779|Betty M. Bradshaw]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880780|John C. West Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880781|Dorothy Alma Ennis D'Ostilio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880782|Karen Kay Bentley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Karen Kugler - 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880783|Thomas Kevin Milo Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880791|Donald Martin Puffer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880792|Danny Ray Bierman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880793|Paul Francis Siefert Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Paul Seifert - 1961.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880794|Richard M. Glidden]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880800|Lela Reed]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880803|Ruth Skapinok]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880804|Conrad Ifill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880805|Betty Sue Harber Carney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880807|Edward Ciocca]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880808|Pilar Molina Reyes Rodriques]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880811|Corinne Rhodes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880817|Richard Kiddle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880818|Frank Miszkiewicz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880819|John Joseph Crowe]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880820|Roger Liddell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880827|Michael Wrotniak Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880829|John Poleon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880830|Joan M. Heaney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880831|Stephen J. Clinton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880833|Antoinette Marie Lutz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880834|Charles Jernigan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880843|Jean M. Winterbottom]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880844|Juanita Sanchez-Valdez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880845|Robert Bruce Harrell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880846|Paul Edward Herbst]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880847|John Francis McClintock]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880851|Robert C. Moen Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880862|Alice Glazer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880874|Jean Marie Hazelwood]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880886|Alice Louise Trout]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Alice Lukens - 1957.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880897|Norton A. Kent]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880909|Paul Shelden]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880920|Jeanne Stone Rusnak]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880930|John Nakawatase]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880940|Huguette Dorsey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880948|Harold Dixon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880956|Carl Robert Bentley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880957|Bette Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bette Marie McTague - 1955.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95880958|Alan A. Potanka]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880964|Robert P. Rust]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880969|Anthony J. Valdati Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880970|Hal Upjohn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95880971|Samuel Kramer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881335|Thomas I. Atwood]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881336|Vinton Timely Mason]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881337|Dorthe J. Flick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881338|Arlene Chesley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881339|Roger Lehne]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881340|George Freeman Winfield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881345|Donald J. Horsfall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881349|Barbara Stack]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881351|Thomas E. Anglin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881352|Rose Mary Infantino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881359|Vince Woodward]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881360|Elaine Cupka]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881363|Doris Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881364|Harley E. Acker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881365|Veil David DeVillier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881368|Joyce Posson Winston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881373|Arnold Obey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881375|Ethel Hamburger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881376|Marjorie L. Goolsby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881377|Luiza Ogorodnik]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881385|Pio Mactal Vilar Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881394|Richard C. Schug]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881405|Adelfo Ruiz Calvo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881413|Stanley Moser]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881425|Joseph J. Ingram Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881435|Morris Loeb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881452|Carl J. Hebert Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Carl John Hebert - 1963.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95881461|Larry Rathgeb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881468|John McKeon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881479|Douglas Hanby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881485|Teresa A. Olbrich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881486|John F. Cannon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881487|William U. Roulette III]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881488|Dawn M. Peryer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881489|Elaine Jeannette Beaulieu]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881497|Ronald Boccacio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881499|Peter Crisanti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881500|Ellen Elizabeth Fabry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881501|Clarence Robert Ellis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Robert Ellis - 1944.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95881504|Celestino Padilla Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881510|Mary A. Cole]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881511|Earl Avers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881512|Cindy Lou Mack]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881513|Julia Martinez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881514|Frederick Anthony Palazzo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881522|Yvonne S. Orlando]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881523|Marie Virginia Leto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881524|Evelyn Gertrude Brant-Graf]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Evelyn Russell - 1951.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95881525|Patricia A. Carrigan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881920|Audrey LeMaire Morvant]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881921|Michael I. Sumergrad]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881922|Sean Christian Keville]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881923|Carol A. Castle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881926|Jean Munson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881932|Irene S. Allen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881933|Carmen Rodriguez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881934|Helen Sutton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881935|Deloris C. Traver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881939|Richard L. Houle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881954|Thomas A. Adamavich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881962|Gaetano Lombardo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881970|Kenneth L. Jewel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881982|Gloria Zimmerman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881988|Robert Lee Amos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95881998|John J. Valentine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882005|Edward J. Deasy Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882017|Vera Flint]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882040|Clementine E. Jamgochian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882045|Beverly J. Plessinger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882046|Robert Michael Sedor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882047|John Cassano]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882048|Jean Adele Walkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882049|Milton Sivels Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882055|Terrence George Driscoll]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882058|Janice Lin Bisley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882059|Anna Sternik Warren]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882061|Melford Henson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882062|Gene Zahas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882066|Krist Angielen Guzman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882071|Diana G. DeVito Swist]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Diana G. DeVito - 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882072|Fred J. Felella Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882073|Mike Field]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882074|Anne Turner Gaillard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Cornelia Annette Turner - 1962.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882075|Marlene B. Mandle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882081|Constance M. O'Connor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882084|Peter Bainum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882085|Zoao Makumbi Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882087|Charlie Hopper]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882088|Bettie London Traxler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882093|Herbert Nygren]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882097|Marsha Lee Holiday]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882098|Bruce W. Sowalski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882099|Amelia Scott Dougherty]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Amelia Martha Scott - 1953.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882100|Janice Preschel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Janice Preschel - 1977.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882104|Maxwell M. Mozell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882109|Joseph Migliucci]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882110|Philip A. Scardilli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882111|Theodore Robert Zaterka]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882112|Barbara E. Woznicki]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882522|Torrin Jamal Howard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882529|Robert Steven Seldin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882542|Rocco Anthony Ward Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882551|Lynne Sierra]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882559|William Brett Tracy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882564|Marion Krueger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882565|Kenneth R. Going]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882566|Robert C. Blades]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882567|Jolene Blackburn Robison Wahgren]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882576|Richard Daniel Harris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882577|Russell Aucott]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882578|Kelly Doyle Oliver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882579|Walter Everett Barton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882580|Joyce Roberts]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882581|Adrienne Eugina Doolin Howard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882584|John Robert Oglesbee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882590|Jean D. Tobin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jean Nilson - 1947.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882591|Howard J. Bender]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882592|Randolph Maitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882593|Donald Geoffrey Helliwell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882601|Wilfred Jay Sikkema]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882602|Anna Elizabeth Pearson Lugg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882603|Ronald Burdette Culp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882604|Robert Charles Bazzell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882605|Jose Vitelio Gregorio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882607|Edward Russell Helfrich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882615|Dorothy Spanos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882616|Nancy A. Richard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Nancy Nutter - 1952.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882617|Mary Ann Yazzie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882618|Nancy Taylor]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882620|Mary Ann Scata]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882627|Virginia Bettencourt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Virginia Navarra - 1945.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882628|Dolores A. Vail]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882629|Marguerite M. Horgus]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Marguerite Wolanski - 1950.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882630|Brenda Lee Orebaugh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882631|Alice Fraher-Mason]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882639|Linda L. Orendorff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882640|Nora Malis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882641|Marie A. Detrick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882642|Michael L. Trombley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Michael Lee Trombley - 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95882643|Edith Costanzo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882645|Ronald Wilfred LePage]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882652|Edward A. Masterson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882653|Dante Dennis Flagello]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882654|Raymond W. Wilkinson Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882655|Stewart Markham Fish]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882660|Barry G. Fisher]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882664|Carl Gunther Reiss]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1206012|German Reich]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882665|Luke Workoff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95882666|Janet M. Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883101|Linda Nute]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883102|John E. Broadly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883107|Florence Marks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883111|Carmen Lydia Muniz Rodriguez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883112|Calvin E. Messner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883113|Charles Willis Alston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883114|Thomas Neal Therrian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883115|Steve Joltin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883116|Marie Caronia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883124|Marion Klein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883125|Liudas Karolis Mikalonis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883126|Alice Coopersmith Furst]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883127|Stephen J. Chamberlin Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883132|Maclear Jacoby Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Maclear Jacoby Jr. - 1989.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883136|Barry Kaye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883137|Joraine Sieber Groat]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883138|Douglas H. Diamond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Douglas H. Diamond - 1955.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883139|Walter M. Eagles Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883143|James Ventrillo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883148|Melita Baker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883149|Jim J. Wolf Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883150|Frances M. Pilot]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Frances Macho - 1956.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883151|Merlene Sue Hughes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883152|Helen Silvia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883156|James Lowell Miller Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883161|Joan Cecile Berngen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883162|Laura Yopp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883163|Carole Montalbano]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883164|Wesley Richard Fahrbach II]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883169|Craig Franken]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883173|Anthony V. Racka]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883174|Stanley Marvin Grossman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883175|Francis A. Kennedy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Francis A. Kennedy - 1950s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883176|Raymond Paul Janssen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883185|Bob Barnum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883186|Katherine Ann Birkmaier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883187|Carol Freedman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883188|John B. Lynch]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883189|Richard Alexander Ross Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883193|John B. Ahrens]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883196|Leon Martin Beels]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883199|Tonna Lee Pratt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883200|Martha Eddy O'Brien]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883202|Patricia Plante]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883206|Carl A. Philipp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883213|Crystal LaBelle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883222|Fred Walter Gray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883231|Frederick Brown Starr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883241|Dolores M. Madera]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883253|Michael Angelo Church]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Michael A. Church - 1968.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883651|Frank McClellan Worthington]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883659|James Ronald Conley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ron Conley - 1969.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95883660|Florence Ethel Buenzly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883661|Sandra McCauley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883662|Gertrude Clemmer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883663|Beverly J. Collins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883664|Ronald P. Clark]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883665|Paul Martinez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883673|Cheryl E. Petty]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883674|Monica Maley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883675|Carla Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883676|Joan M. Cargill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883682|Robert M. Shaw]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883685|Jeanne Madden Cibroski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883686|Elizabeth Harris Tirrell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883687|Steven J. Huber]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883688|Billie Jean Michael Habermehl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883689|Darla Eileen Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883698|James W. Landis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883699|Arthur Louis Thibault]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883700|Gary Tillery]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883701|Michael James Reagan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883708|Tony Maldonado]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883710|Tracie L. Heverly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883711|Roxana Griswold Foreman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883712|Peggy Rakestraw]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883713|Norman Leslie Jenkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883714|John Fusco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883721|Harry P. Misthos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883723|Allen Joseph Spinner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883724|Salomon S. Podgursky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883725|Ellen Marie Pauze]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883726|JoAnn Stokes-Smith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883735|Joseph Colasurdo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883744|Carol Sue Rubin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883754|Irvin Alder]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883769|Denise Camille Buczek]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883780|Richard J. Rome]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883795|Eileen Marie Stanton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883807|Susan McPherson Gottsegen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883820|Londia Viola Mongold Deavers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883829|Deyrold Arteaga]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883834|Paul James Nagy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883835|Joseph T. Cappello]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883836|Maria Tassiopoulos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883837|Alberto Castro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883838|Helen Boles Days]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883846|Carole Kaye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883847|Richard Joseph Lenihan Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95883848|Luther Coleman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884214|JoAnne Katherine Walther]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884215|Durlene Clontz Shuffler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884216|Jeanette Gilmour]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jeanette Gilmour - 1960.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884217|John Joseph Christiana Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884218|Fritz Wilhelm Reisgies]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884226|Ronald Jacobus]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ronald Jacobus - 1956.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884227|Bernard David Seckler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884228|Clifford J. Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884229|Bette Allred Weatherly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884232|Robert Manley Argo Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884238|Phil Langley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884239|Mary Frances Parsels Dennis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884241|Mary M. Desole]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Mary Margaret Thomas - 1943.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884242|John F. Von Sternberg Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884244|Thomas Tarbell Russell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884246|Myrtha Celifie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884254|Norma Hoza]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Norma Lenore Bratschi - 1937.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884256|Nita Pippins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884259|Gloria Allen Moskowitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884261|Edward J. Bridgeford Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884268|Billy Ostland]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884283|Rodrick Samuels]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884292|Rita Paas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884301|Israel Sauz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884313|Paul R. McQuade]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884322|Robert L. Crahen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884332|Daniel James Parr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884351|Robert Grant Conner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884362|Merrick Dowson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884373|Verla L. Courey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884380|Patricia Gibbons]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884382|Thomas Allen Catron]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884384|Isaias Mendoza]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884385|Charles Donald Neal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884387|Wanda Bailey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884392|John Herman Clomax]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884400|Emmanuel Demetri]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884402|Bruce P. Biesenbach Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bruce P. Biesenbach, Sr.-(1945 - 2020).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884404|Artemis Nazarian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884407|Bill Mantell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884416|Merle C. Dry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884418|Harold L. Hayes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884420|Rosemarie Theresa Torrance]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884422|Rachel Walters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884423|Carol Carey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884426|Vincent G. Frainee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884432|Lucille Marie Resto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lucille Marie Stavola - 1961.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884433|Mercedes Santiago]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884434|Gerald Cassidy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884435|Lula Fitzpatrick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884796|John Joseph Reed Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884797|Edgar Orlando De La Roca]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884799|Jimmy Walters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884805|James O'Brien Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884807|Mari Jo Davitto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884808|Nancy Reid]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884809|Elaine Menchel Marcus]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Elaine Cheryl Menchel - 1962.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884810|Sean Boynes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884811|Theodore Gaffney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884824|Sharyn Lynn Vogel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884835|Sidney Siegel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884848|Larry Sylvester Hutchinson Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884861|Deane K. Felter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884880|Joan M. Hackney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884888|Landon Spradlin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884897|Rocco Patrick Ursino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884910|Nola Kathleen LaBudde]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884918|Ellen Spencer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884919|Paul Nathan Fontenot]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884920|Charles Goodstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Charles Goodstein - 1954.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884921|Roger Mckinney-Wagner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884925|Henry Burk Sullivan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Henry B. Sullivan - 1963.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884930|Duane G. Vock]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884931|Robert M. Sullivan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884932|Dorothy Cembrano Jay]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884933|Arlene Muriel MacIntyre]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884940|Louvenia Henderson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884943|Chester Dwulet]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884944|Jorge F. Casals]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884945|Mary Gilbert]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884946|Alan F. Krupp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884950|Michael A. Hill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884955|Robert Woodward]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884956|Mary Therese Loughery]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884957|Peter Sakas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884958|Elsie Rossitto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884959|Shirley S. D'Stefan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884967|Jeanne Hammond Byrnes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884968|Melvin Pumphrey]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884969|Anna M. Gayton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884970|Owen Moreland Parks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884971|Roy Northway Stephens]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884976|Jeanette Marie Baldwin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884980|John Pearson Brucher]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:John Brucher - 1957.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884981|Michael Lee Jordan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884982|Timothy E. Murray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Timothy E. Murray - high school graduation 1955.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95884983|Joseph J. Deren Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95884987|Loida Cruz Arroyo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885433|Charles Miles]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885444|Cynthia Whiting]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885454|Arlene M. Horowitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Arlene M. Fratkin - 1959.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95885462|John Larry Sartain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885472|James Kevin Malloy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885483|Clara Louise Bennett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885491|Patricia H. Thatcher]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885500|Peter J. Brancazio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885510|Bobby Lee Barber]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885518|Joan A. Lenhart]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885519|Ruth Hunter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885521|Estelle Kestenbaum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Estelle B. Greenwald.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95885528|Judith Lee Arkerson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885530|Tommie Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885532|Irene Ann Allen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885533|Kenneth A. Rago]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885535|Maria Gibbs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885536|James C. Whittemore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885546|Anna Marie Lopiccolo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885547|Allen Francis Tinkham]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885549|Charles Walter Calhoun]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885550|Guy A. LaVignera]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885551|Kenneth K. Skoog]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885560|James E. Mann Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885561|Paul Ronald Joseph]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885563|Louis B. Bernstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885564|Arthur Rogers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885566|Randy Wichlacz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885575|Frankie L. Morris Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885576|José Díaz-Ayala]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885577|Paul A. Hamel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885579|Cornelius Lawyer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885581|Dorothy Murphy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885582|Norman Walker Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885590|Florence Cahill Flaherty]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885592|Barbara Yazbeck Vethacke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885594|Nikima Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885595|Kerry Lehman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885597|Mary Minervini]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885605|Frances A. Orsini]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885606|Mae T. Roser]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885609|Regina D. Cullen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885611|Elizabeth Tevenan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885612|Dolores Marie DeLaurentis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Dolores Marie DeLaurentis - 1949.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95885615|Jana Prince]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885622|Malcolm C. Shaw Jr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885624|Sheena Renee Comfort Miles]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885625|Martha Leroy Wilson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95885626|James David Gewirtzman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:James David Gewirtzman - 1966.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95885628|Regina Dix-Parsons]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886139|Henry N. Dubois]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886140|Robert H. Westphal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886141|Audrey L. Ercha]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886142|Edward L. Ghidotti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Edward Ghidotti - 1950.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886150|Edith Gallo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886151|Ron Frangipane]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886152|Ferdi German]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886153|Richard M. Cieslak]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886155|Mildred W. Blough]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886163|Randy G. Addison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886164|Rosalie J. Downes Emrich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886165|John Bradford Hubert II]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886167|Robert R. Stout]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886174|Eva Charlotte Julewitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886175|Dale E. Thurman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886176|Horace Saunders]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886178|Mary T. King]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886179|Joseph Angeline]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886180|Muriel E. Lundgren]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886187|Barbara Ann Loreck]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886189|Kathleen Domenick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886190|Muriel M. Going]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886191|Charles Dow Long]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886192|Dorothy V. Indeck]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886200|Ina Macko]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Ina Place - 1941.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886201|Julia Maye Alexander]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886202|Virginia Alice Rauth]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886204|Cynthia Jean Falle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886205|Johnnie D. Veasley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886206|William Jonathan Glenney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886213|Mary E. Mack]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886215|Calvin Richardson Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886216|Arthur Winthrop Barstow]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886217|Raymond Kenny]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886223|Susan Grey Hopp Crofoot]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886226|Robert F. Brady Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886227|Antoinette Meyer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886229|Barbara Helen Richardson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886230|Michael Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886232|Luis Juarez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886240|Jeffrey Stanley Lin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886241|Stanley L. Morse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886242|John A. Bailargeon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886243|Steven P. St. Laurent]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886244|Lawrence W. Stedl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Larry Stedl - 1969.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886252|John Timothy Barr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886261|Patrick Conran]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886273|Leroy Perryman Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886282|Jonathan Adewumi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886297|Elizabeth Batista]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886713|Peter S. Miguel Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886714|Betty Jo Barney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886716|Nelson Perdomo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ايل سيلويڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886717|Randolph Warren Whipple]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886718|Jane Krumrine]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886724|Bennie Webb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886727|Dean Leroy Drake]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886728|William E. Jackman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886729|John Schoffstall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886730|Hilda R. Nagel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886737|Manda Klancir]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886739|Margueritte Martha McCain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886740|Edie Morello]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Edith Elizabeth Spanish - 1941.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886743|Lillian Kimura]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886744|Thomas A. Real]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886745|LaKisha Willis White]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886751|John P. Derrico]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887962|Lucius Hall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887963|Glenn Daniel Bellitto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887970|Judith Plotkin-Goldberg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887972|Coby Adolph]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887973|Don Whan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887974|Albert K. Webster]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Albert K. Webster, Manager of Far East Tour of Harvard Glee Club (13563366944) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95887975|Kevin J. Masterson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887983|Ronald Willenkamp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887985|Lloyd Paul Leftwich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887986|Ann Kolb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887987|Helen Kafkis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887988|Julie Butler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887990|Antonio Nieves]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887996|Ann Youngerman Smoler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887998|Thomas J. Waters]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887999|Kyra Michelle Swartz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888000|Rhoda Hatch]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888001|Eugene Lamar Limbrick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888009|June Beverly Hill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888010|Kamal Ahmed]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888011|Raymond Copeland]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888012|Lester Eber]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888013|Leo Sreebny]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888015|Robert Barghaan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888022|Howard Alexander Nelson Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Howard Nelson - 1952.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95888023|Allan Joseph Dickson Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888024|Timothy Branscomb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888025|Reuben Gutoff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888026|Gerard Rosenberg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888034|Marty Derer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888463|Harold Reisner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888464|Kevin John Cahill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888465|Mario Araujo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888466|James V. Walsh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888474|William D. Greeke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888475|Beatrice Rubin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888476|Jack Butler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888477|Hailey Herrera]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888478|Joseph F. Kelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888486|Perry Buchalter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888487|Faralyn Havir]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888488|Marlon Alston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888489|Joseph W. Hammond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888490|Peter Kafkis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888491|Tommie Adams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888499|Myra Helen Robinson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888501|Conrad Duncker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888502|Chianti Jackson Harpool]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888503|Ilona Murai Kerman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888511|Stuart Cohen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888512|George J. Foerst Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888513|Mauricio Valdivia]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888514|Claudia Obermiller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888515|Myles Coker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888523|Marcus Edward Cooper Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888524|Rosemarie Amerosi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888525|Marie Scanlan Walker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888526|Parker Knoll]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888527|Rosemarie Franzese]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888528|Arlola Rawls]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888536|Adam Kovacs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888537|Peter M. Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888538|Irene Gasior]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888539|Margaret Laughlin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888540|Doris Mae Burkhart Kale]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888548|Ben Doherty]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888549|Josephine Posnanski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888550|John Watson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888551|Maria Garcia-Rodelo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888552|Harold Davis Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888553|Timothy Ross]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888561|Sherrell Stokes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888562|Larry Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888563|Billy Ross]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888564|Edmon C. Carmichael]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888565|Tom Ferguson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888573|Gwendolyn A. Carmichael]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888574|Shidao Wang]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95888575|Levie Barkley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889010|Saul Moreno]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889011|Philemon Najieb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889012|Jerome Michael Zottolo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889014|Benjamin DiGiovanni]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889021|Nancy M. Allen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889022|Onielo De Luzio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889023|Lawrence Nokes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889024|James Merle Weaver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889025|Cathryn Wood]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889033|Moses Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889034|Paul J. Foley Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889035|Joseph J. Angi Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889036|Ruthie Jacqueline Stephens Turner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889037|Gerry Ellis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Gerry Norris - 1946.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889043|Emma Seifrit Weigley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Emma Seifrit - 1950.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889046|Yuet Ming Wong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1054923|British Hong Kong]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889047|Josephine Tapiru]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889048|Norma Jean Knight]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889049|Patricia McGowan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889055|David Toren]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889058|Joseph M. Kissane]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889059|Boro Lalich]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889060|Richard Emmett Powers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889062|Ron Waxman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889069|Frederick Koerner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889071|Herb Baum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889072|Peter Laker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889073|Suzanne Raynal Gijsbers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889074|Willie Gene Whitaker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889081|William F. Latimer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889085|Peter P. DeLuise]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889086|Retha Elizabeth Contri Sharp]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889087|Robert Adam Burns]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889097|Alma M. Carney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889098|Mark Schroeder]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889099|Lucille Dolores Romer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889100|Gerald Ringdahl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889106|Ed Smrekar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889117|William Harrison Goldman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889127|Anibal Francisco de Brito]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڪيپ ورڊي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889138|Clyde Addison Reichelderfer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889152|Betty Jean Ringle]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889166|Oluwayemisi Ogunnubi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889178|Helen Demetoglous]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889186|Calvin Tompkins Lucy Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889195|Margaret Skaliotis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889560|Latasha Andrews]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889561|Rona Iris Gertz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889562|Patricia Rowe]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889563|Terry G. Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889564|Luis A. Frias]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889565|Edith Richemond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889570|Raphael Kaminer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889574|Eve Rudin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889575|Louise N. Walsh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889576|Britta Lou Miller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889581|Robert C. Samuels]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889585|Lillian Press]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889586|Kenneth James Godwin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Kenneth James Godwin - 1943.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889587|Linda Joy Nassif]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889588|Emmy Falta]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889593|Wayne L. Wolford]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889598|Leslie Kalmus]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889602|Daniel James Callahan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:James Callahan - 1946.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889607|Alexander Webster Cruden Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889613|Ann Bonville Trombly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889617|Asela E. Gejo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889627|Georgianna Glose]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889638|Ijeoma Afuke]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889653|Jerome Berrien]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889663|Floyd Bluntson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889676|Dorothy May Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889688|Nicholas Modugno]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889697|Thomas Cotton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889705|David Bernstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889706|Myra Janet Headley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889707|Mary Elizabeth Parr]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Mary Elizabeth Gribbin - 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889708|Marjorie P. Tabechian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889716|Robert William Dietz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889717|Arthur Charles Lindholm]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889718|Frank M. Goewey Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889719|Harrison Solliday]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889720|Michael Armstrong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889722|Mary Doyle Hovanec]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889729|Rosa Luna]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889730|Geraldine Marie McGovern]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889731|Gerald Alton Cook]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Jerry Cook - 1951.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95889733|Wilma Ruth Montgomery]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889741|Thomas F. McDermott]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889743|Wayne Drye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889744|Hildur T. Stanton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889745|Jaimala Singh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889746|Richard Lynn Heggen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889747|Terri Lynn Clark]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95889754|Alexander Leon Lloyd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890143|Lloyd Cornelius Porter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890147|Wilman Sánchez Cabrera]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890156|Alexandra Louise Polansky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890167|Dale A. Boston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890176|Claude Reno Doucette]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890187|Janice L. McNelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Janice L. Nelson 1958.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95890196|Nelson Henry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890206|P. Michael Baillargeon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890214|Margaret MacVeagh Schweers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890245|Raymond Gayle Burgett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Raymond Burkett - 1952.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95890252|Michael J. Mchugh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890253|Mary Ann Bregar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890254|Marilyn Luella Tayse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890255|Roland Henry Lacasse]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890256|Marguerite Peyser]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890257|Thomas A. Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890264|Genowefa Kochanek]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890267|Joel I. Sneider]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890269|Cornelia Ann Hunt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95890270|William Hrabnicky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96024601|Hu Weifeng]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96041028|Wajid Ali Khan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96042027|Miss Biá]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96051461|Dominique Boutet]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96056565|Celine Fariala Mangaza]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96067499|Rafael Leonardo Black]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886754|Lucy Yanushefski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886755|Angeline Michalopulos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886756|Jonathan Crachat Carreira Ferreira]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886758|Patricia Yanni]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886765|Elizabeth N. Updegrave]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886766|Clark Osojnicki]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886767|Linda Benedict]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886769|Rosemary Hoell Rushka]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886770|Paul Warech]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886771|Judy Therrian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886781|Jermaine Ferro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886783|Dennis Alan Bradt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886786|Marcia Rushford]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886788|Andrea Ruth Ludgin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886791|Susan C. Menoche]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886801|Shirley Eileen Zimmerman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886813|Charles Constantino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886822|Eric F. Anderson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Eric Anderson - 1957.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886831|Quentin Cormell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886852|Sandra Piotrowski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886861|Betty Eleanor Fennelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Bette Nelson - 1951.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q95886874|Ida Esposito]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886883|Kerri Ann Kennedy-Tompkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886891|Scott Melter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886892|Barbara Mae Barham]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886893|Michael Albert Shubak]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886894|Davis Begaye]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886895|Suchendra Singh]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[فجي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886904|Edna Saikkonen Alve]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886905|Stanley M. Cohen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886906|Catherine Drouin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886907|William G. Bennett]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95886908|Justin Liuba]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887280|Ross L. Saddlemire]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887281|Grace Nutland]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887282|Timothy H. Gray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887287|John Pope]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887291|Robert J. LeBlanc]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887292|Rosemary Ann Hughes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887293|Ralph R. Loranger]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887294|Wee Chu Wong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887295|Albert H. Irwin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887303|Laurie Appell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887305|Viraf Darukhanawalla]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887306|Jeannette M. Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887307|David E. Carman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887308|Ina Shaw Mirviss]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887314|Margaret Busha]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887321|Jerry Alford]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887332|Marion Lucille Kujda]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887363|Kimarlee Nguyen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887373|Ronaldo Ferrari]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887384|Sawarrelita Redmond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887394|Loretta Mendoza Dionisio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887405|Patricia Frieson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887417|Michael Mika]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887418|Alan Lund]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887419|John Cofrancesco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887420|Carl Redd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887421|Alvin Elton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887428|Kevin Charles Patz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887431|Theresa Elloie]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887432|Joseph Graham]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887434|Robert Earl Schaefer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887437|Gerald Anthony Morales]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887443|Frederick Carl Harris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887445|Christine McLaurin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887446|Mary Virginia McKeon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887447|Andreas Koutsoudakis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887455|James Quigley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887456|Sherman Pittman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887457|Harvey Bayard]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887459|Alice Chavdarian]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887460|Bassey Offiong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887462|Jéssica Beatriz Cortez]]'' | | [[ايل سيلويڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887469|Cedric Dixon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887470|Freda Ocran]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887471|Julian Anguiano-Maya]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887472|Minette Goff Cooper]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887473|Joseph Micajah Thomas II]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887837|Herman Boehm]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887838|Phillip Thomas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887846|Robert M. Weintraub]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887854|Joseph Yaggi]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887862|David Reissig]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887872|Angelo Piro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887883|Sandra Lee deBlecourt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887892|Jose Vazquez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887899|Clair Dunlap]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887926|Sandra Santos-Vizcaino]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887935|Roger Eckart]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887945|Daniel Spector]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887947|Antonio Checo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887948|Albert Petrocelli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887949|Florencio Almazo Morán]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887950|Jennifer Robin Arnold]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887951|Jesus Roman Melendez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887955|Audrey Malone]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887960|Azade Kılıç]]'' | | [[ترڪي]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q95887961|Nancy Ferguson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96067751|Turhan Kaya]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96072211|Fabiana Anastácio]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96096540|Charles Hertel]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96098113|Paul Kuentzmann]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96099070|Luis Tapiru II]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96102105|Marcos Montero]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96102692|Ismail Gamadiid]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96130472|Malcolm Kela Smith]]'' | | [[پاپوا نيو گني]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[آسٽريليا]] | | | [[فائل:Malcolm Smith-Kela (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96133142|Tom Mulholland]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96169315|Afwerki Abraha]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96172631|Ashok Gasti]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96175697|Laura Bernal]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96180005|Mary J. Wilson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96186936|Luis Repetto Málaga]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Los museos son espacios culturales que reafirman nuestra identidad.mp4 snapshot 05.16 (2020.08.04 11.49.56).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96200463|Adriano Silva]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96209239|Christian Bousquet]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96215909|Eva Konrad Hawkins]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96241334|Juan Sanabria]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96252244|Ali Hadi]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96274278|Aslam Baba]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96312941|Nasir Ajanah]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96323819|Abdul Ghafar Atan]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96324008|David Cohen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96357188|Aurelio Desdentado Bonete]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96370232|Nur Omar Mohamed]]'' | | [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96391530|Mahmoud Hammoud]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | [[فائل:2020-21 Chabab Ghazieh vs Shabab Sahel 02 (Mahmoud Hammoud).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96405149|Marie A. Turzo]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405150|Nola Schwartz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405152|Marilyn Alston]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405153|Abraham Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405154|Richard Erlichman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405155|Florencio Cruz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96405156|Barbara Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96436881|Robert Washington]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459616|Ross Mordecai]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459620|Edward Magliocco]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459622|Ying Kao Lee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459624|Larry Singer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459628|Lou Pompilio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459630|Michael McIntyre]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96459633|John Charles Diaz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96461719|Leonidas Pelekanakis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96463203|John Treen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96463631|José Ramón Ónega]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464297|Cathy Apothaker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464298|Rosemary Thompson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464300|Kathleen Duffy]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464301|Sylvia Millrood]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464302|Rosemary W. Tucker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464303|Lysa Dawn Robinson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464304|Ruth Rosenstock]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464305|Irene Loretta Cassady]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464306|Patti Kelly-Peightal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464307|Mildred McLean-Terrell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464308|Paddy McNichol]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464309|Karen Kelly]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464310|Ramona Thomas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464311|Peggy Crane]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464312|Sarah Nader]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464313|Rochelle King]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464314|Walter Bohn Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464315|Vito A. Cosmo Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464316|John F. Murray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464318|Avraham MacConnell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464319|Craig TenBroeck]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464320|Luka A. Marano Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464322|Helen B. Days]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464323|Ronald Jamison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464324|William Collins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464325|Kevin Bundy Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464326|Robert Doubet]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:R. Doubet —1946.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96464327|Francis Dufner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464328|Joseph W. Murray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464329|Barry Gelman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464330|Hal Stein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464331|L. Theodore Lawrence Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464332|Joseph Zingaro]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464334|Charles Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464335|Richard Coppola]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464337|Bob Griffith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464338|Bernice Teller]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464339|Michael R. Walker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464340|Jasper Daniels Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464341|Dennis Small Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464342|Joe Perrott]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464343|George Schneider]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464344|Edward Horowitz]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464345|Joe Tunney]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464346|Mary Schneider]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464430|June McIntyre]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464431|Lena Sims]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464432|Eric M. Gore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464433|Brian Holcomb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464435|Richard Aronson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464436|Mike Forrest]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464437|Theodore Nixon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96464510|Eileen Atkins]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96470807|Lynika Strozier]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Lynika Strozier 2011.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96473280|Mary Wilson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96575383|Clarence Mini]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96587386|Mary Tiffen]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96606866|Jampel Lodoy]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96624229|Sergio Jacobo Gutiérrez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96624928|Pablo Puente Aparicio]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96656030|Manaf Taleb]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96678709|Marconi Alencar]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96695037|Md. Shahjahan Ali Talukder]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96710071|Haidari Wujodi]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:حیدری وجودی.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96756329|Anthony Obiagboso Enukeme]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96758970|Mohamed El Milahi]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96774796|Syed Aal E Imran]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96789500|Eurídice Moreira]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96979351|Yupadee Kobkulboonsiri]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q96987607|Soepriyatno]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Anggota DPR Soepriyatno.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96987964|Bambang Suryadi]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bambang Suryadi, Member of the People's Representative Council.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96988315|Jimmy Demianus Ijie]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Jimmy Demianus Ijie.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96988673|Gatot Sudjito]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Gatot Sudjito.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96989495|Ali Taher]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Ali Taher.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q96989513|John Siffy Mirin]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:John Siffy Mirin Family (cropped face).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97011238|Inuwa Abdulkadir]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97011316|Mamadou Bamba Ndiaye]]'' | | [[سينيگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97012125|Mahendra Yadav]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97013763|Sylvio Capanema]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97013788|Aristoteles Atheniense]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Aristoteles Atheniense.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97015683|Julio Jimenez Llanque]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97016566|Howard Croft]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97016619|Godwin Achinge]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97036815|Gordon Kegakilwe]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97045148|Charles Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97101228|Richard di Liberto]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97105191|Reyna Marlene de los Ángeles Catzín Cih]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97119149|Noloyiso Sandile]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97119870|Liao Jianjun]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97129077|Ghaida Kambash]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97129737|Ricardo Mthembu]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97137136|Faqir Nabi]]'' | | [[افغانستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97138189|Abdullah al Mohsin Chowdhury]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97143554|Mohamed Kouradji]]'' | | [[الجزائر]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97176731|Amadou Salif Kebe]]'' | | [[گني|گائينا]] | | | [[فائل:Me Amadou Salif Kébé en 2019.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97183473|Gopal Krishna Saxena]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97194729|Alireza Raheb]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97217254|Etibar Babayev]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97217357|Fərman Bağırov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97220091|Sayyad Alizade]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97306828|Iwan Dwiprahasto]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97317138|Qainan Al-Zahrani]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97321345|Alfred Mtsi]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97338873|Noh Gil-nam]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97342569|Mário Calixto Filho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345163|Jose Alfredo Moron]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345165|Michael Aubrey Wiskur]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345166|Nellie B. Stokes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345167|L. B. Perry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345168|David Buffington Wham]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345169|Gloria Cervantes Zamudio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345172|Walter J. Blase]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345174|Lisette Kohn Gale]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345175|Christopher L. Hammond]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345176|Mohammad Riad Hussain Ismat]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345177|Maria Rita Ripa]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345178|Diana T. Jun]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345179|Gregori V. Armstrong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345180|Kai Wong Sam]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345181|Saul Ben-Zeev]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345182|Ramiro Barcena]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345183|Diane Ramonas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345184|Dalis Ramonas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345186|Gerald Boerman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345187|Bridget Bahal]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345188|Patricia Ciametti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345189|Simon Zamudio]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345190|Julie Maldonado]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345191|Raymond Niwa]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345192|Gabrail Ismayl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345194|Nicolasa Estrada]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345195|Phillip Cooper]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345196|Carol DeWitt]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345198|Edward Singleton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345199|Albert Stokes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345200|Robert Brieske]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345202|Willie Hall]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345204|Steve Hudson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345205|Mary McKeon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345207|John LaPlante]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345208|Virginia Gray]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345212|Mary Christien]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345213|Luigi Pierpaoli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345215|Hecky Powell]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345216|Richard Moenning]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345217|John Johnson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345218|Francisco Gomez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345219|Maria Gomez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345240|Saul Velazquez]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345241|Crystal Cantrell-Barbee]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345243|Charley Hill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345245|Lambros Karkazis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345247|Lillian Nakawatase]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345248|George Parrott]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345250|Esperanza Ugalde]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345252|Morris Loeb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345330|Roselind Barsevick]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345333|Larry Harris]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345334|William Hollaar]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345336|Debbie Decker]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345340|Marvin Mazzucchelli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345341|Albert Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345343|Feliks Ogorodnik]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345345|Kathleen Takash]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345347|Jim Schwark]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345348|Safa Suleyman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345350|Elizabeth Cota]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345351|James Gettings]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345353|Bernadine Summers]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345354|Ronald Landsman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345355|James Bragiel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345356|Martha Singleton]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345357|Elizabeth Henry]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345358|Moses Jones]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345359|John Mazzucchelli]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345361|Joseph Carnes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345367|Elwyte Gardner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345369|Tommie Adams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345371|Brenda Bolden]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345372|Philman Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345373|Nancy Halbauer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345574|Mary Duggan Philbin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345575|William Griffin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345576|Roger Griggs]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97345577|Asberry Stoudemire]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97372585|Hanna Palska]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97388797|Mohamed Mounir]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97400267|Domingos Mãhörõ]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97440861|Irene Lalji]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Irene Lalji (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97466640|Яўген Уладзіміравіч Мядзько]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97467461|Manoel da Lenha]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97495832|Angela von Nowakonski]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97500756|Norberto Padilla]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97578686|César Salinas]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97579656|Jorge Villavicencio]]'' | | [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]] | | | [[فائل:Ex ministro Villavicencio (Nómada) (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97590799|Bahrum Daido]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bahrum Daido (2018) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97670845|Lloyd Cafe Cadena]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:GUILTY or NOT GUILTY! FT. LLOYD CADENA 5s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q97671575|Patrick Ellis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97704644|Homayoun Reza Atardi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97704692|James Rudd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97750531|Steve dePyssler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97774567|Pamela Rush]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97824637|Salko Bukvarević]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97930996|Katherine B. Hoffman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q97940401|Kōichi Yokono]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98036542|O'ktam Barnoyev]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[ازبڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98041231|Bill Montgomery]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98065588|Alieu Mboge]]'' | | [[گيمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98065792|Mohammad Barkatullah]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98072664|Satyanarayan Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Satyanarayn Singh.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98083027|Masaru Ezaki]]'' | | [[جاپان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98092502|Carlos Rosas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98106246|Manabendra Bandyopadhyay]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98108040|Arun Guhathakurta]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98108920|Shyamal Chakraborty]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>[[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98145736|German (Chesnokov)]]'' | | [[روسي سوويت وفاقي سوشلسٽ جمهوريه]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98149217|Mohamed Adib Slaoui]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98240163|M. I. Sambou-Gassama]]'' | | [[گيمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98247997|Pierre Boubarne]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98382520|Tjandermatie Soekhai]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98449532|Bernaldina José Pedro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98457692|Jamyang Choegyal Kasho]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Jamyang Choegyal Kasho.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98459576|Konstantin Markov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | [[فائل:Legendite 2016 06.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98514406|Raúl Rubio Burgos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98514941|Theodore Corcoran]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98518138|Lungile Pepeta]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98527416|Jorge Flores Ochoa]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:JAFO.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98527646|Umesh Dastane]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98543285|Tariq Shafi]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98545382|Kesar Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98561146|Ahmed Badouj]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | [[فائل:Ahmed Badouj - Argan.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98596471|Nina Popova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98600373|John Cooke]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98637362|Vergillio Rebin]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Vergillio Rebin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98690717|Paddy Garritty]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]<br/>[[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98714288|Evelyn Nicol]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98761510|Harry Seager]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98844761|Cecilia Romo]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98889006|Ramón Silva Bahamondes]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98908359|Ahmed Al-Qadri]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98914210|Vimala Sharma]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Vimala Sharma.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98918949|Johny Bakshi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98924391|Kris Heggenhougen]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98924502|William Neikirk]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:WILLIAM R. NEIKIRK.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q98931500|Raosaheb Antapurkar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98971880|Karim Kamalov]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q98994281|KS Firoz]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99052066|Luisa Revilla]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Luisa Revilla (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q99198811|Yousef Abu-Safieh]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99244285|Kendal Royo]]'' | | [[پاناما]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99300113|Rubén Corimayo]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99306278|Juan Carlos Alcoba]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:JUAN CARLOS ALCOBA.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q99316693|Valery Semanzo]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q133356|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99409157|Miguel Acundo González]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99421575|Eddie Mosley]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:EddieMosley.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q99432805|Margaret Waterchief]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105078440|Falah Mandkar]]'' | | [[ڪويت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105083943|Martha Madrigal]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105084390|Marius Swart]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Marius Swart.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105085298|Georgeta Luchian Tudor]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105085435|Sekou Smith]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105097673|Anita R. Schiller]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105098482|Paradzai Zimondi]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105099966|Wahab Adegbenro]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105100101|Muspandi]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105120942|Abbas Khan]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Nawab Ali Abbas khan (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105183759|Ray Rayburn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105184059|Dennis Mileti]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105198678|Percy Tucker]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105208032|Julio Roberto Gómez]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105222367|John Gibbons]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105223109|Kwasi Sainti Baffoe-Bonnie]]'' | | [[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105229566|Octavian Cojan]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105263600|Ismail Kijo]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105295115|Vicent Raga]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:RAGA Vicent foto VW.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105297032|Maria Andrea Gaspar]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105319487|Mathoor Govindan Kutty]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105337022|Sylvia Lieber]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105346796|Zezinho Corrêa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Zezinho Corrêa - 1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105399622|Steve Turney]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105404824|László Huszár]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[سلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105414316|Robb Webb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105421772|Patricia Healey]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105424134|Cynthia Turner]]'' | | [[مالٽا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105426998|Manuel Salinas]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:ManuelSalinas2.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105452340|Zoila Águila Almeida]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | [[فائل:Zoila Águila Almeida.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105452765|Javier Neves]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105517287|Purificación Atrián Jordán]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105532898|Zaire Rezende]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105581015|Jaleel Smith-Riley]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105586692|James Medhurst]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105620263|Pastor Heydra]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105627376|Quoc Anh]]'' | | [[ويٽنام]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105637139|Consuelo Rodríguez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105640581|Enrico Obletter]]'' | | [[آسٽريليا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105641786|Barbara Ann Rowan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105646427|B. Raghavan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105659455|Madeleine Humbertclaude]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105675497|Élida Rasino]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105679224|Sofia Zhukova]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105696486|Bob Pixel]]'' | | [[گھانا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105710323|José Manuel Cortizas]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105722839|Mike Bradner]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Mike Bradner.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105727602|Erica Watson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105729922|Jorge Marticorena Cuba]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105730949|Víctor Espinoza Peña]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105737171|Anna Majani]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105746143|Marta Martin Carrera-Ruiz]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105748342|Diego Gómez]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Diego Gómez Cabrera.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105753833|Kenneth Mthiyane]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105755145|Karima Brown]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105756142|Rachel Cathoud]]'' | | [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105782944|Osvaldo Mércuri]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105841567|Peter Matlare]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105871502|Daniel Voisin]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105943521|Jiří Engliš]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105954720|Algaci Tulio]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:ALGACIT2002.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105954938|Asongo Alalaparu]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Asongo Alalaparu (2020).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105969816|Malak Ismael]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105977858|Esteban Gómez Rovira]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105978052|Marco Bogarelli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105987426|Jaroslav Střeštík]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106009569|František Prošek]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106009696|Edgar García]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106009916|Jaromír Vytopil]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Jaromir Vytopil.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106011242|Miloslav Čechura]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106044069|Eyrolles Michel Mvunzi Meya]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106084284|Katyayani Shankar Bajpai]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106099414|Edson Montenegro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106109480|Wojciech Krawczyk]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106112793|Antonio Pérez González]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106122752|Natale Bozzo]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106163378|Hanna Lypkivska]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106175318|Toabur Rahim]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106194747|İmran Kılıç]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106204763|Abu Asif Barghouti]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106218592|Rito Jiménez]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106218656|Theresa M. Korn]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106228708|Yousef Ozreil]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106230021|Francis Pelekamoyo]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106241908|Kombo James Moyana]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106269407|Ellen Gwaradzimba]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106272177|Christian Ntshangase]]'' | | [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106297174|Karel Vávra]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106309840|Gurupada Mete]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106317446|Márton Brády]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106334361|Nemam Ghafouri]]'' | | [[عراق]]<br/>[[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106366913|Yinka Odumakin]]'' | | [[نائيجيريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106423215|Jacquiline Chikuta]]'' | | [[ملاوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106434042|Nestor Torre Jr.]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106463233|Füzuli Javadov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106466070|Hans Kristian Gaarder]]'' | | [[ناروي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106472216|François Matheron]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106473570|Babar Tadvi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106473583|Dugyala Srinivas Rao]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106474359|Irondi Mantovani Pugliesi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104028901|Leanid Zaika]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104049729|Valery Vinakurov]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104057606|Timoteo Ofrasio]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:OfrasioSJ.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104062635|Zbigniew Jurkiewicz]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104062775|Lise Funck-Brentano]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104094383|Donal Leace]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104123083|Pavel Hečko]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104126171|Jean Saliba]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104128390|Divya Bhatnagar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104128876|Judit Egerszegi]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104132756|Božidar Milenković]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104145641|Fazlul Haque Montu]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104147083|Omar Khashram]]'' | | [[اردن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104150437|Brittanya Karma]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104150471|Lillian Elena Blancas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104150631|Damir Kukuruzović]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104155741|Dawn Lindberg]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104176273|Jerrold Post]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104178897|Lucio Moderato]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104192199|Jerzy Steckiewicz]]'' | | [[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104205652|D. Vijayamohan]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104244526|Bolivia Suárez]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104244720|Christina Rodrigues]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104253395|Aitor Etxarte]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:Aitor Etxarte Berezibar.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104376876|Jan Błoński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Jan Kidawa-Błoński.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104389005|Delfino López Aparicio]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104398451|Jethro]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | [[فائل:Jethro october 2008.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104398468|Oleksandr Arkadin-Shkolʹnyk]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Александр Аркадин-Школьник.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104414777|Evelyn Alda Seckler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104432992|Humberto Trujillo]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104438339|Anghel-Adrian Popa]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104439610|Kim Lee]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:02018 0146 KatowicePride-Parade, Kim Lee.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104439738|Ahmad Toyserkani Ravari]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:احمد تویسرکانی راوری.jpeg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104442727|Monzur-I-Mowla]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104450555|Dorothy Gill Barnes]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104464302|Nur Supriyanto]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Nur Suprianto.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104470971|Marcin Dramiński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104518546|Loyiso Mpumlwana]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104522108|Thoriq Husler]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bupati Luwu Timur Muhammad Thorig Husler.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104522420|Muhammad Al-Saeedi Al-Jardi]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104525399|Ismail al-Shamali]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104528006|Krzysztof Pajewski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104528447|Susan Moore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104531513|Benedicto Bravo]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104532204|Carlos Levy]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:Carlos Levy 2018.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104537223|Arnold D. Gruys]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104541175|Jean-Claude Bohain]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104556343|Dudu Duswara]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Dudu Duswara.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104557820|طلال باغر]]'' | | [[سعودي عرب]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104595284|Issaka Assane Karanta]]'' | | [[نائيجر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104621154|William T. Beaver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104628566|Sead Gološ]]'' | | [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104629341|Paul Etyang]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104637633|Veronica Oliver]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104640108|Aylin Özmenek]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104640624|Abdul Hakim Al-Taher]]'' | | [[سوڊان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104666469|Tawauna Averette]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104695839|Jarod Nandin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104701628|George Whitmore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:George Whitmore Climber.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104717282|Julius Schachter]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104760616|Valentin Sushko]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104764484|Alan Cairns]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:AlanCairns2005.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104764596|Fabrizio Soccorsi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104764599|Theodore Lumpkin Jr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Theodore Lumpkin - 1940s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104771406|Pradip Ghosh]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104772253|Abid Hussain]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104776005|Oleg Danilov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104787172|Iancu Țucărman]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104807971|John Condrone]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104812380|João Henrique de Souza]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104813246|Mizanur Rahman Khan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104816462|Ali Saleh Mohammed Ali Jaber]]'' | | [[يمن]]<br/>[[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Syekh Ali Jaber, 00.02.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104833709|Jairo Castillo]]'' | | [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104843609|Hijn Bijnen]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104843792|Tapan Ghosh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Tapan ghosh hs.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104848615|Alejandro Galvis Ramírez]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104852520|Bheki Ntuli]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104856962|Martin Addison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104864449|Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104866691|William Z. Good]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104870829|King Victor Thulare III]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104903655|Nombulelo Hermans]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104904509|Ivan Metelytsya]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104905111|Barbara N. Benson]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104906836|Joe Guerra]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Joe Guerra - 1980.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104911977|Meghrig Parikian]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Meghrig-Parikian.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q104949139|Krzysztof Łuszczewski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104989956|Calixto Avena]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105027958|Stephen Lungu]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105037528|Raisuddin Ahmed]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105043758|Pavel Hanták]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105047205|Gordinho do Surdo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105047246|Carlos Antunes]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105061229|Jaroslava Janderová]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | [[فائل:Praha, Magistrát, Jaroslava Janderová (2).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q105061721|Vitaly Maksimov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105063128|Bernard Papánek]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105069826|Kenneth Z. Altshuler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105071466|Suhail Zaheer Lari]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105071475|Joel Matiza]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q105076376|Richard West]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399425|Charles Gregory Ross]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399519|Tony Greer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399637|Wilmer Ato]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399863|Edmundo Martinez Zaleta]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399866|Eric Salas González]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399870|Toshi Wungtung]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107400559|Reinaldo Ortega]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107400988|Steven Manios Sr.]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107401694|Josh Wallwork]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107401977|Shankanada Aravind]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107420703|Fridon Aslanyan]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q132856|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''<br/>[[آرمينيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107420799|Abel Pienaar]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107423669|Fazl-e-Khuda]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107453228|Diratsagae Alfred Kganare]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107487454|Francisco Astorga]]'' | | [[چلي]] | | | [[فائل:Francisco "Pancho" Astorga Foto- © Rodrigo Pardo .jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107488620|Eka Supria Atmaja]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Bupati Bekasi Eka Supria Atmaja.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107491716|Luke Masamvu]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107491736|Peter Haritatos]]'' | | [[زمبابوي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107524326|Ricardo Corrêa]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107528488|Machchindra More]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107528549|Alfredo Fraile]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107528659|Parvesh C. Mehta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107528924|K Balu]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529167|Sai Balaji]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529220|Kumar Vatti]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529305|Anil Suri]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529386|Venugopal Kosuri]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529447|Shyam Dehati]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107529490|Vamsi Rajesh Kondaveeti]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107539497|Zhypar Zheksheev]]'' | | [[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107545906|José Maria Batalla]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107545938|Jeremy Silvester]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107550001|Kä Mana]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107563913|Eliaser Yentji Sunur]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Eliaser Yentji Sunur.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107569124|John Mukasa]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107570435|Arun Chaudhary]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107581777|Enny Sri Hartati]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107583322|Arief Harsono]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Arief Harsono1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107583643|Mohamad Assegaf]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107584187|Nurul Almy Hafild]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107600902|Audrey Marie Ellis]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107613304|Hamadi Ghawar]]'' | | [[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107613344|Michael Lejong]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107625371|Atful Hye Shibly]]'' | | [[بنگلاديش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107630308|Rodolfo Peña Flores]]'' | | [[ڪوسٽا ريڪا|ڪوسٽاريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Rodolfo-rodrigo-pea-flores 40240716480 o.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107645871|Hasip Kalimuddin Syam]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wagub Jambi Hasip Kalimuddin Syam.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107672808|Ribeiro da Ciclo Ribeiro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107785573|Jean-Claude Kazembe Musonda]]'' | | [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107877832|María Teresa Marú Mejía]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107921203|José Alberto Hermógenes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:José Alberto Hermógenes.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q108005947|Dick Farrel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108017856|Saranya Sasi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108043685|Luis Peláez Campomanes]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108076821|Issa Abdel Hafeez]]'' | | [[لبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108083120|Alan Neville Clements]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108083418|Sheham Siddik]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108110670|Pamela Valenzuela]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | [[فائل:Pamela Geraldine Valenzuela Rengel. Trans Volvimos a nacer 0-55 screenshot (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q108265582|Alexandre Pagès]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108282132|Aris Skiadopoulos]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108284809|Mohamed Saad]]'' | | [[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108296947|Filippo Maria Gambàri]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108320943|Giraldo González]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108368015|Francisco Monterrosa]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108384012|Iván Colás Costa]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108405918|Enakshi Chattopadhyay]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108410750|Marc Bernier]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108434832|Dan Montsitsi]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108462281|Georgi Vanyan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108529212|Bernardino Cano Radil]]'' | | [[پيراگوئي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108532938|Saviana Scalfi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108535646|Michael Halkias]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108537193|Veronica Wolski]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108541641|Hai Shaulian]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108600909|Laura Hartman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108664482|Anthony Zane]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108670697|Manuel Román Fernández]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108695225|Haru Rajwar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108702519|Joachim Hellmich]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108709551|Francesco Mattesini]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108731108|Massimo Ampola]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108791869|Ramiro Larrea]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108800539|Samantha Epasinghe]]'' | | [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108817495|Naomi Kori Pomat]]'' | | [[نيو گني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108839344|Reggie Parks]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | [[فائل:WWE - Wembley Arena 140994 (8).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q108860941|Dimo Stoyanov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108899282|Claude Mouton]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108900259|Muḥammad Aḥmad al-Dālī]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108916068|Pablo Rodríguez]]'' | | [[ايڪواڊور]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108920565|Ugo Falesiedi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q108940885|Elnur Ashrafoglu]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109000898|Svetlana Căpățină]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109031824|Manuel de Jesus Tahay Gomes]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109218129|Jan Hilgen]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109258630|Abdul Jawad Dhanuun]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | [[فائل:عبدالجواد ذنون.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q109258978|Dzmitry Liebiadzievich]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109259050|Mbak You]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109270014|Adib al-Jarf]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109280531|Vladimir Sytchanka]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[بيلاروس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109331719|Lenka Angelová]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109335700|Ḥusayn Asad]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135985383|Javier Ojalvo]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136210886|Herman Bailey]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136236318|زهرا استادزاده]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136458233|דוד אלעווסקי]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136465052|Eric Cohen]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q136471378|מאיר זעליג ריספלער]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137204967|Alioune Badiane]]'' | | [[سينيگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137290904|Віктор Талащук]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Талащук Віктор Флорович.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q137644949|Jimmy Gamonet]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137784699|Elizabeth R. Duff]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137828518|Robbert Keegel]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q137942344|Mitchell Andrews]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q138341440|Abu Ubayda Ahmad al-Muhrizi]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q138412915|Николай Матрачийски]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q139069633|Jānis Kaijaks]]'' | | [[ليٽويا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q140007277|Milen Belchev]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q140007287|Neven Belchev]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99438633|Andrés Abt]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | [[فائل:Alcalde del Municipio CH Andres Abt - imf8381v1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q99439541|Donald Keith Duncan]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99454945|Florent Pereira]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99485311|Adeline Fagan]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99574699|Bernard Fils-Aimé]]'' | | [[هيٽي]] | | | [[فائل:2009 Secretary of State's Award for Corporate Excellence (portrait crop).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q99756227|Tony Tenpenny]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99767788|Brandi Christine Case-Wallace]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99800397|Mirza Shahi]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99845647|Datta Ekbote]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99851329|Mncedisi Filtane]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99857265|Andréia de Olicar]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q99911656|Ziad Al-Zaza]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100146088|Barbara Ann Davis Prince]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100146338|Sandy Oldfield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100146445|Chanesh Ram Rathiya]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100146617|Esther Morales]]'' | | [[بوليويا]] | | | [[فائل:Esther Morales.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100272881|Rick Todd]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100275270|Father Stanislaus Lourduswamy]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Stan Swamy (2010).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100339816|Yevhen Cherednichenko]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Євген Чередніченко (2017).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100537333|Lambert Kreekels]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100548537|Ахметов, Рашит Ракипович]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Рашит Ракипович Ахметов (1954—2020), основатель и редактор газеты «Звезда Поволжья».JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100580192|Rabbi Osher Yaakov Westheim]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100591633|Piotr Francuz]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100591978|Wojciech Stachurski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Wojciech Stachurski.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100627627|Ilana Rovina]]'' | | [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]] | | | [[فائل:Ilana Rovina (1963).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100716099|Gusztáv Adorján]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100742561|Ayachi Afilal]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100751723|Kayla Williams]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100783678|Jonathan Duck]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100784502|Christian Gatoux]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100795028|Joel Molina Ramírez]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100797042|Matt Gras]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100890925|Parrerito]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Parrerito.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q100941027|Ted Vartelas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100975270|Chad Dorrill]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q100995846|Abdul Ilah Nabhan]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101022194|Angeline Bernadel]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101054234|Pablo Lozano Martín]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101069330|H. Tati Santiesteban]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101080038|Pedro Mario Pereyra]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101089316|Adi Darma]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wali Kota Bontang Adi Darma.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q101116145|Dharsibhai Khanpura]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101120800|David Andahl]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101149176|Moncef Ouannes]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''<br/>[[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101204200|Marc Frasez]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101204530|Bernard Ducruet]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101208374|Aniel Kienno]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101229866|Anatoliy Fedorchuk]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101245795|Mutodi Neshehe]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101362178|Andrzej Prawda]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101423791|Irving Pressley McPhail]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101434569|Notis Lalaitis]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Notis1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q101542315|Willie Salcedo]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101579664|Leandro Resurreccion III]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101584214|Jacek Polak]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Mr. Pollack.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q101711396|János Gróz]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101818266|Géza Lajhó]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q101873866|Lynn Kellogg]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102047464|Marek Umiński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102047761|Óscar Akira Yasser Noriega]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102047806|Mewalal Chaudhary]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102076923|Anton Filipov]]'' | | [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102078444|Mariano Valdés Chávarri]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102097529|Mustafa Canlı]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102104819|Radamés Salazar Solorio]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | [[فائل:Radamés Salazar Solorio.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q102113504|Andrzej Bręczewski]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102122799|Raymond Taylor Hoobler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102132780|Bruce Richard Buzby]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102146937|Khyson Swong]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102157745|Euda Edward Dean]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102158397|Romuald Koliński]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102164597|Barnett Weil Glickfield]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102164680|Charles J. Mode]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102166137|Joseph Bertorelli]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102189950|Alfonso Gracia-Saz]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102192043|Carl Hanson Fitzgerald]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102198254|Patrick Denis Barry]]'' | | [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102276262|Cordula Heß]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102305241|Lay Nam Chang]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102334622|Reinaldo Teles]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102343281|Rajendrasingh Baghel]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Rajendrasingh Baghel.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q102357959|Hussein Al-Zuhairi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102361877|Jose Luis Garayoa]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102378274|Honestie Hodges]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102391013|Jean Lau Chin]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Dr Jean Lau Chin.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q102416147|Bharat Bhalke]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102450473|Jan Krawiec]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102490912|David Maas]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q102859580|Eleanor Schano]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103414626|Pavel Čech]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Pavel Čech, 2018.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q103512342|Hryhoriy Arshynov]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103574159|Hanna Stadnik]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Hanna Stadnik grób (cropped)1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q103742338|Raja Mukhopadhyay]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103766157|Adil Ismayilov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[آذربائيجان]] | | | [[فائل:Adil Ismayilov in 2020 (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q103815009|Fadma Abi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103820311|Jacek Włodyga]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103828682|Rafael Pražák]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103863018|Ramzi Najjar]]'' | | [[لبنان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q103928233|Luke Letlow]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q104005260|Gastón Lemaitre]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114776280|Noël Bélanger]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114865038|Rohit Patel]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114865049|Shakrajit Nayak]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114876246|Madhava Chandra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115056055|Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115056059|Bedri Çollaku]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115091370|SRS Yadav]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115091407|Jamuna Prasad Bose]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115091447|Naseeb Pathan]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115129602|Choudhary Fateh Muhammad]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115129933|Chuni Lal]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115322537|Marcus Birks]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115367980|Lee Lung-chuan]]'' | | [[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115653493|Joseph M. Masling]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115696126|Luis Hugo Apolo]]'' | | [[يوراگوائي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115709280|Anja Kanninen]]'' | | [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115712095|Edwin Bennett Shostak]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q115943625|Ruggero Boschi]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038073|Chu Lanlan]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038416|Hong Mu]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038464|Xu Lanlalan]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038510|Cheng Qingao]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038570|Yu Yuheng]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038606|Jiang Yingheng]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116038836|Ni Hen]]'' | | [[چين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116151283|Emilio Locurcio]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116182265|Achille Mauri]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116452339|Katharine Clare Manning Loeb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116616040|Teoman Alili]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116812358|James M. Polachek]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116971082|Juan Chico]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q116994772|Pamela Hibbs]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q117025085|Juan Astorga Junquera]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]<br/>[[ايڪواڊور]] | | | [[فائل:JuanAstorgaJunquera2.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q117485502|Roberto Ambrosoli]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q117845780|Muriel Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q117846318|Behçet Güler]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q118120596|André Poulidor]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q118454861|Rekha Chattopadhyay]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q118522965|Ainslie Leslie]]'' | | [[بيليز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q121571277|Guiller]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q121798149|Gary Friedkin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q122225804|Paul Coffin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q122508425|József Sipos]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q122956959|Fereydoun Shayah]]'' | | [[ايران]]<br/>[[سويڊن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q123562957|Bob Contant]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q123575621|Jaime Fernandes]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:74001.jpgmaior Jaime Fernandes.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q123745963|Neuza Freitas Dias]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q123987299|Luis de Blas]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124031636|葉明水]]'' | | [[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124254829|Valter Gjoni]]'' | | [[البانيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124254912|Leah Bernstein]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124290122|Tony Metoyer]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124371974|James Geraty Harrison]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124423502|Alice Mackler]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124480612|Arnold Tenenbaum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124480763|Lorlee Tenenbaum]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124517966|Ygona Moura]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q124799497|Ezekiel Koren]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q125117241|Laura Weinstein]]'' | | [[ڪولمبيا]] | | | [[فائل:La historia de Laura Weinstein para Sentiido 0-43 screenshot (cropped).png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q125469336|Frank Olson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q125473156|Martha Lillard]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Martha Lillard.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q125895230|Swami Omkarananda]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q126465852|Layla El-Iskandaraniyyah]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q126712872|Anna Fehér]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | [[فائل:Feher Anna nover 1984 fortepan 124217.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q127416432|Kenan Akın]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q127639331|Ronald K. O’Dor]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q128382746|Minoo B. Madon]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q129167054|Elena B. Muzrukova]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q129176723|ဝိသာရဒ မဟာထေရ်]]'' | | [[ميانمار]] | | | [[فائل:Visarada.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q129693028|Vinesh Kumar Kalra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Shri Vinesh Kalra, Consul General, Mazar-e-Sharif.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q130480285|Bạch Mai]]'' | | [[ويٽنام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q130718411|Deloris Dockrey]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131323028|Giorgi Beridze]]'' | | [[جارجيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131369881|Chilakam Ramachandra Reddy]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131386787|Pavuluri Sivaramakrishna]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131390242|Min Thein Swe]]'' | | [[ميانمار]] | | | [[فائل:TheinSwe.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q131674590|Dana Konya-Petrișor]]'' | | [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]<br/>[[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131754455|Bernardo Saavedra Pita]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131763189|احمد گل‌محمدی]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q131794484|ابومحمد عسگرخانی]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q132125661|Ginette Rivière Lubin]]'' | | [[هيٽي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q132398047|Anton Holič]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q132471275|Bhishma Guhathakurta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q132733138|Ngọc Đáng]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]<br/>[[ويٽنام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133457873|Bill Follis]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133574003|پرویز اسکندرپور خرمی]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133858013|Madhavi Gogate]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133879482|Bengt Sprinzl]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q133884170|Yasinjan Ghopur]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134002433|Chaim Mertz]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134276406|Jules Houllier]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134283271|اشکان منصوری]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q134634105|Laura Hermosa]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135110412|Mikica Zdravković]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''<br/>[[سربيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135152691|Falilou Kane]]'' | | [[سينيگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135455342|Bruno Villata]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135459263|Gérard Beaulieu]]'' | | [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135548080|Eurípedes Balsanulfo de Freitas e Abreu]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135919372|Cosme Proenza]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q135971389|Hasan Riyazi]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109385274|Orhan Çoban]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109398170|Ali Cem Köroğlu]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109423757|Roberto José Ábalos]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | [[فائل:José Roberto Ábalos.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q109463224|Josip Uhlik]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109486992|Yuri Evtushenko]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109551692|Akbar Nikzad Afghani]]'' | | [[افغانستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109552845|Bijan Afshar]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109588694|Julie Le Galliard]]'' | | [[فرانس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109623606|William Breisky]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109649898|Aziz El Fadili]]'' | | [[مراڪش]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109655703|Wallker Wollber Bezerra de Medeiros]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109678716|Fetty Dzul]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109678864|Ahmad Mohd Nor]]'' | | [[ملائيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109744750|Lars Egil Mogård]]'' | | [[ناروي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109805144|Steven Milligram]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109835297|Vince Lelkes]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[سلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109836022|Pius Mujuzi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109852630|Parthena Koutmeridou]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109869417|Ludwig Ladstätter]]'' | | [[آسٽريا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q109941647|Alberto Berardi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110062761|Vangelis Vasileiadis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110088289|Fernando Gutierres Reis]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110113207|Gramoz Abedinaj]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110125587|Josep Maria Castelló i Mateu]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | [[فائل:JM CASTELLO HOMENATGE CASTELL (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110150593|Alicja Tysiąc]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | [[فائل:Alicja Tysiąc.JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110165407|Boris Zozulya]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110191163|Ashok Kumar Amrohi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110215649|Tina Rinaldi]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110221514|Evgenia Hristopoulou]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110226536|Jenni Crain]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110246082|Adil Xasayev]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110271712|Frédéric Sinistra]]'' | | [[بيلجيم]] | | | [[فائل:Frédéric Sinistra dans un match le 24 mars 2012.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110275982|Roland Damu]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110286763|Christos Diamantis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110400616|Jan Čermák]]'' | | [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]<br/>[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110401833|Kenny J]]'' | | [[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]] | | | [[فائل:Kenny J at Dimanche Gras 1993.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110402492|Ibrahim Hegazy]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110409615|Baktash Abtin]]'' | | [[ايران]] | | | [[فائل:Baktash Abtin (3).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110422948|Joan Vinyals]]'' | | [[اسپين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110451924|Stewart Gilray]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110496140|Umar Zahir]]'' | | | | | [[فائل:Umar Zahir (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110540805|Andrzej Rusek]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110597021|Hana Horká]]'' | | [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]<br/>[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110646860|Ankica Lepej]]'' | | [[ڪروشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110778559|Mykola Malkov]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110815959|Izidorio Oliveira]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110826613|Martin B. Moore]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110854189|Petipán]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | [[فائل:Petipán en 1967.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q110861744|Gareer Mansour]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''<br/>[[مصر]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110883731|Roberto Scudero]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110901608|Edmur Mesquita]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110938790|Jorge Conti]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110955245|Hervé Mombo Kinga]]'' | | [[گيبون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q110975000|Martin Tichý]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111080749|Ananias Koustenis]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111128104|Bessie Hendricks]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111149838|Nurlan Agha]]'' | | [[آذربائيجان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111288450|Oliver Crewe]]'' | | [[گڏيل بادشاھت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111366741|Carlos Cano Vieira]]'' | | [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111377122|Aleksandr Suvorov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111448515|رشیدہ عیاں]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111449480|Ahmet Ceni]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111513142|Manuel Machado Alvarez]]'' | | [[ڪيوبا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Manuel Alvarez CDCR (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q111763387|Jack Dowling]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q111913676|Yusuf Hussain]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112036971|Ivan Gavrilov]]'' | | [[سوويت يونين]]<br/>[[يوڪرين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112117043|Mohammed Makhlouf]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112119460|Richárd Látó]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112133146|Gideon Badagawa]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112134792|David M. Robb]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112136783|Gui.Giling]]'' | | [[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112378516|Moshe Augenstein]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112506278|Juris G. Draguns]]'' | | [[ليٽويا]]<br/>[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112689682|Cecilia Wang]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112742832|Nikolaos Vernezos]]'' | | [[يونان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112800314|James Fisher]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112972599|Adelmo Rivas]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q112972601|Juan José Martel]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113027291|Ramón Ojeda Mestre]]'' | | [[ميڪسيڪو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113273570|Nanda Kishore Patnaik]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113323854|Fred Nijs]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113411338|Sergey Borisovich Lebedev]]'' | | [[روس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113443989|Albert Woodfox]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Angola Three event, Manchester Metropolitan University, November 2016 (07) (cropped).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q113481015|B. Sathyanarayana]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113485982|Gautam Lal Meena]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113501104|D.A. Sathya Prabha]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113501384|Marco Brown]]'' | | [[جميڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113501563|Gordon Arinda]]'' | | [[يوگنڊا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113502533|Omar Garmil]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113504240|Howard D. Weinbrot]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113509778|Irengbam Ibohalbi Singh]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113509780|Marie-Line Lesdéma]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113553302|John M. Murrin]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q113658209|Liu Shunsong]]'' | | [[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114051142|Abdulsamad al-Ghurairi]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114435943|Raja Madangopal Nayak]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114435946|Govardhan Dangi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114435953|Jyoti Dutt]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114554103|Ferdy Nico Yohannes Piay]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q114567435|Hari Narayan Choudhary]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106477709|Hebert Axel González]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106484252|László Rákoskerti]]'' | | [[هنگري|ھنگري]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106508488|Aslam Qureshi]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106515434|Mao Ayuth]]'' | | [[ڪمبوڊيا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106518107|Ludmila Guzun]]'' | | [[مالدووا|مولدووا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106519193|Lois Sasson]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106519588|Mahmoud al-Khalidi]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q193714|Mandatory Palestine]]''<br/>[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106533280|Dário de Castro]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106542493|Muṣṭafá Muslim]]'' | | [[شام]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106542784|Theodore Lambrinos]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | [[فائل:Greek-American baritone Theodore Lambrinos, 1960s.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106572313|Ludovico Badoy]]'' | | [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]] | | | [[فائل:Director Ludovico D. Badoy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106585096|Pang Xiong Sirirathasuk Sikoun]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106587775|Teresa Majchrzak]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q211274|Polish People's Republic]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106588720|Àngel Pla]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106592192|Johny Lal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106592198|Lea Dali Lion]]'' | | [[اسٽونيا]]<br/>[[سوويت يونين]] | | | [[فائل:Lea Dali Lion 2014 (1).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106595478|Robin Fransman]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | [[فائل:Robin Fransman-1.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106600819|Alípio Freire]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | [[فائل:Alípio Freire.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106602162|Thakur Puran Singh]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106602515|Bhitali Das]]'' | | [[ڀارت]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2227470|Majgaon]]'' | | | [[فائل:Assamese singer Vitali Das.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106611255|Satwant Kaur Sandhu]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611259|A Elumalai]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611265|M. AS Subramanian]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611278|Kailash Chandra Trivedi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611282|Sukhdarshan Singh Marar]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611287|Bishnu Prasad Bhaiya]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611773|Purnmasi Pankaj]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611774|Kalawati Bhuria]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106611776|Ramesh Diwakar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106613228|Vira Sathidar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106613406|Diana S. Rabinovich]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106617169|Zoram Sangliana]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106618445|Kunti Devi]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106626688|Kishore Nandlaskar]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106629259|David Núñez]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106634443|Jaga Rout]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106637349|Somnath Juwarkar]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106648138|Amris]]'' | | [[انڊونيشيا]] | | | [[فائل:Wakil Walikota Dumai Amris.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106648215|Celso Dayrit]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106650087|Chittabbai Kudupudi]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106651586|Kom Chuanchuen]]'' | | [[ٿائيلينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106652376|Vasyl Obleschuk]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106659864|Olena Lytovchenko]]'' | | [[يوڪرين]] | | | [[فائل:Письменниця Олена Литовченко з книжкою "Пустоцвіт".jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106675659|Jagdish Lad]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106675731|Kanupriya]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106687272|Williams Santamaría Valdera]]'' | | [[پيرو]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106687902|Seturam Gopalrao Neginhal]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | [[فائل:Sethuram Gopalrao Neginhal.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106689691|Gilmar de Carvalho]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106689926|Boddu Bhaskara Ramarao]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106690199|Challa Rama Krishna Reddy]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106690208|Sudhakar Paricharak]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106690211|Dauji Gupta]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106691558|Ricardo Alberto Ramírez]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106702173|James Purify]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106707423|Fred Fitz-James]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106714989|Ajay Sharma]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106727289|Sriprada]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106730125|Baldur Beyer]]'' | | [[جرمني]] | | | [[فائل:Baldur Beyer (2021).JPG|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106734360|Rajendra Kapila]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106764462|Omar Hugo Gómez]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106768454|Javier Rondón]]'' | | [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106771906|James Williams]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106784040|Roy Ristie]]'' | | [[سورينام]] | | | [[فائل:Roy Ristie 2017.png|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q106784902|Fathul Allah Ahmad]]'' | | [[عراق]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106835512|Estefano Starepravo]]'' | | [[برازيل]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106837129|Tony Tolbert]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106869478|Rajendrasinh Jadeja]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106873455|Anjan Bandyopadhyay]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106885286|Saad Sharar]]'' | | [[ڪويت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106906609|Prashant Mohapatra]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106906993|Karen Brown]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q106947545|Qadir Haji Ali]]'' | | [[عراق]]<br/>''[[:d:Q41470|Kurdistan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107021764|Ryan Stephen]]'' | | [[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107021889|Basant Das]]'' | | [[برطانوي راڄ]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''<br/>[[ڀارت]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107103451|Yann Gontard]]'' | | [[پولينڊ]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107119906|Kiyomoto Yoshijirō]]'' | | [[جاپان]]<br/>''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]'' | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107128059|Paul Freedman]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107187433|Taha Karaan]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107192015|Lin Fang-I]]'' | | [[تائيوان]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107207790|Aldo Moltifiori]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''<br/>[[اٽلي]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107249689|Maurice Tsalefac]]'' | | [[ڪيمرون]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107289272|Rehema Watongola]]'' | | | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107300156|Rodrigo Munilla]]'' | | [[ارجنٽائن]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107309769|Emin Saraç]]'' | | [[ترڪي]] | | | [[فائل:صورة شخصية محمد أمين سراج.jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107343331|Abd al-Nasir Najjar]]'' | | [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107358646|Ahmed Bilal Shah]]'' | | [[پاڪستان]] | | | [[فائل:Ahmed Bilal Shah VOA (cropped).jpg|center|128px]] |- | ''[[:d:Q107359033|Hind Chelbi]]'' | | [[تيونس]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107380310|Goolam Rajah]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387549|Nomandla Yako]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387562|Lungile Tom]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387566|Henry Jansen]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387578|Patrick Jaji]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387591|Moonyeenn Lee]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387600|Paul Dobson]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387618|Sbusiso Mseleku]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387717|Patrick Bayo Mkhize]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387822|Mohammad Karaan]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107387850|Leslie Ponnusamy]]'' | | [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107398923|Robert P. Cohen]]'' | | [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] | | | |- | ''[[:d:Q107399015|Gianni Colajemma]]'' | | [[اٽلي]] | | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 6i6p98qzdnd0thzxzqkif4xn4gh25t8 موبائل فون 0 62180 394659 340136 2026-07-15T20:07:29Z Ibne maryam 17680 394659 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 6ut4k7u6solg0v33c4qn5bxp7lj9gyd 394661 394659 2026-07-15T20:08:55Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394661 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 3m62rgqxsbnk4v1631eyjdjgd9952en 394664 394661 2026-07-15T20:12:05Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* حوالا */ 394664 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] qjar2vpa988mo04so1yvxoxch3kubo2 394667 394664 2026-07-15T20:15:20Z Ibne maryam 17680 394667 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:نئون ميڊيا]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] cfzbwmcxjkbmyrvg7uvwxul12p3rtbs 394672 394667 2026-07-15T20:21:47Z Ibne maryam 17680 394672 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:ميڊيا]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو]] [[زمرو:نئون ميڊيا]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:خدمتون]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:2000ع]] [[زمرو:1973ع]] [[زمرو:1983ع]] 8bdnc12nbhubyqbagmr8a0ilbr480gj 394673 394672 2026-07-15T20:23:19Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا */ 394673 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:ميڊيا]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو]] [[زمرو:نئون ميڊيا]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:خدمتون]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:2000]] [[زمرو:1973ع]] [[زمرو:1983ع]] k5ej49k0y7579yxtiqitt4phip6g5dv 394689 394673 2026-07-15T20:38:46Z Ibne maryam 17680 394689 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Two decades of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1992 [[Motorola DynaTAC|Motorola DynaTAC 8000X]] to the 2014 [[iPhone 6 Plus]]]] {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/share population mobile phone#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:share population mobile phone, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Share of population with a mobile phone]] |startingView = World }} {{owidslider |start = <!-- defaults to most recent --> |list = Template:OWID/Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people]] |startingView = World }} A '''mobile phone''' or '''cell phone''' is a portable wireless [[telephone]] that allows users to make and receive [[Telephone call|calls]] over a [[radio frequency]] link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ([[landline phones]]). This radio frequency link connects to the switching systems of a [[mobile phone operator]], providing access to the [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). Modern mobile telephony relies on a [[cellular network]] architecture, which is why mobile phones are often referred to as 'cell phones' in North America. Beyond traditional [[Voice call|voice communication]], digital mobile phones have evolved to support a wide range of additional services. These include [[text messaging]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|multimedia messaging]], [[email]], and [[internet access]] (via [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]] or [[Wi-Fi]]), as well as short-range wireless technologies like [[Bluetooth]], [[Infrared Data Association|infrared]], and [[ultra-wideband]] (UWB). Mobile phones also support a variety of [[multimedia]] capabilities, such as [[digital photography]], [[video recording]], and [[Video gaming|gaming]]. In addition, they enable multimedia playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]], including video content, as well as [[Internet radio|radio]] and [[Streaming television|television streaming]]. Furthermore, mobile phones offer [[Communications satellite|satellite-based]] services, such as [[Satellite navigation|navigation]] and [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|messaging]], as well as business applications and [[Mobile payment|payment solutions]] (via [[QR code payment|scanning QR codes]] or [[near-field communication]] (NFC)). Mobile phones offering only basic features are often referred to as [[feature phone]]s ([[slang]]: ''dumbphones''), while those with advanced computing power are known as [[smartphone]]s.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref> Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref> Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref> == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] mgo239kxr1sms2d9q4x4nuyyugn1g1f 394692 394689 2026-07-15T21:00:50Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394692 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|موبائل فون جي ارتقا جا ٻه ڏهاڪا، <small>1992</small> موٽرولا ڊائنا ٽيڪ <small>8000</small> ايڪس کان <small>2014</small> آئي فون <small>6</small> پلس تائين]] هڪ موبائل فون (mobile phone''')''' يا سيل فون (cell phone''')''' هڪ پورٽيبل وائرليس ٽيليفون آهي جيڪو صارفين کي، فڪسڊ-لوڪيشن فونز (لينڊ لائن فونز) جي برعڪس، مقرر ٿيل ٽيليفون سروس ايريا ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ دوران ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ ذريعي ڪال ڪرڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو. هي ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ موبائل فون آپريٽر جي سوئچنگ سسٽم سان ڳنڍيندو آهي، جيڪو پبلڪ سوئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ (PSTN) تائين رسائي فراهم ڪندو آهي. جديد موبائل ٽيليفوني سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ آرڪيٽيڪچر تي ڀاڙي ٿو، اهو ئي سبب آهي ته موبائل فونز کي اڪثر ڪري اتر آمريڪا ۾ 'سيل فون' سڏيو ويندو آهي. روايتي آواز جي رابطي کان ٻاهر، ڊجيٽل موبائل فون اضافي خدمتن جي وسيع رينج کي سپورٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ ترقي ڪئي آهي. انهن ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ملٽي ميڊيا ميسيجنگ، اي ميل، ۽ انٽرنيٽ رسائي (LTE، 5G NR يا وائي فائي ذريعي)، انهي سان گڏ بلوٽوٿ، انفراريڊ، ۽ الٽرا وائڊ بينڊ (UWB) جهڙيون مختصر رينج وائرليس ٽيڪنالاجيون شامل آهن. موبائل فون مختلف قسم جي ملٽي ميڊيا صلاحيتن کي پڻ سپورٽ ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ ڊجيٽل فوٽوگرافي، وڊيو رڪارڊنگ، ۽ گيمنگ. ان کان علاوه، اهي ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ کي فعال ڪن ٿا، جنهن ۾ وڊيو مواد، گڏوگڏ ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن اسٽريمنگ شامل آهن. ان کان علاوه، موبائل فون سيٽلائيٽ تي ٻڌل خدمتون پيش ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ نيويگيشن ۽ ميسيجنگ، انهي سان گڏ ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون ۽ ادائيگي جا حل (QR ڪوڊ اسڪين ڪرڻ يا وير فيلڊ ڪميونيڪيشن (NFC) ذريعي). صرف بنيادي خاصيتون پيش ڪندڙ موبائل فونز کي اڪثر فيچر فون (سلينگ: ڊمب فونز) سڏيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ترقي يافته ڪمپيوٽنگ پاور سان گڏ اسمارٽ فونز طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> پهريون هٿ ۾ هٿ رکيل موبائل فون موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪوپر پاران 3 اپريل 1973ع تي نيويارڪ شهر ۾، هڪ هينڊ سيٽ استعمال ڪندي جنهن جو وزن 2 ڪلوگرام (4.4 پائونڊ) هو، ڏيکاريو ويو. سال 1979ع ۾، نيپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون (NTT) جاپان ۾ دنيا جو پهريون سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ لانچ ڪيو. سال 1983ع ۾، DynaTAC 8000x پهريون تجارتي طور تي دستياب هٿ ۾ هٿ وارو موبائل فون هو. 1993ع کان 2024ع تائين، دنيا ۾ موبائل فون سبسڪرپشن 9.1 ارب کان وڌيڪ ٿي وئي،<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> جيڪا ڌرتيءَ تي هر ماڻهوءَ لاءِ هڪ موبائل فون مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪافي آهي. سال 2024ع ۾، دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فون ٺاهيندڙ سام سنگ، ايپل ۽ شيائومي هئا؛ اسمارٽ فون جي وڪرو ڪل موبائل فون جي وڪرو جو تقريباً 50 سيڪڙو هو.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref><ref name="Harris-2019" /> The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by [[Martin Cooper (inventor)|Martin Cooper]] of [[Motorola]] in [[New York City]] on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2&nbsp;kilograms (4.4 lbs).<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> In 1979, [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Motorola DynaTAC|DynaTAC 8000x]] was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1993 to 2024, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over 9.1 billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> In 2024, the top smartphone manufacturers worldwide were [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Xiaomi]]; smartphone sales represented about 50 percent of total mobile phone sales.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]]. Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999. Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous, and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one. == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] 3y1f8765gaojfytzmdngs48rgwhcarp 394693 394692 2026-07-15T21:10:43Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|the modern mobile phone|Smartphone}} {{Redirect2|Cell Phone|Handphone|the films|Cell Phone (film){{!}}''Cell Phone'' (film)|and|Handphone (film){{!}}''Handphone'' (film)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|موبائل فون جي ارتقا جا ٻه ڏهاڪا، <small>1992</small> موٽرولا ڊائنا ٽيڪ <small>8000</small> ايڪس کان <small>2014</small> آئي فون <small>6</small> پلس تائين]] هڪ موبائل فون (mobile phone) يا سيل فون (cell phone) هڪ پورٽيبل وائرليس ٽيليفون آهي جيڪو صارفين کي، فڪسڊ-لوڪيشن فونز (لينڊ لائن فونز) جي برعڪس، مقرر ٿيل ٽيليفون سروس ايريا ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ دوران ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ ذريعي ڪال ڪرڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو. هي ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ موبائل فون آپريٽر جي سوئچنگ سسٽم سان ڳنڍيندو آهي، جيڪو پبلڪ سوئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ (PSTN) تائين رسائي فراهم ڪندو آهي. جديد موبائل ٽيليفوني سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ آرڪيٽيڪچر تي ڀاڙي ٿو، اهو ئي سبب آهي ته موبائل فونز کي اڪثر ڪري اتر آمريڪا ۾ 'سيل فون' سڏيو ويندو آهي. روايتي آواز جي رابطي کان ٻاهر، ڊجيٽل موبائل فون اضافي خدمتن جي وسيع رينج کي سپورٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ ترقي ڪئي آهي. انهن ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ملٽي ميڊيا ميسيجنگ، اي ميل، ۽ انٽرنيٽ رسائي (LTE، 5G NR يا وائي فائي ذريعي)، انهي سان گڏ بلوٽوٿ، انفراريڊ، ۽ الٽرا وائڊ بينڊ (UWB) جهڙيون مختصر رينج وائرليس ٽيڪنالاجيون شامل آهن. موبائل فون مختلف قسم جي ملٽي ميڊيا صلاحيتن کي پڻ سپورٽ ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ ڊجيٽل فوٽوگرافي، وڊيو رڪارڊنگ، ۽ گيمنگ. ان کان علاوه، اهي ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ کي فعال ڪن ٿا، جنهن ۾ وڊيو مواد، گڏوگڏ ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن اسٽريمنگ شامل آهن. ان کان علاوه، موبائل فون سيٽلائيٽ تي ٻڌل خدمتون پيش ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ نيويگيشن ۽ ميسيجنگ، انهي سان گڏ ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون ۽ ادائيگي جا حل (QR ڪوڊ اسڪين ڪرڻ يا وير فيلڊ ڪميونيڪيشن (NFC) ذريعي). صرف بنيادي خاصيتون پيش ڪندڙ موبائل فونز کي اڪثر فيچر فون (سلنگ: ڊمب فونز) سڏيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ترقي يافته ڪمپيوٽنگ پاور سان گڏ اسمارٽ فونز طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> پهريون هٿ ۾ هٿ رکيل موبائل فون موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪوپر پاران 3 اپريل 1973ع تي نيويارڪ شهر ۾، هڪ هينڊ سيٽ استعمال ڪندي جنهن جو وزن 2 ڪلوگرام (4.4 پائونڊ) هو، ڏيکاريو ويو.<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> سال 1979ع ۾، نيپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون (NTT) جاپان ۾ دنيا جو پهريون سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ لانچ ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> سال 1983ع ۾، ڊائنا (DynaTAC 8000x) پهريون تجارتي طور تي دستياب هٿ ۾ هٿ وارو موبائل فون هو. 1993ع کان 2024ع تائين، دنيا ۾ موبائل فون سبسڪرپشن 9.1 ارب کان وڌيڪ ٿي وئي،<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> جيڪا ڌرتيءَ تي هر ماڻهوءَ لاءِ هڪ موبائل فون مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪافي آهي.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> سال 2024ع ۾، دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فون ٺاهيندڙ سام سنگ، ايپل ۽ شيائومي هئا؛ اسمارٽ فون جي وڪرو ڪل موبائل فون جي وڪرو جو تقريباً 50 سيڪڙو هو.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref><ref name="Harris-2019" /> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]]. Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999. Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous, and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one. [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] 6ns9j76h10cngvmb5xix9dj46l942vr 394694 394693 2026-07-15T21:20:26Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394694 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|جديد موبائل فون|اسمارٽ فون}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|موبائل فون جي ارتقا جا ٻه ڏهاڪا، <small>1992</small> موٽرولا ڊائنا ٽيڪ <small>8000</small> ايڪس کان <small>2014</small> آئي فون <small>6</small> پلس تائين]] هڪ '''موبائل فون''' (<small>mobile</small> <small>phone</small>) يا '''سيل فون''' (<small>cell</small> <small>phone</small>) هڪ پورٽيبل وائرليس ٽيليفون آهي جيڪا صارف کي، لينڊ لائن فون جي برعڪس، مقرر ٿيل ٽيليفون سروس ايريا ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ دوران ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ ذريعي ڪال ڪرڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو. هي ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ موبائل فون آپريٽر جي سوئچنگ سسٽم سان ڳنڍيندو آهي، جيڪو پبلڪ سوئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ (<small>PSTN</small>) تائين رسائي فراهم ڪندو آهي. جديد موبائل ٽيليفوني سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ آرڪيٽيڪچر تي ڀاڙي ٿو، اهو ئي سبب آهي ته موبائل فونز کي اڪثر ڪري اتر آمريڪا ۾ 'سيل فون' سڏيو ويندو آهي. روايتي آواز جي رابطي کان ٻاهر، ڊجيٽل موبائل فون اضافي خدمتن جي وسيع رينج کي سپورٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ ترقي ڪئي آهي. انهن ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ملٽي ميڊيا ميسيجنگ، اي ميل، ۽ انٽرنيٽ رسائي (<small>LTE، 5G NR</small> يا وائي فائي ذريعي)، انهي سان گڏ بلوٽوٿ، انفراريڊ، ۽ الٽرا وائڊ بينڊ (<small>UWB</small>) جهڙيون مختصر رينج وائرليس ٽيڪنالاجيون شامل آهن. موبائل فون مختلف قسم جي ملٽي ميڊيا صلاحيتن کي پڻ سپورٽ ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ ڊجيٽل فوٽوگرافي، وڊيو رڪارڊنگ، ۽ گيمنگ. ان کان علاوه، اهي ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ کي فعال ڪن ٿا، جنهن ۾ وڊيو مواد، گڏوگڏ ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن اسٽريمنگ شامل آهن. ان کان علاوه، موبائل فون سيٽلائيٽ تي ٻڌل خدمتون پيش ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ نيويگيشن ۽ ميسيجنگ، انهي سان گڏ ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون ۽ ادائيگي جا حل (<small>QR</small> ڪوڊ اسڪين ڪرڻ يا وير فيلڊ ڪميونيڪيشن ذريعي). صرف بنيادي خاصيتون پيش ڪندڙ موبائل فونز کي اڪثر فيچر فون (سلنگ: ڊمب فون) سڏيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ترقي يافته ڪمپيوٽنگ پاور سان گڏ اسمارٽ فونز طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> پهريون هٿ ۾ هٿ رکيل موبائل فون موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪوپر پاران <small>3</small> اپريل <small>1973</small>ع تي نيويارڪ شهر ۾، هڪ هينڊ سيٽ استعمال ڪندي جنهن جو وزن <small>2</small> ڪلوگرام (<small>4.4</small> پائونڊ) هو، ڏيکاريو ويو.<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> سال <small>1979</small>ع ۾، نپن ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون <small>(NTT)</small> جاپان ۾ دنيا جو پهريون سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ لانچ ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> سال <small>1983</small>ع ۾، موٽرولا جو ڊائنا ٽيڪ (<small>DynaTAC 8000x</small>) پهريون تجارتي طور تي دستياب هٿ وارو موبائل فون هو. <small>1993</small>ع کان <small>2024</small>ع تائين، دنيا ۾ موبائل فون سبسڪرپشن <small>9.1</small> ارب کان وڌيڪ ٿي وئي،<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> جيڪا ڌرتيءَ تي هر ماڻهوءَ لاءِ هڪ موبائل فون مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪافي آهي.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> <small>2024</small>ع ۾، دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فون ٺاهيندڙ سام سنگ، ايپل ۽ شيائومي هئا؛ اسمارٽ فون جي وڪرو ڪل موبائل فون جي وڪرو جو تقريباً 50 سيڪڙو هو.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref><ref name="Harris-2019" /> For feature phones {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the top-selling brands were Samsung, [[HMD Global|Nokia]] and [[Alcatel Mobile|Alcatel]]. Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as they have been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of [[Consumer electronics|consumer technology]].<ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places; for example, in the UK, the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999. Today, mobile phones are globally ubiquitous, and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the world population, or approximately 7.2 billion people, owns at least one. [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] lxws71gr42diwxh3r18fq6pzba1rp8y 394695 394694 2026-07-15T21:22:19Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Portable device to make telephone calls using a radio link}} {{For|جديد موبائل فون|اسمارٽ فون}} [[File:Mobile Phone Evolution 1992 - 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|موبائل فون جي ارتقا جا ٻه ڏهاڪا، <small>1992</small> موٽرولا ڊائنا ٽيڪ <small>8000</small> ايڪس کان <small>2014</small> آئي فون <small>6</small> پلس تائين]] هڪ '''موبائل فون''' (<small>mobile</small> <small>phone</small>) يا '''سيل فون''' (<small>cell</small> <small>phone</small>) هڪ پورٽيبل وائرليس ٽيليفون آهي جيڪا صارف کي، لينڊ لائن فون جي برعڪس، مقرر ٿيل ٽيليفون سروس ايريا ۾ منتقل ٿيڻ دوران ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ ذريعي ڪال ڪرڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو. هي ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي لنڪ موبائل فون آپريٽر جي سوئچنگ سسٽم سان ڳنڍيندو آهي، جيڪو پبلڪ سوئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ (<small>PSTN</small>) تائين رسائي فراهم ڪندو آهي. جديد موبائل ٽيليفوني سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ آرڪيٽيڪچر تي ڀاڙي ٿو، اهو ئي سبب آهي ته موبائل فونز کي اڪثر ڪري اتر آمريڪا ۾ 'سيل فون' سڏيو ويندو آهي. روايتي آواز جي رابطي کان ٻاهر، ڊجيٽل موبائل فون اضافي خدمتن جي وسيع رينج کي سپورٽ ڪرڻ لاءِ ترقي ڪئي آهي. انهن ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ملٽي ميڊيا ميسيجنگ، اي ميل، ۽ انٽرنيٽ رسائي (<small>LTE، 5G NR</small> يا وائي فائي ذريعي)، انهي سان گڏ بلوٽوٿ، انفراريڊ، ۽ الٽرا وائڊ بينڊ (<small>UWB</small>) جهڙيون مختصر رينج وائرليس ٽيڪنالاجيون شامل آهن. موبائل فون مختلف قسم جي ملٽي ميڊيا صلاحيتن کي پڻ سپورٽ ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ ڊجيٽل فوٽوگرافي، وڊيو رڪارڊنگ، ۽ گيمنگ. ان کان علاوه، اهي ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ کي فعال ڪن ٿا، جنهن ۾ وڊيو مواد، گڏوگڏ ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن اسٽريمنگ شامل آهن. ان کان علاوه، موبائل فون سيٽلائيٽ تي ٻڌل خدمتون پيش ڪن ٿا، جهڙوڪ نيويگيشن ۽ ميسيجنگ، انهي سان گڏ ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون ۽ ادائيگي جا حل (<small>QR</small> ڪوڊ اسڪين ڪرڻ يا وير فيلڊ ڪميونيڪيشن ذريعي). صرف بنيادي خاصيتون پيش ڪندڙ موبائل فونز کي اڪثر فيچر فون (سلنگ: ڊمب فون) سڏيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ترقي يافته ڪمپيوٽنگ پاور سان گڏ اسمارٽ فونز طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=Viranjay M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch |last2=Singh |first2=Ghanshyam |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-01165-3 |page=1}}</ref> پهريون هٿ ۾ هٿ رکيل موبائل فون موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪوپر پاران <small>3</small> اپريل <small>1973</small>ع تي نيويارڪ شهر ۾، هڪ هينڊ سيٽ استعمال ڪندي جنهن جو وزن <small>2</small> ڪلوگرام (<small>4.4</small> پائونڊ) هو، ڏيکاريو ويو.<ref name="Inventor">{{cite web |last1=Teixeira |first1=Tania |title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=23 April 2010}}</ref> سال <small>1979</small>ع ۾، نپن ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون <small>(NTT)</small> جاپان ۾ دنيا جو پهريون سيلولر نيٽ ورڪ لانچ ڪيو.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Timeline from 1G to 5G: A Brief History on Cell Phones|url=https://www.cengn.ca/information-centre/innovation/timeline-from-1g-to-5g-a-brief-history-on-cell-phones/|access-date=2022-02-18|website=CENGN|language=en-US}}</ref> سال <small>1983</small>ع ۾، موٽرولا جو ڊائنا ٽيڪ (<small>DynaTAC 8000x</small>) پهريون تجارتي طور تي دستياب هٿ وارو موبائل فون هو. <small>1993</small>ع کان <small>2024</small>ع تائين، دنيا ۾ موبائل فون سبسڪرپشن <small>9.1</small> ارب کان وڌيڪ ٿي وئي،<ref name="Gupta-2011">{{cite journal | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1963533.1963545 | doi=10.1145/1963533.1963545 | title=Ubiquitous mobile phones are becoming indispensable | year=2011 | last1=Gupta | first1=Gireesh K. | journal=ACM Inroads | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=32–33 | s2cid=2942617 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> جيڪا ڌرتيءَ تي هر ماڻهوءَ لاءِ هڪ موبائل فون مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪافي آهي.<ref>Taylor, Petroc. "Mobile Phone Subscriptions Worldwide 2024." [https://www.statista.com/statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/ ''Statista''], 10 Mar. 2025.</ref><ref name="ITU">{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332274/there-more-mobile-phones-people.html |title=Mobile penetration |quote=Almost 40 percent of the world's population, 2.7 billion people, are online. The developing world is home to about 826 million female internet users and 980 million male internet users. The developed world is home to about 475 million female Internet users and 483 million male Internet users.|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> <small>2024</small>ع ۾، دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فون ٺاهيندڙ سام سنگ، ايپل ۽ شيائومي هئا؛ اسمارٽ فون جي وڪرو ڪل موبائل فون جي وڪرو جو تقريباً 50 سيڪڙو هو.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/271496/global-market-share-held-by-smartphone-vendors-since-4th-quarter-2009/ Sherif, Ahmed]. "Smartphone Market Shares by Vendor 2009–2024." ''Statista'', 14 Jan. 2025.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160522162950/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3323017 |archive-date= 22 May 2016 |title= Gartner Says Worldwide Smartphone Sales Grew 3.9 Percent in First Quarter of 2016 |publisher= Gartner |access-date= 21 May 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ |title=Mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous |date=17 February 2022 |website=[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904055723/https://www.itu.int/highlights-report-activities/highlights-report-activities/agenda_section/mobile-phones-are-becoming-ubiquitous/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/strategy-analytics/blogs/enterprise/wearables/emerging-devices/2017/02/24/nokia-captured-9-feature-phone-marketshare-worldwide-in-2016 |title=Nokia Captured 9% Feature Phone Marketshare Worldwide in 2016 |publisher=Strategyanalytics.com |date=24 February 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/591443.stm | title=BBC News &#124; Business &#124; Mobile phone sales surge }}</ref><ref name="Harris-2019">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/hbe2.112 | title=Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions | year=2019 | last1=Harris | first1=Arlene | last2=Cooper | first2=Martin | journal=Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies | volume=1 | pages=15–17 | s2cid=187189041 | doi-access=free |issn=2578-1863 }}</ref> [[File:Mobile phone evolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A decade of evolution of mobile phones, from a 1994 Motorola_MicroTAC#International_GSM|Motorola 8900X-2 to the 2004 HTC Typhoon, an early smartphone]] ھي [[ٽيليفون]] جو اُھو قِسم آھي، جيڪو ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تي سولائي سان کٹي وڃي سگھجي ٿو. ھن جي ذريعي بغير ڪنھن تار جي مدد جي فون [[ڪال]] ڪري بہ سگھجي ٿي ۽ کٹي بہ سگھجي ٿي. ھي [[ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي]] سگنل جي ذريعي ڪم ڪندو آھي. اِھي سگنل موبائيل ڪمپنيون ھر علائقي ۾ پنھنجا مخصوص ٿنڀا لڳائي مُھيا ڪنديون آھن. ريڊيو فريڪوئنسي سگنل موبائيل فون تان ٿيندڙ ڪال کي [[موبائيل فون آپريٽر]] سان ڳنڍيندو آھي، جيڪو وري اُن کي [[پبلڪ سُئچڊ ٽيليفون نيٽورڪ]] (PSTN) سان جوڙيندو آھي. جديد موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس [[سيليولر نيٽورڪ]] ڪَتب آٹينديون آھن، تنھنڪري موبائيل ٽيليفون کي [[اتر آمريڪا|اُتر آمريڪا]] ۾ سيليولر ٽيليفون يا [[سيل فون]] چئبو آھي. جڏھن تہ [[سنڌ]] ۾ موبائيل فون چيو ويندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://sindhsalamat.com/threads/23494/|title=موبائيل فون جي وَبا ۾ وڪوڙيل ڇوڪريون|website=SindhSalamat|access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref> اِن سان گڏ جديد موبائيل فون (2G) ڪيترن ئي قِسمن جون ٻيون خدمتون پٹ مُھيا ڪندو آھي، جيئن [[ٽيڪسٽ ميسيج]]، [[ايم ايم ايس]]، [[اي ميل]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] تائين پُھچ، ننڍي فاصلي تائين بِنا تار جي رابطو ([[انفرا ريڊ|انفرارييڊ]]، [[بلوٽوٿ]])، ڪاروباري [[ايپليڪيشن]]، [[وڊيو گيم]] ۽ جديد تصويرڪَشي. اھڙيون خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙ موبائيل فونن کي [[فيچر فون]] چئبو آھي. اھڙيون موبائيل فونون جيڪي وڏي پئماني تي ترقي ڪيل ڪمپيوٽرائزڊ قابليتون آڇينديون آھن، تِن کي [[سمارٽ فون|سِمارٽ فون]] چئبو آھي. == تاريخ == ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ريڊيو ٽيليفون سروس ريڊيو انجنيئرنگ جي شروعاتي دور ۾ تصور ڪيو ويو. 1917ع ۾ فِنلينڊ جي ايجادڪار سائنسدان ايرڪ ٽائجر اسٽيڊٽ "کيسي ۾ رکٹ جيتري ويڙھجندڙ ٽيليفون تمام سنھي ڪاربان مائڪروفون سان" جو خاڪو جمع ڪرايو. حقيقي طور ھڪ جاءِ کان ٻئي جاءِ تائين کٹي سگھٹ جھڙن ٽيليفون پُرزن کي تخليق ڪرٹ جي ڊوڙ ٻي عالمي جنگ کانپوءِ شروع ٿي، ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن ۾ ترقياتي ڪمن کي زور وٺرائٹ جي ڪري. وڌيڪ سُڌارن سان موبائيل ٽيليفون شروعاتي ٻُڙي دور يا زيرو جنريشن (0G) سان سلسليوار "جنريشنن" يا دورن مان پار اُڪرٹ لڳو، جيئن تہ بيل نظام جو موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس ۽ اِن جو جاءِنشين سُڌارو ٿيل موبائيل ٽيليفون سروس. ھي (0G) نظام سيليولر نہ ھُئا. اُنھن ذريعي بس ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ڪري سگھبا ھُئا، جيڪي نھايت مُھانگا ھوندا ھُئا. لارج اسڪيل انٽيگريشن (LSI) ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ميٽل آڪسائيڊ سيميڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) جي ترقيءَ سان ڄاٹ جي نظريي ۽ سيليولر نيٽورڪنگ سُھانگن موبائيل ڪمينيڪيشنس ۾ سُڌارن جي اڳواٹي ڪئي.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> ۽ پُرزا جھڙوڪ ڪار فون. پھريون ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو سيليولر موبائيل فون جان ايف مِچل<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR|website=www.brophy.net|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ۽ موٽرولا جي مارٽن ڪُوپر پاران 1973ع ۾ ظاھر ڪيو ويو. اُن ھٿ واري اوزار جو وزن ٻہ ڪلو گرام يا (4.4lb) پائونڊ ھو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm|title=Meet the man who invented the mobile phone|date=2010-04-23|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> پھريون خودڪار ڪاروباري سيليولر نيٽورڪ (1G) جپان ۾ "نِپون ٽيليگراف ۽ ٽيليفون" پاران 1979ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو ويو ھو. اُن جي پيروي ڪندي اِھو ساڳيو نظام "نورڊڪ موبائيل ٽيليفون" (NMT) ڊينمارڪ، فِنلينڊ، [[ناروي]] ۽ سُئيڊن ۾ 1981ع ۾ مُتعارف ڪيو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022043906/http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/mobilen/engelska/1980_90.shtml|title=Mobile/1980-90|date=2008-10-22|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref> ٻين بہ ڪيترن ئي مُلڪن اِنھن جي 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي جي شروعاتي اڌ تائين پيروي ڪئي. ھي (1G) دور جا پھريان نظام فقط ڪجھہ ھڪ جھڙا ڪال ئي ڪرائي سگھندا ھُئا پر پوءِ بہ سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي مُتبادل طور ڪتب ايندا ھُئا. 1983ع ۾ پھريون ڀيرو ھٿ ۾ کٹٹ جھڙو موبائيل ڊيانا ٽيڪ 8000x ڪمرشل طور موجود ھو. 1990ع جي ڏھاڪي ۾ جديد سيليولر نيٽورڪ ظاھر ٿيا، جن کي MOSFET بيسڊ RF power amplifiers، (MOSFET ۽ LDMOS) ۽ RF circuits (RF CMOS) پاران وڏي پئماني تي ھنج وٺي فعال ڪيو ويو،<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga|title=B. Jayant Baliga - Wikipedia|website=en.m.wikipedia.org|language=en|access-date=2021-01-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128&redir_esc=y|title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies|last=Asif|first=Saad|date=2018-07-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-88134-3|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=A.|date=Winter 2008|title=Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4785694|journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter|volume=13|issue=1|pages=57–58|doi=10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694|issn=1098-4232}}</ref> جيڪي بِنا تار واري رابطيڪاري ۾ ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ جي تعارف جي اڳواڻي ڪري رھيا ھُئا.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkO9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch|last=Srivastava|first=Viranjay M.|last2=Singh|first2=Ghanshyam|date=2013-10-07|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-01165-3|language=en}}</ref> 1991ع ۾ ريڊيولِنجا ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]] Radiolinja) پاران ٻيو دور يا سيڪنڊ جنريشن (2G) جديد سيليولر ٽيڪنالاجي جي ايس ايم معيار (انگريزي GSM Standard) تي فِنلينڊ ۾ مُتعارف ڪرايو ويو. ايئن اِن ميدان ۾ نون نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن وچ ۾ سخت مُقابلو شروع ٿي ويو، جيڪا ڳالھہ پھريان کان موجود (1G) نيٽورڪ آپريٽرن لاءِ نھايت ڳٹتي جوڳي آھي. جي ايس ايم اسٽينڊرڊ (انگريزي: GSM Standard) يورپ واسين پاران CEPT (انگريزي: Europian postal and telecommunications conference) نالي سان ٿيل ڪانفرنس ۾ پيش ڪيل شروعات آھي. [[فرانس]] ۽ جرمنيءَ جي سھڪار تي آڌاريل آر ۽ ڊي (انگريزي: R&D) فني حوالي سان اِن کي عمل جوڳو ثابت ڪيو ۽ 1987ع ۾ 13 يورپي ملڪن پاٹ ۾ مُتفق ٿي ڪري ھڪڙي ياداشت نامي تي صحيح ڪيو تہ ھو 1991ع تائين اِن حوالي سان ڪمرشل خدمتون مُتعارف ڪرائي ڇڏيندا. جي ايس ايم (2G=) جي پھرين روپ (انگريزي:version) ۾ 6000 معياري صُفحا ھُيا. 2018ع ۾ آ اِي اِي اِي/ آر ايس اِي (انگريزي: IEEE/ RSE) ٿامس ھاگ ۽ فليپي ڊُپيِس کي پھرين جديد معيار جي موبائيل ٽيليفون ۾ حصو وجھٹ تي جيمس ڪلرڪ ميڪسويل تمغو ڏنو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.ieee-ukandireland.org/duke-of-cambridge-presents-maxwell-medals-to-gsm-developers/|title=Duke of Cambridge Presents Maxwell Medals to GSM Developers|last=webmaster|first=Ieee|website=IEEE - UK and Irعeland Section|language=en-GB|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> 2018ع ۾ 220 کان وڌيڪ مُلڪن جي 5 ارب کان وڌيڪ ماٹھن جي ايس ايم (انگريزي: GSM) کي استعمال ۾ آندو. (2G) جي ايس ايم (4G)، (3G) ۽ (5G) تائين ارتقا ڪري چُڪي آھي. 2001ع ۾ (NTT DoCoMo) پاران (WCDMA) معيار تي جپان ۾ ٽيون دور (3G) مُتعارف ڪرايو.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/history.htm|title=The history of UMTS and 3G development|website=www.umtsworld.com|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> ھن جي پُٺيان3G ،3.5G ، يا ٽربو 3G جو واڌارو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو ھاءِ اسپيڊ پاڪيٽ ايڪسيس (انگريزي:HSPA) ڪُٽنب تي ٻَڌل ھُيو. (UMTS) نيٽورڪ کي وڌيڪ مواد جي مُنتقلي، رفتار ۽ گُنجائش جي اجازت ھُئي. 2009ع تائين، ڪُجھہ جاين تي اِھو واضح ٿي چُڪو ھو تہ ڀرپور فريڪوئنسي رکندڙ ايپليليشنن جي واڌاري جي حوالي سان 3G غالب پئجي ويندو، جيئن تہ ھلندڙ نشريات. نتيجي ۾، 3G جي موجود ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ڏھوٹ کان وڌيڪ تيزيءَ سان سُڌارن ۾ واڌ جي واعدي سان ڏسندي ئي ڏسندي چوٿين دور (4G) جي ٽيڪنالاجين ۾ بھتريون اينديون ويون ۽ ھي صنعت شروع ٿي ويو. پھريون ٻہ ٽيڪنالاجيون 4G جي حوالي سان ٺھيون ۽ ڪمرشلي طور مُھيا ٿيون. پھرين، واءِ ميڪس (انگريزي:WiMAX) معيار، جنھن کي اسپرنٽ (انگريزي:Sprint) پاران اُتر آمريڪا ۾ پيش ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻي ايل ٽي اِي (انگريزي: LTE) معيار، جنھن کي اسڪئنڊينويا ۾ ٽيليا سونيرا (انگريزي: TeliSonera) پاران پيش ڪيو ويو. 5G ھڪ اھڙي فنيات (انگريزي: technology) آھي، جيڪا اصطلاح طور IMT) 4G) جي ترقيءَ ۾ اڳتي وڌيل موبائيل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن معيار جي ٻئي اھم مرحلي کي ظاھر ڪرٹ لاءِ تحقيقي مَقالن ۽ رِٿائُن ۾ ڪَتب اچي ٿو. 5G اصطلاح رسمي طور تي اڃا تائين ڪنھن وضاحتي يا سرڪاري دستاويز ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ڪمپنين يا معتبر ڌُرين جيئن تہ، WiMAX ،3GPP فورم يا ITU-R پاران ڪتب نہ ٿو ڪيو وڃي. 4G جي نون ٻاھرين معيارن کي معياري ادارن پاران ترقي وٺرايو پيو وڃي، پر اُھي اڃا تائين 4G جي ڇَٽيءَ جي ھيٺيان ڏٺا پيا وڃن، ڪنھن نئين موبائيل دور (جنريشن) لاءِ نہ. == قِسم == '''سمارٽ فون''' سمارٽ فون کي ڳٹپ جوڳيون نُمايان خاصيتون آھن. عالمي ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن اتحاد اُنھن کي ڳنڍڄار ملائيندڙ (انگريزي: Internet connection) سان ڀيٽيندو آھي، جنھن کي فعال موبائيل براڊبينڊ سبسڪرپشن چئبو آھي، جن ۾ ٽيبليٽ وغيرہ شامل آھن. سُڌريل دُنيا ۾، سمارٽ فون اڳوٹن موبائيل نظامن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گھٹو اڳتي نڪري ويا آھن. بھرحال، ترقي ڪندڙ مُلڪن ۾ اِھي موبائيل ٽيليفونن جي استعمال جو ڪُل پنجاھہ سيڪڙو %50 طور ليکيا وڃن ٿا. '''فيچر فون''' فيچر فون ھڪڙو اصطلاح آھي، جيڪو موبائل فونن کي بيان ڪرٹ لاءِ ماضيءَ جي نمونن وانگر علامتي طور ڪَتب ايندو آھي، جيڪي جديد سمارٽ فون جي ڀيٽ ۾ صلاحيتن ۾ محدود ڪيل ھوندا آھن. فيچر فون علامتي طور تي ڪاڪردگيءَ جي حوالي سان آواز ڪال ڪرٹ ۽ لِکت پيغام مُھيا ڪندا آھن. اُن سان گڏ بُنيادي مَلٽي ميڊيا، ڳنڍ ڄار صلاحيتن ۽ ٻيا ذريعا جيڪي ڪَتب ۾ آٹيندڙن لاءِ "بِنا تار جي خدمتون مُھيا ڪندڙن" پاران پيش ڪيا ويندا آھن. ھي بُنيادي موبائل فون مٿان وڌيڪ ڪارائتو ھوندو آھي، جيڪو فقط آواز ڪال ۽ لِکت پيغام ڪرٹ جي ئي لائق ھوندو آھي.<ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/feature-phone|title=Definition of feature phone|website=PCMAG|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2012/11/13/two-weeks-with-a-dumb-phone/|title=Two Weeks With A Dumb Phone|last=Hixon|first=Todd|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref> فيچر فون ۽ بُنيادي موبائل فون مالڪاٹو، مرضيءَ مُطابق ٺھيل سافٽ ويئر ۽ واپرائيندڙ سان گڏيل ھُجٹ جو لاڙو رکندا آھن. اُن جي مُقابلي ۾ سمارٽ فون عام طور تي "موبائل ھلائيندڙ نظام" (انگريزي: Mobile operating system) ڪَتب آٹيندا آھن، جيڪو اڪثر سڀني پُرزن (انگريزي: devices) تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ عام خاصيتون وَنڊيندو آھي. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Wikivoyage|Mobile telephones}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Mobile phones}} * {{HowStuffWorks|cell-phone|"How Cell Phones Work"}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701050620/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1636836_1389493,00.html "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone"], 15 photos with captions from ''Time'' magazine * [http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episodes/cellphone-a-ring-heard-around-the-world ''Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world''] – a video documentary by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mobile Phone}} [[زمرو:موبائل فون| ]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون]] [[زمرو:آفيس جو سامان]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون]] [[زمرو:2000ع جو ڏهاڪو فيشن ۽ رجحانات]] [[زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] [[زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف]] sx8px9yzhn546hkpftjut6r8t4yciyd پاڪستان ۾ تعليمي بورڊن جي فهرست 0 74438 394818 342670 2026-07-16T11:25:28Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394818 wikitext text/x-wiki '''انٽرميڊيٽ ۽ سيڪنڊري ايجوڪيشن بورڊ''' (BISE) [[پاڪستان]] ۾ انٽرميڊيٽ ۽ سيڪنڊري ايجوڪيشن جا امتحان منعقد ڪرڻ جا ذميوار آهن. اهي بورڊ پنهنجي تعليمي پاليسي صوبائي تعليم واري وزارت جي نگراني هيٺ ترتيب ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://studenthelp.pk/boards-of-intermediate-and-secondary-education-in-pakistan|title=Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education in Pakistan|publisher=studenthelp.pk}}</ref> پاڪستان ۾ تعليمي بورڊن جي ھي فهرست انهن جي قيام جو سال، دائري اختيار (ضلعا) ۽ ويب سائٽون الفابيٽ جي ترتيب سان ڏيکاري ٿي. == سرڪاري بورڊ == === انٽرمیڊیٽ ۽ ثانوي تعليمي بورڊ === '''[[اسلام آباد]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علایقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالو |- |[[Federal Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education|اسلام آباد]] |1975ع |[[گلگت بلتستان]]، [[اسلام آباد]] ، سڄي پاڪستان ۾ ڪينٽونمينٽ ۽ گيريزن |[https://www.fbise.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1862476/1-education-boards-upgraded/|title=Education boards to be upgraded|last=Tribune.com.pk|date=8 December 2018|website=The Express Tribune|language=en|access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.fbise.edu.pk/introduction.php|title=WELCOME TO FBISE|website=www.fbise.edu.pk}}</ref> |} '''[[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علایقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالا |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Bahawalpur|بهاولپور]] |1998 |[[بهاولپور ضلعو|ضلعو بهاولپور]]، [[بهاولنگر ضلعو|ضلعو بهاولنگر]]، [[رحيم يار خان ضلعو|ضلعو رحيم يار خان]] |[https://bisebwp.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://bisebwp.edu.pk/AboutBiseBwp.aspx|title=BISEBWP Historical Background of Our Bahawalpur|website=bisebwp.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Dera Ghazi Khan|ڊيرا غازي خان]] |1989ع |[[ڊيرا غازي خان ضلعو|ضلعو ڊيرا غازي خان]]، [[مظفرڳڙھ ضلعو|ضلعو مظفر ڳڙهه]]، [[ليہ ضلعو|ضلعو ليه]]، [[راجن پور ضلعو|ضلعو راجن پور]] |[http://www.bisedgkhan.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisedgkhan.edu.pk/|title=BISE DG.KHAN|website=www.bisedgkhan.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Faisalabad|فيصل آباد]] |1988 |[[فيصل آباد ضلعو|ضلعو فيصل آباد]]، [[چنيوٽ ضلعو|ضلعو چنيوٽ]]، [[جهنگ ضلعو|ضلعو جھنگ]]، [[ٽوبہ ٽيڪ سنگھ ضلعو|ضلعو ٽوبه ٽيڪ سنگھ]] |[http://bisefsd.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://bisefsd.edu.pk/AboutUs.aspx|title=BISE Faisalabad|website=bisefsd.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Gujranwala|گوجرانوالا]] |1976 |[[گجرانوالہ ضلعو|ضلعو گوجرانوالا]]، [[گجرات ضلعو|ضلعو گجرات]]، [[منڊي بهاء الدين ضلعو|ضلعو منڊي بهاؤالدين]]، [[حافظ آباد ضلعو|ضلعو حافظ آباد]]، [[نارووال ضلعو|ضلعو نارووال]]، [[سيالڪوٽ ضلعو|ضلعو سيالڪوٽ]] |[http://bisegrw.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804020243/http://bisegrw.edu.pk/ |date=2022-08-04 }} <nowiki>[4]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://bisegrw.edu.pk/about-us/jurisdication.html|title=Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Gujranwala|website=bisegrw.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore|لاهور]] |1954 |[[لاهور ضلعو|ضلعو لاهور]]، [[شيخوپوره ضلعو|ضلعو شيخوپوره]]، [[ننڪانہ صاحب ضلعو|ضلعو ننڪانہ صاحب]]، [[قصور ضلعو|ضلعو قصور]] |[http://biselahore.com/ <nowiki>[5]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://biselahore.com/aboutus.html|title=BISE Lahore|website=biselahore.com}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Multan|ملتان]] |1968 |[[ملتان ضلعو|ضلعو ملتان]]، [[خانيوال ضلعو|ضلعو خانيوال]]، [[وهاڙي ضلعو|ضلعو وهاڙي]]، [[لوڌران ضلعو|ضلعو لوڌران]] |[https://www.bisemultan.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022065050/https://www.bisemultan.edu.pk/ |date=2020-10-22 }} <nowiki>[6]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.google.com/maps?q=Board+of+Intermediate+&+Secondary+Education+Multan&ie=UTF8&hl=en&view=map&cid=13979005077962428603&iwloc=A&ved=0CCYQpQY&sa=X&ei=BFkHTYfpLKSuugOe8YGwDQ|title=Google Maps|website=Google Maps}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://uresult.pk/bise-multan-board-9th-class-result-2015/|title=BISE Multan Board 9th Class Result 2018|last=Jaffery|first=Imran|date=2 June 2018|website=Class Results}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Rawalpindi|راولپنڊي]] |1977 |[[راولپنڊي ضلعو|ضلعو راولپنڊي]]، [[جهلم ضلعو|ضلعو جهلم]]، [[اٽڪ ضلعو|ضلعو اٽڪ]]، [[چڪوال ضلعو|ضلعو چکوال]] |[http://www.biserwp.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020120356/http://www.biserwp.edu.pk/ |date=2022-10-20 }} <nowiki>[7]</nowiki>] |<ref name="biserwp2">{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.biserwp.edu.pk/General_Info.asp|title=Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education, Rawalpindi – General Information|publisher=Biserwp.edu.pk|access-date=10 October 2016}}</ref> <ref name="biserwp1">{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.biserwp.edu.pk/Introduction.asp|title=Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education, Rawalpindi – Introduction|publisher=Biserwp.edu.pk|access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Sahiwal|ساهيوال]] |2012 |[[ساهيوال ضلعو]]، [[اوڪاڙا ضلعو|ضلعو اوڪاڙه]]، [[پاڪپتن ضلعو|ضلعو پاڪپتن]] |[https://www.bisesahiwal.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819132624/https://www.bisesahiwal.edu.pk/ |date=2022-08-19 }} <nowiki>[8]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.bisesahiwal.edu.pk/|title=:: BISE SAHIWAL ::|website=www.bisesahiwal.edu.pk}}</ref> <ref name="est">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/lahore/15-Jun-2012/hed-notifies-sahiwal-bise|title=HED notifies Sahiwal BISE|date=15 June 2012|work=[[nation.com.pk]]|access-date=11 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605121328/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/lahore/15-Jun-2012/hed-notifies-sahiwal-bise|archive-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Sargodha|سرگوڌا]] |1968 |[[سرگوڌا ضلعو|ضلعو سرگوڌا]]، [[خوشاب ضلعو|ضلعو خوشاب]]، [[ميانوالي ضلعو|ضلعو ميانوالي]]، [[ڀڪر ضلعو|ضلعو ڀڪر]] |[http://www.bisesargodha.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[9]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisesargodha.edu.pk/content/BoardHistory.aspx|title=Board History|website=www.bisesargodha.edu.pk}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.educationist.pk/|title=Educationist|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122003726/http://www.educationist.pk/|archive-date=22 January 2014|access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref> |} '''[[سنڌ]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علایقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالا |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Hyderabad|حيدرآباد]] |1961 |[[حيدرآباد ضلعو|ضلعو حيدرآباد]]، [[مٽياري ضلعو|ضلعو مٽياري]]، [[ڄامشورو ضلعو|ضلعو ڄامشورو]]، [[ٽنڊو الهيار ضلعو|ضلعو ٽنڊوالهيار]]، [[ٽنڊو محمد خان ضلعو|ضلعو ٽنڊو محمد خان]]، ضلعو [[ٺٽو]]، [[بدين ضلعو|ضلعو بدين]]، [[سجاول ضلعو|ضلعو سجاول۔]] |[http://biseh.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304223113/http://biseh.edu.pk/ |date=2024-03-04 }} <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisehyd.edu.pk/|title=***Welcome Bise Hyderabad (Sindh)Pakistan**|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430051009/http://www.bisehyd.edu.pk/|archive-date=30 April 2008|access-date=9 July 2020}}</ref> <ref name="CITEREFMessages1">{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisehyd.edu.pk/messages/index.htm|title=Administration messages|publisher=Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Hyderabad|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514233242/http://www.bisehyd.edu.pk/messages/index.htm|archive-date=14 May 2008|access-date=27 May 2008}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate Education, Karachi|Karachi]] {{Small|(Intermediate)}} |1974 | rowspan="2" |[[Karachi Division|ڪراچي ڊويزن]] |[https://biek.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://biek.edu.pk/|title=Welcome to Board of Intermediate Education Karachi|website=biek.edu.pk|access-date=12 September 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.educationinkarachi.org/|title=Education in Karachi|last=educationinkarachi.org|website=www.educationinkarachi.org|language=en|access-date=12 September 2020}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Secondary Education, Karachi|Karachi]] {{Small|(Secondary)}} |1950 |[http://bsek.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://bsek.edu.pk/about|title=About Board of Secondary Education Karachi – bsek.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[بورڊ آف انٽرميڊيٽ اينڊ سيڪنڊري ايجوڪيشن، لاڙڪاڻو|لاڙڪاڻا]] |1995 |[[Larkana Division|لاڙڪاڻو ڊويزن]] |[http://biselrk.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[4]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://biselrk.edu.pk/Organogram.aspx|title=Larkano Board : Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education Larkana|website=biselrk.edu.pk}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/education/board-of-education-larkana.html|title=BISE Larkana – Larkana Board Results, Date Sheet, News & Announcements|website=UrduPoint}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Mirpur Khas|ميرپورخاص]] |1973 |[[ميرپور خاص ڊويزن|ميرپورخاص ڊويزن]]، [[سانگهڙ ضلعو|ضلعو سانگهڙ]] |[http://www.bisempk.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[5]</nowiki>] |<ref name="auto">{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/education/board-of-education-mirpurkhas.html|title=BISE Mirpurkhas – Mirpurkhas Board Results, Date Sheet, News & Announcements|website=UrduPoint}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Sukkur|سکر]] |1979 |[[سکر ضلعو|ضلعو سکر]]، [[خيرپور|ضلعو خیرپور]]، [[گهوٽڪي ضلعو|ضلعو گهوٽڪي]] |[http://www.bisesuksindh.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[6]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisesuksindh.edu.pk/|title=Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education-Sukkur|website=www.bisesuksindh.edu.pk}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/education/board-of-education-sukkur.html|title=BISE Sukkur – Sukkur Board Results, Date Sheet, News & Announcements|website=UrduPoint}}</ref> |- |شهيد بينظير آباد |2015 |[[شهيد بينظيرآباد ضلعو|شهيد بينظير آباد ضلعو،]] [[سانگهڙ ضلعو|ضلعو سانگهڙ]]، [[دادو ضلعو|ضلعو دادو]]، [[نوشهرو فيروز ضلعو|ضلعو نوشهروفيروز]] |[https://bisesba.edu.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922095710/https://bisesba.edu.pk/ |date=2022-09-22 }} <nowiki>[7]</nowiki>] | |} '''[[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبرپختونخواهه]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علایقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالا |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Abbottabad|ايبٽ آباد]] |1990 |[[ايبٽ آباد ضلعو|ضلعو ايبٽ آباد]]، [[مانسھرہ ضلعو|ضلعو مانسهره]]، [[ھريپور ضلعو|ضلعو هريپور]]، [[مٿيون ڪوھستان ضلعو|ضلعو اپر ڪوهستان]]، [[ھيٺيون ڪوھستان ضلعو|ضلعو لوئر ڪوهستان]]، [[تورغر ضلعو|ضلعو تورغر]]، [[بٽگرام ضلعو|ضلعو بٽگرام.]] |[http://biseatd.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://results.urduwire.com/boards/kpk/biseatd/|title=BISE Abbottabad – profile|website=Urdu Wire|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222094648/http://results.urduwire.com/boards/kpk/biseatd/|archive-date=22 February 2014|access-date=22 February 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://biseatd.edu.pk/pages.php?p=19|title=BISE Abbottabad – Jurisdiction|website=Official website|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202093140/http://biseatd.edu.pk/pages.php?p=19|archive-date=2 February 2014|access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Bannu|بنون]] |1990 |[[Bannu Division|بنون ڊويزن]] |[http://www.biseb.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.biseb.edu.pk/|title=About BISE Bannu|website=BISE BANNU}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Dera Ismail Khan|ڊيرا اسماعيل خان]] |2006 |[[Dera Ismail Khan Division|ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ڊويزن]] |[http://www.bisedik.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisedik.edu.pk/|title=BISE DIKhan|website=www.bisedik.edu.pk|access-date=11 July 2020}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Kohat|ڪوهاٽ]] |2002 |[[Kohat Division|ڪوهاٽ ڊويزن]] |[https://www.bisekt.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[4]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.bisekt.edu.pk/about|title=Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) Kohat|website=www.bisekt.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Malakand|مالاڪنڊ]] |1961 |[[سوات ضلعو|ضلعو سوات]]، [[مالاڪنڊ ضلعو|ضلعو مالاڪنڊ]]، [[مٿيون دير ضلعو|ضلعو اپر دير]]، [[ھيٺيون دير ضلعو|ضلعو لوئر دير]]، [[باجوڙ ضلعو|ضلعو باجوڑ]]۔ |[https://www.bisemalakand.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[5]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.bisemalakand.edu.pk/#about-us|title=BISE Malakand – Home|website=www.bisemalakand.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Mardan|مردان]] |1975 |[[مردان ضلعو|ضلعو مردان]]، [[صوابي ضلعو|ضلعو صوابي]]، [[نوشھرہ ضلعو|ضلعو نوشهره]]۔ |[https://web.bisemdn.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[6]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://web.bisemdn.edu.pk/about.php|title=BISE Mardan – About|website=web.bisemdn.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Peshawar|پشاور]] |1961 |[[پشاور ضلعو|ضلعو پشاور]]، [[چارسدہ ضلعو، پاڪستان|ضلعو چارسده]]، ضلعو اپر چترال، [[لوئر چترال ضلعو|ضلعو لوئر چترال]]، [[خيبر ضلعو|ضلعو خيبر]]۔ |[https://bisep.com.pk/ <nowiki>[7]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.bisep.com.pk/page-10016.html|title=Board History :: BISEP|website=www.bisep.com.pk}}</ref> <ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/education/board-of-intermediate-and-secondary-education-284590.html|title=Board Of Intermediate And Secondary Education Peshawar Sets Up Control Room For SSC Annual Exam – UrduPoint|work=UrduPoint|access-date=28 June 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Swat|سوات]] |1992 |[[سوات ضلعو|ضلعو سوات]]، [[شانگلا ضلعو|ضلعو شانگلا]]، [[بونير ضلعو|ضلعو بونير]] |[http://www.bisess.edu.pk/app/site/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508032923/http://www.bisess.edu.pk/app/site/ |date=2022-05-08 }} <nowiki>[8]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.bisess.edu.pk/app/site/|title=Welcome To Board Of Intermediate & Secondary Education Saidu Sharif Swat.|website=www.bisess.edu.pk}}</ref> |} '''[[بلوچستان، پاڪستان|بلوچستان]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علائقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالو |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Quetta|ڪوئيٽا]] |1976 |[[ڪوئيٽا ڊويزن]]، [[زوب ڊويزن]]، [[سبي ڊويزن]]، لورالائي ڊويزن، [[نصيرآباد ڊويزن]]۔ |[https://bbiseqta.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/education/board-of-education-quetta.html|title=BISE Quetta – Quetta Board Results, Date Sheet, News & Announcements|website=UrduPoint}}</ref> <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://bbiseqta.edu.pk/|title=BISE QUETTA|website=bbiseqta.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education Khuzdar|خضدار]] |2020 |[[Kalat Division|قلات ڊويزن]] | | |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education Turbat|تربت]] |2020 |[[مڪراڻ ڊويزن|مڪران ڊويزن]]، [[رخشان ڊويزن]] | | |- |[[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education Loralai|لورالائي]] |تجويز ڪيل |لورالائي ڊويزن [[سبي ڊويزن]]، [[نصيرآباد ڊويزن]] | | |} '''[[آزاد ڪشمير|آزاد ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]]''' {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !علایقا !ويب سائيٽ !حوالا |- |[[AJK Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Mirpur|ميرپور]] |1973 |[[Azad Jammu and Kashmir|آزاد ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] |[https://www.ajkbise.net/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804011138/https://www.ajkbise.net/ |date=2022-08-04 }} <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ajkbise.net/index.php|title=AJKBISE MIRPUR|website=www.ajkbise.net}}</ref> |} ===ٽيڪنيڪل تعليمي بورڊ=== {| class="wikitable" !بورڊ !قائم ٿیو !صوبو !ویب سائیٽ !حوالا |- |[[Punjab Board of Technical Education, Lahore|لاهور]] |1963 |[[Punjab, Pakistan|پنجاب]] |[https://www.pbte.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.pbte.edu.pk/aboutUs.html|title=PBTE &#124; Punjab Board of Technical Education, Lahore|website=www.pbte.edu.pk}}</ref> |- |[[Sindh Board of Technical Education, Karachi|ڪراچي]] |1970 |[[Sindh|سنڌ]] |[https://www.sbte.edu.pk/{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://www.sbte.edu.pk/|title=Sindh Board of Technical Education}}</ref> |- |[[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Board of Technical Education, Peshawar|پشاور]] |1973 |[[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|خيبرپختونخوا]] |[http://www.kpbte.edu.pk/ <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>] |<ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.kpbte.edu.pk/pages/introduction.aspx|title=Introduction|website=www.kpbte.edu.pk}}</ref> |} ==ٻيا بورڊ== ===پرائيويٽ بورڊ=== {| class="wikitable" ! Board ! Established ! Website ! Refs |- |Aga Khan University Examination Board|Aga Khan |2003 |[https://examinationboard.aku.edu/Pages/home.aspx] |<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.urdupoint.com/education/board-of-education-aga-khan.html |title=BISE Aga Khan – Aga Khan Board Results, Date Sheet, News & Announcements |website=UrduPoint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ilmkidunya.com/educational_organizations/aga_khan_board.aspx |title=Aga Khan Board, Aga Khan Inter Board, Matric Aga Khan Board, Aga Khan Board Results, Aga Khan Board Date Sheet, Aga Khan Board Inter Admissions |website=www.ilmkidunya.com}}</ref> |- |Ziauddin University Examination Board |2018 |[https://zueb.edu.pk/] |<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ilmkidunya.com/colleges/ziauddin-university-karachi.aspx |title=Ziauddin University, Karachi Pakistan |website=ilmkidunya.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://zueb.edu.pk/about |title=About Us |access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref> |- |Board of Technical and Professional Education, Islamabad |2017 | |[https://btpei.edu.pk]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |} |Board of Trade and Technical Education Pakistan |https://tradeandtechnicaleducation.pk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412124043/https://tradeandtechnicaleducation.pk/ |date=2025-04-12 }} ===Religious education boards=== {| class="wikitable" ! Board ! Established ! Website |- |[[Wifaq ul Madaris Al-Arabia, Pakistan|Wifaq ul Madaris Al-Arabia]] |1959 |[http://www.wifaqulmadaris.org/] |- |Tanzeem-ul-Madaris Ahl-e-Sunnat |1960 |[https://tanzeemulmadaris.com/] |- |[[Wafaq ul Madaris Al Salafiyyah]] |1955 |[http://www.wmsp.edu.pk/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250324233657/https://www.wmsp.edu.pk/ |date=2025-03-24 }} |- |Rabta-ul-Madaris |1983 |[http://www.rabtatulmadaris.com.pk/] |- |Wifaq ul Madaris Al-Shia |1959 |[https://wmshia.com/] |} ===Church education boards=== {| class="wikitable" ! Board ! Established ! City ! Website ! Refs |- |rowspan="2"|[[Catholic Board of Education, Pakistan]] |rowspan="2"|1961 |Karachi |[http://cbek.org.pk/index.html] |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catholic Board of Education |url=http://cbek.org.pk/history.html|access-date=13 September 2020 |website=cbek.org.pk}}</ref> |- |Lahore |[http://www.cbelahore.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815164212/http://www.cbelahore.com/ |date=2022-08-15 }} |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction – Catholic Board of Education Lahore |url=http://www.cbelahore.com/introduction/|access-date=13 September 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2011 |title=Daily Times – Leading News Resource of Pakistan |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-5-2004_pg7_20|access-date=13 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607015547/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-5-2004_pg7_20 |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref> |- |Diocesan board of education, Pakistan |1960 |Islamabad, Rawalpindi |[https://dberwp.com/] |<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of D.B.E – Diocesan Board of Education (D.B.E.) Islamabad / Rawalpindi |url=https://dberwp.com/history-of-d-b-e/|access-date=13 September 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NCEC – Education Boards |url=https://ncec.org.pk/education-boards/#|access-date=13 September 2020 |website=ncec.org.pk}}</ref> |- |Presbyterian Education Board Pakistan | |Lahore, Punjab |[https://peb.edu.pk] |} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعليمي بورڊ]] [[زمرو:تعليم سان لاڳاپيل فهرستون]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان سان لاڳاپيل فهرستون]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ قائم تعليمي تنظيمون]] lr8sf8ofh20lbkc9f4b0zxqyhg17vus فردوسي مزومدار 0 82139 394768 367036 2026-07-16T08:57:08Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ڄاڻخانو شخصيت|name=فردوسي مزومدار|birth_name=فردوس آرا بيگم|birth_date={{birth date and age|1943|06|18|df=y}}|occupation=اداڪار|awards=''[[#Awards|See full list]]''|alma_mater=[[داڪا يونيورسٽي]]|education=[[ماسٽر آف آرٽس|ايم اي]] (بنگالي ۽ عربي)|relatives={{ubl|[[منير چوڌري]] (ڀاءُ)|[[ڪبير چوڌري]] (ڀاءُ)}}|spouse=[[راميندو مزومدار]]|children=[[ٽروپا مزومدار]]}} '''فردوسي مزومدار''' (جنهن جو اصل نالو آرا بيگم آهي؛ ڄائو 18 جون 1943) <ref name="captive2">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref>هڪ بنگلاديشي فلم، ٽيليويزن ۽ اسٽيٽج اداڪاره آهي. هن کي ايڪوشي پڊڪ (1998)، آزادي ڏينهن جو ايوارڊ (2020) ۽ بنگلا اڪيڊمي لٽريچر ايوارڊ (2020) بنگلاديش جي حڪومت پاران ڏنا ويا.<ref name="ekushey">{{cite news|url=http://www.moca.gov.bd/site/page/c706da0c-29ee-4f0f-95d9-fa6705e19001/|access-date=14 December 2016|publisher=Government of Bangladesh|language=bn|script-title=bn:একুশে পদকপ্রাপ্ত সুধীবৃন্দ}}</ref> 2009 کان، اسٽيٽج تي هن 1200 کان وڌيڪ ڪامياب پرفارمنس ڏنيون آهن، جيڪي تقريباً 35 ڊرامن تي مشتمل آهن، جن ۾ گهڻا پنهنجي گروپ، تئٽر لاءِ هئا.<ref name="captive3">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> ڊائريڪٽر عبدالله ال مومن هن کي "بي ٽي وي ڊرامن جي سونهري دور جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڳولايل اداڪارا" قرار ڏنو.<ref name="flutter">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-100389|title=She caused a flutter in young hearts|date=2009-08-07|work=The Daily Star|access-date=2024-10-05|language=en}}</ref> == ابتدائي زندگي == مزومدار ايڊن ڪاليج ۾ انٽرميڊيئيٽ جي شاگرد هئي. هن '''داڪا يونيورسٽي''' کان بنگالي ۽ عربي ۾ ماسٽرز ڊگري حاصل ڪئي.<ref name="captive4">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> == ڪيريئر == مزومدار پنهنجي ڊراما ڪيريئر جو آغاز پنهنجي ڀاءُ، منير چوڌري کان ڪيو، جيڪو هڪ ڊراما نگار ۽ ناول نگار هو.<ref name="captive5">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> هن پهريون دفعو ڊرامي ڊاڪٽر عبد اللهار ڪارخانه ۾ اداڪاري ڪئي، جيڪو شوقت عثمان لکيو هو، ۽ اهو داڪا يونيورسٽي جي اُس وقت جي اقبال هال جو پيداوار هو.<ref name="captive6">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> فردوسي مزومدار مشرقي پاڪستان جي پي ٽي وي (هاڻي بنگلا ديوان ٽي وي) جي پهرين ٽيليويزن ڊرامي ايڪتالا ڊوٽالا (1964) ۾ به اداڪاري ڪئي.<ref name="captive7">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> سال گذرڻ سان، هن ڪيترن ئي ڊرامن ۾ پرفارمنس ڏني، جهڙوڪ ڪڪيلارا، هڪ هڪ عورت جو ڊرامو، ايڪا، هڪ هڪ ڪردار واري غير زباني ڊرامو، تاموشي، جيڪو نيليما ابراهيم لکيو، ۽ ٻيا.<ref name="captive8">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> هن پنج اسٽيج ڊراما ڊائريڪٽ ڪيا جن ۾ مهرجان آرڪبار، تحرہ تکھونو، چٽھی ۽ دوي بن شامل آهن.<ref name="captive9">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> بنگلاديش جي آزادي کان پوء، 1972 ۾، چٽرا شکڪھ نٽيا گوٺي جا ميمبر هڪ ٿيٽر ٽروپ ٺاهي، جنهن جو نالو تئٽر رکيو. مزومدار ان ٽروپ جي بنيادي ميمبرن مان هڪ هئي.<ref name="captive10">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> == ذاتي زندگي == مزومدار 1970 جي لڳ ڀڳ رامندو مزومدار سان شادي ڪئي. گڏجي انهن جي هڪ ڌيءُ، ٽروپا مزومدار (جنم 1973) آهي.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/news/personal-musings-2120909|title=Personal Musings|date=2021-06-30|website=The Daily Star|language=en|access-date=2021-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/news/personal-musings-2120909|title=Personal Musings|date=2021-06-30|website=The Daily Star|language=en|access-date=2021-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prothomalo.com/entertainment/tv/bbrrkc23vy|title=৮০ পূর্ণ করলেন ফেরদৌসী মজুমদার আর ত্রপা মজুমদার ৫০|last=Alam|first=Manzurul|date=2023-06-18|language=bn|access-date=2023-06-18|newspaper=Prothom Alo}}</ref> هن جي والد، خان بهادر عبدالحليم چوڌري، هڪ ضلعي مجسٽريٽ هئا. هن جو ڀاءُ منير چوڌري هڪ تعليمي ماهر ۽ لکڻين جو مصنف هو. ٻيو ڀاءُ، ڪبير چوڌري، هڪ پروفيسر ۽ دانشور هو.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mone Pore|author=Mazumder, Ferdousi|date=2006|publisher=Shahitya Prokash|isbn=984-465-439-4}}</ref> ٻيا ٻه ڀاءُ، ليٽيننٽ ڪالڻل عبدالقيويم چوڌري ۽ محبوب چوڌري پاڪستان فوج ۾ خدمت انجام ڏني.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thefridaytimes.com/06-Nov-2020/remembering-colonel-abdul-qayyum|title=Remembering Colonel Abdul Qayyum|date=November 6, 2020|website=The Friday Times|access-date=August 26, 2024}}</ref> == ايوارڊ == * بنگالي اڪيڊمي ادبي ايوارڊ (2020) <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://bdnews24.com/arts/bangla-academy-names-10-winners-of-2020-literature-awards|title=Bangla Academy names 10 winners of 2020 literature awards|website=bdnews24.com|language=en|access-date=2023-07-18}}</ref> * آزادي جي ڏينهن جو ايوارڊ (2020) <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/100201/10-named-for-independence-award|title=10 named for Independence Award|work=New Age|access-date=17 March 2020|language=en|archive-date=22 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222142307/https://www.newagebd.net/article/100201/10-named-for-independence-award|url-status=dead}}</ref> * ايڪوشي پدڪ (1998) * وليم ڪيري ايوارڊ (1998) * بنگلاديش شلپاڪالا اڪيڊمي ايوارڊ بهترين اداڪار لاءِ (1978) * بهترين اداڪاري لاءِ پهريون نيشنل ٽي وي ايوارڊ (1975) * هڪ ڏهاڪي تائين ٽي وي ۾ ڪارڪردگي لاءِ سيڪوئنس ايوارڊ آف ميرٽ <ref name="captive">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|title=Holding Her Audience Captive|date=19 June 2009|work=The Daily Star|access-date=19 November 2017|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 March 2025|archivedate=6 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206163736/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2009/06/03/cover.htm}}</ref> == ڪم == {{Columns-list|* ''ڊاڪٽر عبد اللهار ڪارخانه'' * ''ايڪا'' * ''[سهنگسپٽڪ]'' * ''ڪڪيلارا'' * ''تاموشي'' * ''پائر آواز پائو وڃي'' * ''اِڪهن دُشسوموئي'' * ''دوي بن'' * ''شبوچن نِرباشوڻي'' * ''گهرے ٻايري'' * ''مراج فقير جي ماں'' * ''مدهوبي'' * ''مڪتي''|colwidth=20em}} == حوالا == {{حوالو}}{{Bachsas Award for Best Supporting Actress}}{{Meril Prothom Alo Lifetime Achievement Award}}{{اختياري سَندَ}} [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:1943ع جون پيدائشون]] agrm9zz8v6ybs3dx0vsp8vmwmxulm04 وادي 0 82209 394797 362944 2026-07-16T10:40:25Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Low area between hills, often with a river running through it}} [[File:Salta-VallesCalchaquies-P3140151.JPG|thumb|[[ارجنٽائن]] ۾ ڪالچاڪي وادي]] [[File:Glacier park1.jpg|thumb|[[گليشيئر نيشنل پارڪ]]، [[مونٽانا]]، [[آمريڪا]] ۾ U-shaped وادي]] [[File:Romsdalen.jpg|thumb|مغربي [[ناروي]] ۾ رومسڊالن ۾ تقريبن عمودي ڀتيون آهن]] [[File:Fljótsdalur.jpg|thumb|اوڀر [[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ فلجوٽسڊالور، هڪ ڪافي هموار وادي]] [[File:Vale dos Frades.jpg|thumb|[[ريو ڊي جينيرو رياست]]، [[برازيل]] جي جبل واري علائقي ۾ فريڊس وادي]] [[File:Baemsagol MS3812.JPG|upright|thumb|جيريسان، [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جي بيمساگول وادي]] '''وادي''' يا '''ماٿري''' (Valley) هڪ ڊگهو هيٺاهون علائقو آهي جيڪو اڪثر ٽڪرين يا جبلن جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ عام طور تي هڪ درياءَ يا چشمو (Stream) هڪ ڇيڙي کان ٻئي ڇيڙي تائين وهندو آهي. گهڻيون واديون زمين جي مٿاڇري جي ڪٽائي سان دريائن يا چشمن جي ڪري تمام ڊگهي عرصي ۾ ٺهنديون آهن. ڪجهه واديون گليشيئر جي ڪٽائي جي ڪارڻ ٺهنديون آهن. اهي گليشيئر شايد بلند جبلن يا قطبي علائقن ۾ وادين ۾ موجود رهن ٿا. گهٽ ويڪرائي ڦاڪ ۽ اوچائي تي، اها گليشيئرن سان ٺهيل واديون برفاني دور (Ice Age) جي دوران بڻيو يا وڌيون، پر هاڻي برف کان پاڪ آهن ۽ چشمن يا دريائن جي قبضي ۾ آهن. ريگستاني علائقن ۾، واديون مڪمل طور تي سڪل ٿي سگهن ٿيون يا صرف گهٽ ۾ گهٽ پاڻي جو وهڪرو کڻي سگهن ٿيون. چونا پٿر واري زمن ۾، سڪل واديون شايد پاڻي جي نيڪال جو نتيجو آهن، جيڪا هاڻي مٿاڇري جي بدران زمين جي اندر ٿي رهيا آهن. دراڙ واديون (Rift Valleys) بنيادي طور تي ڪٽائي جي بدران زمين جي حرڪت مان پيدا ٿين ٿيون. جاگرافيدانن پاران ڪيتريون ئي مختلف قسم جون واديون، اهي اصطلاح استعمال ڪندي جيڪي عالمي سطح تي استعمال ۾ آهن يا صرف مقامي طور تي استعمال ٿين ٿيون، بيان ڪيون ويون آهن. ==وادين جو ٺهڻ== ==وادين لاءِ اصطلاحون== ==انساني آبادڪاري== ==قابل ذڪر مثالون== [[File:DirkvdM orosi.jpg|thumb|اوروسي، [[ڪوسٽاريڪا]] جو هڪ نظارو]] ===آفريڪا=== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * البرٽائن رفٽ * اوڀر آفريقي رفٽ * ايٿوپيائي رفٽ وادي * عظيم رفٽ وادي * نيل وادي ([[مصر]]/[[سوڊان]]/[[ايٿوپيا]]/[[يوگنڊا]]) * نوگال وادي ([[صوماليا]]) * امبا وادي ([[تنزانيا]]) * بادشاهن جي وادي (مصر) {{div col end}} ===ايشيا=== [[File:"Flowers Blossom at Valley of Flowers Chamoli, India" 58.jpg|thumb|[[اتراکنڊ]]، [[هندستان]] ۾ گلن جي وادي]] {{see also|هندستان ۾ وادين جي فهرست|پاڪستان ۾ وادين جي فهرست}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * بقاع وادي ([[لبنان]]) * ڊانگ وادي (مغربي [[نيپال]]) * ايمين وادي ([[قزاقستان]]) * احلارا وادي، [[ترڪي]] * اردن رفٽ وادي ([[اردن]] - [[اسرائيل]]) * وادي اردن * [[کٽمنڊو|کٽمنڊو وادي]]، [[نيپال]] * ڪلانگ وادي ([[ملائيشيا]]) * مهاويلي ([[سري لنڪا]]) * پنجشير وادي ([[افغانستان]]) * [[چين]] جون واديون ** باليگو وادي ** ايمين وادي ** هيزو وادي ** انسوڪيٽي وادي ** جيوزائيگو وادي ** موتو وادي {{div col end}} ===اوشيانا=== [[File:Harau valley.jpg|thumb|[[سماٽرا|ويسٽ سماترا]]، [[انڊونيشيا]] ۾ هارو وادي]] {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * باروسا وادي، [[آسٽريليا]] * بلولو وادي، [[پاپوا نيو گني]] * ڪيگيان وادي، [[فلپائن]] * ڪيپرٽي وادي، آسٽريليا * هنٽر ​​وادي، آسٽريليا * هٽ وادي، [[نيوزي لينڊ]] * ڪنگارو وادي، آسٽريليا * مارخم وادي، پاپوا نيو گني * اسٽراتو تائيري، نيوزيلينڊ * سوان وادي، آسٽريليا {{div col end}} ===يورپ=== [[File:Gudbrandsdalen sett nordover fra vegen opp mot Gålå - Gudbrandsdal Valley Norway.JPG|thumb|گڊبرانڊزدالن (Gudbrandsdalen) [[ناروي|مشرقي ناروي]] ۾ گالا (Gålå) جي ويجهو]] {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * برگنسڊيلين ويسٽلينڊ، [[ناروي]] * ڊيلين، ٽيلي مارڪ، ناروي * ڊينيوب وادي، مشرقي يورپ * ايواروٽاس وادي، اسپارٽا، [[يونان]] * گلن ڪو اسڪاٽ لينڊ برطانيه * گلن اسڪاٽ لينڊ برطانيه * گڊبرانڊزڊيلين اوپلينڊ، ناروي * هالنگڊيلين بسڪروڊ ناروي * هيڊال، ٽيلي مارڪ، ناروي * آئرن گيٽس، رومانيا/سربيا * لوٽربرنن وادي، برن، سوئٽزرلينڊ * لوئر (Loire) وادي ان جي مشهور قلعن سان گڏ، فرانس * مڊ-ٽيلي مارڪ، ٽيلي مارڪ، ناروي * نانتوفرانڪون ويلز، برطانيه * نمردالن، بسڪرود، ناروي * اوسٽرڊالن، هيڊمارڪ، ناروي * پو وادي، اٽلي * رون وادي، ميٽر هورن کان گرينوبل ۽ ليون، فرانس تائين * رومزڊيلن مورا، مور اوگ رومزڊال ناروي * سيٽسڊال اگادر ناروي * ساؤٿ ويلز واديون، ويلز، برطانيه * اپر رائن وادي يا اپر رائن ميدان، هڪ پراڻو گرابن سسٽم، فرانس ۽ جرمني * ويسٽفجورڊڊالن، ناروي {{div col end}} ===اتر آمريڪا=== [[File:Hells Gate.jpg|thumb|دوزخ جو دروازو (Hell's Gate)، [[برٽش ڪولمبيا]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]]] {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * سينٽرل ويلي، [[ڪيليفورنيا]]، [[آمريڪا]] * ڪوچيلا ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * ڪمبرلينڊ ويلي، [[ميري لينڊ]]/[[پنسلوانيا]] * ڪيوياهوگا ويلي وادي، [[اوهايو]] * ڊيٿ ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * فريزر ڪينيئن، [[برٽش ڪولمبيا]]، [[ڪينيڊا]] * فريزر ويلي، برٽش ڪولمبيا * گرينڊ ڪينيئن، [[ايريزونا]]، آمريڪا * جهنم جو دروازو، برٽش ڪولمبيا * هڊسن ويلي، [[نيو يارڪ]] * امپيريل ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * لاس ويگاس ويلي، [[نيواڊا]] * مسوري جي وادي، [[مسوري]] * مونيمينٽ ويلي، ايريزونا، يوٽا * ناپا ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * اوڪاناگن ويلي، برٽش ڪولمبيا * اوٽاوا ويلي، [[اونٽاريو]]/[[ڪيوبيڪ]]، [[ڪينيڊا]] * پالو ڊورو ڪينيئن، [[ٽيڪساس]] * سج جي وادي، ايريزونا * ريو گرينڊ ويلي، ٽيڪساس * راڪي ماؤنٽين ٽرنچ، برٽش ڪولمبيا/[[مونٽانا]]، [[آمريڪا]] * سينٽ لارنس ويلي، اونٽاريو/ڪيوبيڪ/نيو يارڪ * سالٽ ليڪ ويلي، [[يوٽا]] * سين فرنينڊو ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * شيننڊوا ويلي، [[ورجينيا]]/[[ويسٽ ورجينيا]] * سونوما ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا * ٽولوڪا ويلي، [[ميڪسيڪو]] * ديوتائن جي وادي، يوٽا * ميڪسيڪو جي وادي، ميڪسيڪو * وليميٽ ويلي، [[اوريگون]] * يوسمائيٽ ويلي، ڪيليفورنيا {{div col end}} ===ڏکڻ آمريڪا=== * ابورا وادي، [[ڪولمبيا]] * ڪيلچاڪي واديون، [[ارجنٽائن]] * ڪوڪا وادي، [[ڪولمبيا]] * چنڊ جي اسچيگوالاسٽو وادي، [[ارجنٽائن]] * پيرايبا وادي، [[برازيل]] ===انٽارڪٽيڪا=== * ويسٽ انٽارڪٽڪ رفٽ سسٽم ==ڌرتي کان سواء واديون== ==پڻ ڏسو== [[:باب:جاگرافي]] * ڪينيئن: ٽڪرين جي وچ ۾ اونهو کڏ * گاهه جي وادي: ٻيلي ۽ نسبتاً ننڍي نيڪال واري طاس اندر گاهه جا ميدان * گلي: وهندڙ پاڻي ۽/يا وڏي پيماني تي حرڪت جي ڪري زميني شڪل جيڪا مٽيءَ ۾ تيزي سان ختم ٿي رهي آهي. * پيلوويلي: هڪ غير فعال درياءَ يا وهڪري جو چينل جيڪو ڀريو ويو آهي يا دفن ڪيو ويو آهي * وهڪري جو چينل: پاڻي جو تنگ جسم. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== * [https://physicalgeography.org/stages-of-valley-development/ Valley Development] Four Stages of Valley Development {{sister project links|wikt=valley|s=The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Valleys|auto=y}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050209040529/http://www.nps.gov/brca/geodetect/Landfroms/valleys.htm NPS.gov], University of Wisconsin * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070509035527/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/alpine_glacial_glossary/ UWSP.edu], Glossary of Alpine Glacial Landforms * {{cite web|url= http://www.bgu.ac.il/BIDR/research/phys/remote/Papers/1998-Ichoku_Coherance_IJRS_98.pdf |title=BGU.ac.il }}, SAR interferometry (analysis of valley forms in Fig.2 and 6) * [http://www.valleys.com/ Valleys.com], Valleys of the World * [https://www.yourdictionary.com/valley Valley definitions], YourDictionary ===Extraterrestrial valleys=== * [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMM7R7X9DE_2.html ESA image]: [[Vallis Alpes]], bisecting the Lunar Alps * [http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/projekte/mars/hrsc152-OphirChasma.php Valles Marineris and Ophir Chasma]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, [[bilingual]] website ([[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]]) {{Rivers, streams and springs}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:واديون]] [[زمرو:زميني شڪليون]] [[زمرو:طبيعي جاگرافي]] [[زمرو:پاڻي جا ذخيرا]] [[زمرو:جاگرافيائي اصطلاح]] [[زمرو:سيلابي لينڊ فارمز]] [[زمرو:ڍلون زميني شڪلون]] [[زمرو:رواني ارضي شڪليون]] [[زمرو:ڪٽائو واري زميني شڪليون]] p6nftthillcwkd4f43tbqby6qamua42 واپرائيندڙ بحث:Renamed user 5c59dd98746c0d17563d2c4114ea6536 3 82325 394651 311456 2026-07-15T17:55:59Z Mfield 22010 Mfield [[واپرائيندڙ بحث:Karkafs Desiderium]] صفحي کي [[واپرائيندڙ بحث:Renamed user 5c59dd98746c0d17563d2c4114ea6536]] ڏانھن چوريو سواءِ ڪو ريڊائريڪٽ ڇڏيندي: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/Karkafs Desiderium|Karkafs Desiderium]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/Renamed user 5c59dd98746c0d17563d2c4114ea6536|Renamed user 5c59dd98746c0d17563d2c4114ea6536]]" 311456 wikitext text/x-wiki {{سانچو:سماجي ڳنڍڻن تي سنڌي وڪيپيڊيا}} <div style="padding:5px;font-size:medium"><center style="word-spacing:1ex">[[Wikipedia:سفارتخانو|سفارتخاني جي صفحي تي پنھنجون سفارشون ڏيو]] </center></div> {| bgcolor="#ADDFAD" align=center style="width:100% !important; -moz-border-radius: 1em;-webkit-border-radius:1em;border-radius:1em; border-top:2px dashed #3eb2c9;border-bottom:2px dashed #3eb2c9;padding: 5px 20px 25px;" |<span style="font-family:MB Lateefi;float:left">'''[[Wikipedia:سفارتخانو|سفارتخانو]]'''</span> <div class="tabber horizTabBox" style="width: 100% !important;"> [[عڪس:Wikipedia laurier wp.png|left|200px]] <center><big>'''بزمِ سنڌي وڪيپيڊيا ۾ ڀلي ڪري آيا''' ''{{PAGENAME}}'''</big></center>'' '''السلام عليڪم! اسان اميد ڪريون ٿا تہ توھان سنڌي وڪيپيڊيا جي لاء بھترين اضافو ثابت ٿيندئو'''.<br> * وڪيپيڊيا ھڪ کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلو آھي جنھن کي اسان سڀ ملي ڪري لکندا ۽ سنواريندا آھيون. وڪيپيڊيا منصوبي جي شروعات جنوري 2001ع ۾ ٿي، جڏھن تہ سنڌي وڪيپيڊيا فيبروري 2006ع ۾ عمل آئي. في الحال ھن وڪيپيڊيا ۾ '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' [[Special:Allpages|مضمون]] موجود آھن.<br /> * ھن چيڪلي (انسائيڪلوپيڊيا) ۾ توھان مضمون نويسي، سنوار ۽ تصحيح کان پھريان ھيٺين صفحن تي ضرور نظر وجھو.''' * صفحن جي ظاھريت جي تبديلي ۽ طریقيڪار جي لاءِ ڏسو '''[[خاص:ترجيحات|ترجيحون]]'''. <Font - size=4> '''اصول ۽ قاعدا''' </Font - size> <Font - size=3> '''توھان جو واپرائيندڙ ۽ بحث صفحو''' </Font - size><br> ھتي توھانجو [[خاص:Mypage|'''مخصوص واپرائيندڙ صفحو بہ ھوندو''']] جتي توھان [[:زمرو:يوزر سانچا|پنھنجو تعارف لکي سگھو ٿا]]، ۽ توهانجي [[خاص:Mytalk|واپرائيندڙ بحث]] تي ٻيا رڪنَ توھان سان رابطو ڪري سگھن ٿا ۽ توھان ڏي پيغام موڪلي سگھن ٿا. * '''ڪنھن ٻئي رڪن کي پيغام موڪلڻ وقت ھنن امرن جو خاص خيال رکو''': ** '''جيڪڏھن ضرورت هجي تہ پيغام کي عنوان ضرور ڏيو'''. ** '''پيغام جي آخر ۾ پنهنجي صحيح ضرور وجھو، ان جي لاءِ هي علامت درج ڪريو'''--&#126;&#126;&#126;&#126;''' يا ھن ([[عڪس:Insert-signature.png|link=]]) بٽڻ تي ٽڙڪ ڪريو'''. ** '''[[Wikipedia:اصول بحث|اظھار بحث جي آدابن]] جو خصوصي خيال رکو'''. <Font - size=3> '''تعاون''' </Font - size> * '''وڪيپيڊيا جي ڪنھن بہ صفحي جي سڄي پاسي ڳوليو جو خانو نظر ايندو آھي. جنھن موضوع تي مضمون ٺاھڻ چاھيو تہ ڳوليو جي خاني ۾ لکو، ۽ ڳوليو تي ٽڙڪ ڪريو'''. <inputbox>type=search</inputbox> * '''توھان جي موضوع سان ملندڙ جلندڙ صفحا نظر ايندا. اھو اطمينان ڪرڻ کان پوء تہ توھان جي گهربل موضوع تي پھريان کان مضمون موجود ناھي، توھان نئون صفحو ٺاھي سگھو ٿا واضع هجي تہ ھڪ موضوع تي ھڪ کان وڌيڪ مضمون ٺاھڻ جي اجازت ناھي. توھان ھيٺ ڏنل خانو بہ استعمال ڪري سگھو ٿا'''. <inputbox>type=create</inputbox> * '''لکڻ کان پهرئين ھن ڳالھ جو يقين ڪريو تہ جنھن عنوان تي توھان لکي رھيا آھيو ان تي يا ان سان ملندڙ عنوانن تي وڪي ۾ ڪوئي مضمون نہ ھجي. ان جي لاء توھان ڳوليو جي خاني ۾ عنوان ۽ ان جا هم معنيٰ لفظ (اهڙا لفظ جن جي معني هڪ هجي) لکي ڳولا ڪريو'''.</center> |} -- توھان جي مدد جي لاء ھر وقت حاضر، اوهان جو خادم --[[واپرائيندڙ:KaleemBot|KaleemBot]] ([[واپرائيندڙ بحث:KaleemBot|ڳالھ]]) 19:29, 1 اپريل 2025 ( يو.ٽي.سي) 2b8qlvnyq78ls2ylgt6f3rbdlvuqb78 وينئڊيئم 0 82628 394805 374718 2026-07-16T10:52:02Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|ڪيميائي تت}} {{Infobox settlement | image_skyline = File:Vanadium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg | subdivision_type = حالت (STP تي) | subdivision_name = سالڊ | subdivision_type1 = ايٽمي انگ (Z) | subdivision_name1 = 23 | established_title = اليڪٽران في شيل | established_date = 2, 8, 11, 2 | seat_type = وجود | seat = شروع کان (primordial) | seat1_type = اليڪٽرو نيگيٽيئٽي | seat1 = 1.63 (پالنگ اسڪيل) | leader_title = اُبلڻ جو نقطو | leader_name = (3680°K) (3407°C) | leader_title1 = پگھلڻ جو نقطو | leader_name1 = (2183°K) (1910°C) | leader_title2 = پگھرائڻ لاء حرارت | leader_name2 =21.5 ڪلو جول في مول | leader_title3 = ٻاڦ جي حرارت | leader_name3 = 444 ڪلو جول في مول | leader_title4 = مولر گرميء گنجائش | leader_name4 =24.89 جول في مول.ڪيلون | subdivision_type2 = ايٽمي وزن (A) | subdivision_type3 = گروپ | subdivision_type4 = سيريز | subdivision_type5 = بلاڪ | subdivision_type6 = اليڪٽران جي ترتيب | subdivision_name2 = 50.94 | subdivision_name3 = 5 | subdivision_name4 = 4 | subdivision_name5 = d-block | subdivision_name6 = [[آرگون|Ar]] + 3d3 4s2 | established_title1 = ايٽمي ريڊيس | established_date1 = 134 پيڪو ميٽر | established_title2 = آئيونائزيشن انرجي (ڪلو جول في مول) | established_date2 = پهرين: 650.9<br>ٻئي: 1414<br>ٽئي: 2830 | established_title3 = آڪسائيڊيشن نمبر | established_date3 = عام: +5,−3,−1, 0,+1,+2,+3,+4 | extinct_title = گھاٽائي (20°C تي) | extinct_date =6.099 گرام في ڪعبي سينٽي ميٽر | name = وينئڊيئم | official_name = Vanadium | native_name = <small><sub>23</sub></small>V | government_type = | government_footnotes = طبيعي خاصيتون | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = نشان }} '''وينئڊيئم''' (Vanadium) هڪ ڪيميائي تت آهي؛ هن جو نشان '''V''' ۽ ايٽمي نمبر '''23''' آهي. اهو هڪ سخت، سرمئي لچڪدار منتقلي ڌاتو آهي. خالص ڌاتو فطرت ۾ تمام گهٽ ملي ٿو، پر هڪ ڀيرو مصنوعي طور تي الڳ ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، آڪسائيڊ پرت جي ٺهڻ سان خالص ڌاتو کي وڌيڪ آڪسيڊيشن جي خلاف ڪجهه حد تائين مستحڪم ٿي ويندو آهي. اسپيني-ميڪسيڪن سائنسدان اينڊريس مينوئل ڊيل ريو 1801ع ۾ هڪ نئين ليڊ بيئرنگ معدنيات جو تجزيو ڪندي وينڊيم جا مرڪب دريافت ڪيا جنهن کي هن "براؤن ليڊ" سڏيو. جيتوڻيڪ هن شروعات ۾ اهو سمجهيو ته ان جون خاصيتون هڪ نئين عنصر جي موجودگي جي ڪري آهن، بعد ۾ هن کي فرانسيسي ڪيمسٽ هپولائيٽ وڪٽر ڪوليٽ-ڊيسڪوٽلز طرفان غلط طور قائل ڪيو ويو ته عنصر صرف ڪروميم آهي. پوءِ 1830ع ۾، نيلس گبريل سيفسٽروم وينڊيم جا ڪلورائڊ پيدا ڪيا، اهڙي طرح ثابت ڪيو ته هڪ نئون عنصر موجود آهي ۽ ان کي خوبصورتي ۽ زرخيزي جي ديوي، وينڊيس (فريجا) جي نالي تي "وينئڊيئم" جو نالو ڏنو. اهو نالو وينڊيم مرڪبن ۾ موجود رنگن جي وسيع رينج تي ٻڌل هو. ڊيل ريو جي ليڊ معدنيات کي آخرڪار ان جي وينڊيم مواد جي ڪري وينڊينائيٽ جو نالو ڏنو ويو. 1867ع ۾، هينري اينفيلڊ روسڪو خالص عنصر حاصل ڪيو. وينڊيم قدرتي طور تي تقريبن 65 معدنيات ۽ فوسل فيول جي ذخيرن ۾ ملي ٿو. اهو چين ۽ روس ۾ اسٽيل سميلٽر سليگ مان پيدا ڪيو ويندو آهي. ٻيا ملڪ ان کي يا ته سڌو سنئون ميگنيٽائٽ، ڳري تيل جي فلو ڊسٽ، يا يورينيم مائننگ جي ضمني پيداوار جي طور تي پيدا ڪن ٿا. اهو بنيادي طور تي خاص اسٽيل مصر جهڙوڪ تيز رفتار ٽول اسٽيل ۽ ڪجهه ايلومينيم مصر پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. سڀ کان اهم صنعتي وينڊيم مرڪب، وينڊيم پينٽا آڪسائيڊ (V3O5)، گندرف جي تيزاب جي پيداوار لاءِ ڪيٽالسٽ طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. توانائي جي اسٽوريج لاءِ وينڊيم ريڊوڪس بيٽري مستقبل ۾ هڪ اهم استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿي. وينڊيم آئن جي وڏي مقدار ڪجھ جاندارن ۾، ممڪن طور تي زهر جي طور ملي ٿي. وينڊيم جي آڪسائيڊ ۽ هن جي ڪجهه ٻين لوڻي مرڪب ۾ وچولي زهر آهي. خاص طور تي سمنڊ ۾، وينڊيم ڪجهه زندگي جي شڪلن، جهڙوڪ ڪجهه سامونڊي الجي جو وينڊيم بروموپيرواوڪسيڊيز، پاران اينزائمز جي هڪ فعال مرڪز طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ==تاريخ== ==خاصيتون== ==ڪيميائي مرڪب== ==موجودگي== [[File:Vanadinite, goethite(2).jpg|thumb|وينئڊينائٽ]] ڌاتو وينڊيم فطرت ۾ ناياب آهي (جيڪو اصلي وينڊيم جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو)، ڪوليما آتش فشان، ميڪسيڪو جي فومرولز ۾ مليو آهي، <ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ostrooumov, M.|author2=Taran, Y.|year=2015|title=Discovery of Native Vanadium, a New Mineral from the Colima Volcano, State of Colima (Mexico)|url=https://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf|journal=Revista de la Sociedad Española de Mineralogía|volume=20|pages=109–110|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207070847/https://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf|archive-date=7 February 2023|access-date=7 February 2023|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207070847/https://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf |date=7 February 2023 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/min-43604.html|title=Vanadium: Vanadium mineral information and data|website=Mindat.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716205934/https://www.mindat.org/min-43604.html|archive-date=16 July 2021|access-date=2016-03-02|url-status=live}}</ref> پر وينڊيم جا مرڪب قدرتي طور تي تقريبن 65 مختلف معدنيات ۾ ملن ٿا. وينڊيم 1896ع ۾ خاص اسٽيل جي تياري ۾ استعمال ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو. ان وقت، وينڊيم معدنيات جا تمام گهٽ ذخيرا معلوم هئا. سال 1899ع ۽ 1906ع جي وچ ۾، مکيه ذخيرا استعمال ڪيا ويا جيڪي اسپين جي باداجوز جون کاڻيون هيون. انهن کاڻين مان واناڊينائيٽ ڪڍيو ويو.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Construyendo la Tabla Periódica|last=Calvo Rebollar|first=Miguel|publisher=Prames|year=2019|isbn=978-84-8321-908-9|location=Zaragoza, Spain|pages=161–165|language=es|trans-title=Building the Periodic Table}}</ref> 20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، جنين، سيرو ڊي پاسڪو، پيرو (هاڻي ميناس راگرا وينڊيم کان) جي ويجهو وينڊيم معدنيات جو هڪ وڏو ذخيرو دريافت ڪيو ويو.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=W. F. |year=1907 |title=The Vanadium Sulphide, Patronite, and ITS Mineral Associates from Minasragra, Peru |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450154 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1019–1029 |doi=10.1021/ja01961a006 |bibcode=1907JAChS..29.1019H |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911093143/https://zenodo.org/record/1450154 |archive-date=11 September 2021 |access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hewett |first1=F. |year=1906 |title=A New Occurrence of Vanadium in Peru |journal=The Engineering and Mining Journal |volume=82 |issue=9 |pages=385}}</ref><ref name="scielo">{{cite journal |last1=Steinberg |first1=W.S. |last2=Geyser |first2=W. |last3=Nell |first3=J. |year=2011 |title=The history and development of the pyrometallurgical processes at Evraz Highveld Steel & Vanadium |url=http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/jsaimm/v111n10/v111n10a09.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy |volume=111 |pages=705–710 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911093146/http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/jsaimm/v111n10/v111n10a09.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2021 |access-date=17 December 2018 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911093146/http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/jsaimm/v111n10/v111n10a09.pdf |date=11 September 2021 }}</ref> ڪيترن سالن تائين هي پيٽرونائيٽ (VS<sub>4</sub>) ذخيرو وينڊيم معدنيات لاءِ اقتصادي طور تي هڪ اهم ذريعو هو.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/min-3131.html|title=mineralogical data about Patrónite|publisher=mindata.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430004309/https://www.mindat.org/min-3131.html|archive-date=30 April 2021|access-date=19 January 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> 1920ع ۾ دنيا جي پيداوار جو تقريباً ٻه ٽيون حصو پيرو جي کاڻ مان فراهم ڪيو ويندو هو.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=M. A.|last2=Butler|first2=G. M.|date=1921|title=Vanadium|url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/630042/b-115_vanadium.pdf|journal=University of Arizona|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427182032/https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/630042/b-115_vanadium.pdf|archive-date=27 April 2021|access-date=20 January 2020|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427182032/https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/630042/b-115_vanadium.pdf |date=27 April 2021 }}</ref> 1910ع ۽ 1920ع جي ڏهاڪي ۾ ڪارنوٽائٽ ({{nowrap|K<sub>2</sub>(UO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(VO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O}}) مان يورينيم جي پيداوار سان، وينڊيم يورينيم جي پيداوار جي ضمني پيداوار جي طور تي دستياب ٿيو. وينڊينائيٽ ({{nowrap|Pb<sub>5</sub>(VO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>Cl}}) ۽ ٻيا وينڊيم وارا معدنيات صرف غير معمولي ڪيسن ۾ ڪِريا ويندا آهن. وڌندڙ طلب سان، دنيا جي وينڊيم جي پيداوار جو گهڻو حصو هاڻي الٽرامافڪ گبرو باڊيز ۾ ملندڙ وينڊيم واري ميگنيٽائٽ مان حاصل ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن هي ٽائيٽوماگنيٽائٽ لوهه پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته وينڊيم جو گهڻو حصو سليگ ۾ ويندو آهي ۽ ان مان ڪڍيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hukkanen|first1=E.|last2=Walden|first2=H.|year=1985|title=The production of vanadium and steel from titanomagnetites|journal=International Journal of Mineral Processing|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=89–102|bibcode=1985IJMP...15...89H|doi=10.1016/0301-7516(85)90026-2}}</ref> وينڊيم گهڻو ڪري چين، ڏکڻ آفريڪا ۽ اوڀر روس ۾ ڪِريا ويندو آهي. 2022ع ۾ انهن ٽنهي ملڪن 100,000 ٽن پيدا ٿيندڙ وينڊيم مان 96 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ ڪِريا، جنهن ۾ چين 70 سيڪڙو فراهم ڪيو.<ref name="usgs2">{{cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-vanadium.pdf|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023: Vanadium|last=Polyak|first=Désirée E.|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207070837/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-vanadium.pdf|archive-date=7 February 2023|access-date=7 February 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> ڪوليما جا فومارول وينڊيم سان مالا مال هجڻ جي ڪري مشهور آهن، جيڪي ٻين وينڊيم معدنيات کي جمع ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ شيربينائيٽ (V2O5) ۽ ڪوليمائيٽ (K3VS4) شامل آهن. وينڊيم باڪسائيٽ ۽ خام تيل، ڪوئلي، آئل شيل، ۽ ٽار سينڊ جي ذخيرن ۾ پڻ موجود آهي. خام تيل ۾، 1200 پي پي ايم تائين ڪنسنٽريشن رپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن اهڙين تيل جي شين کي ساڙيو ويندو آهي، ته وينڊيم جا نشان انجن ۽ بوائلر ۾ سنکنرن جو سبب بڻجي سگهن ٿا. هڪ اندازي مطابق هر سال 110,000 ٽن وينڊيم فوسل ايندھن کي ساڙڻ سان فضا ۾ ڇڏيا ويندا آهن. ڪارا شيل پڻ وينڊيم جو هڪ امڪاني ذريعو آهن. ٻي عالمي جنگ دوران سويڊن جي ڏکڻ ۾ ڪجهه وينڊيم کي ايلم شيل مان ڪڍيو ويو هو. ڪائنات ۾، وينڊيم جي ڪائناتي ڪثرت 0.0001٪ آهي، جيڪا عنصر کي ٽامي يا زنڪ جيتري عام بڻائي ٿي. وينڊيم ڪرسٽ ۾ 19 هون سڀ کان وڌيڪ گهڻائي وارو عنصر آهي. اهو سج جي روشني ۾ ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٻين تارن جي روشني ۾ اسپيڪٽرو اسڪوپي طور تي معلوم ٿئي ٿو. ويناڊيل آئن سمنڊ جي پاڻي ۾ پڻ گهڻي مقدار ۾ موجود آهي، جنهن جي سراسري ڪنسنٽريشن 30 nM (1.5 mg/m3) آهي. ڪجهه معدني پاڻي جي چشمن ۾ پڻ آئن وڏي مقدار ۾ هوندو آهي. مثال طور، ماؤنٽ فوجي جي ويجهو چشمن ۾ 54 μg في ليٽر تائين هوندو آهي. For several years this [[patrónite]] (VS<sub>4</sub>) deposit was an economically significant source for vanadium ore. In 1920 roughly two-thirds of the worldwide production was supplied by the mine in Peru. With the production of uranium in the 1910s and 1920s from [[carnotite]] ({{nowrap|K<sub>2</sub>(UO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(VO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O}}) vanadium became available as a side product of uranium production. [[Vanadinite]] ({{nowrap|Pb<sub>5</sub>(VO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>Cl}}) and other vanadium bearing minerals are only mined in exceptional cases. With the rising demand, much of the world's vanadium production is now sourced from vanadium-bearing [[magnetite]] found in [[ultramafic]] [[gabbro]] bodies. If this [[titanomagnetite]] is used to produce iron, most of the vanadium goes to the [[slag]] and is extracted from it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hukkanen |first1=E. |last2=Walden |first2=H. |year=1985 |title=The production of vanadium and steel from titanomagnetites |journal=International Journal of Mineral Processing |volume=15 |issue=1–2 |pages=89–102 |bibcode=1985IJMP...15...89H |doi=10.1016/0301-7516(85)90026-2}}</ref><ref name="scielo" /> Vanadium is mined mostly in [[China]], [[South Africa]] and eastern [[Russia]]. In 2022 these three countries mined more than 96% of the 100,000 [[tonne|tons]] of produced vanadium, with China providing 70%.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |last=Polyak |first=Désirée E. |title=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023: Vanadium |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-vanadium.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207070837/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-vanadium.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2023 |access-date=7 February 2023 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Fumaroles of Colima are known of being vanadium-rich, depositing other vanadium minerals, that include shcherbinaite (V<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) and [[colimaite]] (K<sub>3</sub>VS<sub>4</sub>).<ref>Ostrooumov, M., and Taran, Y., 2015. Discovery of Native Vanadium, a New Mineral from the Colima Volcano, State of Colima (Mexico). Revista de la Sociedad Española de Mineralogía 20, 109-110</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindat.org/min-43604.html |title=Vanadium: Vaandium mineral information and data |website=Mindat.org |accessdate=2016-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindat.org/min-43604.html |title=Colima volcano (Volcan de Fuego; Volcan de Colima), Colima volcanic complex, Jalisco, Mexico |website=Mindat.org |accessdate=2016-03-02}}</ref> Vanadium is also present in [[bauxite]] and deposits of [[crude oil]], [[coal]], [[oil shale]], and [[tar sand]]s. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200&nbsp;ppm have been reported. When such oil products are burned, traces of vanadium may cause [[corrosion]] in engines and boilers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=C. D. |last2=Green |first2=J. B. |date=1 May 1993 |title=Vanadium and nickel complexes in petroleum resid acid, base, and neutral fractions |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1198139/ |url-status=live |journal=Energy & Fuels |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=338–346 |doi=10.1021/ef00039a001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911093151/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1198139/ |archive-date=11 September 2021 |access-date=10 August 2018}}</ref> An estimated 110,000 tons of vanadium per year are released into the atmosphere by burning [[fossil fuels]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anke |first1=Manfred |date=2004 |title=Vanadium: An element both essential and toxic to plants, animals and humans? |url=https://analesranf.com/wp-content/uploads/2004/70_04/7004_06.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Anales de la Real Academia Nacional de Farmacia |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=961–999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419220209/https://analesranf.com/wp-content/uploads/2004/70_04/7004_06.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2023 |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref> [[Black shale]]s are also a potential source of vanadium. During WWII some vanadium was extracted from [[alum shale]]s in the south of Sweden.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dyni |first1=John R. |title=Scientific Investigations Report |year=2006 |page=22 |chapter=Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits |doi=10.3133/sir29955294 |s2cid=19814608}}</ref> In the universe, the [[Abundance of the chemical elements#Universe|cosmic abundance]] of vanadium is 0.0001%, making the element nearly as common as [[copper]] or [[zinc]].<ref name="Dieter">{{cite book |last1=Rehder |first1=Dieter |title=Bioinorganic Vanadium Chemistry |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |isbn=978-0-470-06509-9 |edition=1st |series=Inorganic Chemistry |location=Hamburg, Germany |pages=5 & 9–10 |doi=10.1002/9780470994429}}</ref> Vanadium is the 19th most abundant element in the crust.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&dq=%2219th+most+abundant+element%22&pg=PA486 |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-850340-8 |language=en}}</ref> It is detected [[Optical spectrometer|spectroscopically]] in light from the [[Sun]] and sometimes in the light from other [[star]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowley |first1=C. R. |last2=Elste |first2=G. H. |last3=Urbanski |first3=J. L. |date=October 1978 |title=Vanadium abundances in early A stars |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=90 |pages=536 |bibcode=1978PASP...90..536C |doi=10.1086/130379 |s2cid=121428891|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[vanadyl ion]] is also abundant in [[seawater]], having an average concentration of 30&nbsp;[[Molar concentration#Units|nM]] (1.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>).<ref name="Dieter" /> Some [[mineral water]] [[spring (hydrology)|springs]] also contain the ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near [[Mount Fuji]] contain as much as 54&nbsp;[[microgram|μg]] per [[liter]].<ref name="Dieter" /> ==پيداوار== ==ايپليڪيشن== ==حياتياتي ڪردار== ==حفاظت ۽ احتياط== ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons|Vanadium}} {{Wiktionary|vanadium}} * *[http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/023.htm Vanadium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham) {{Authority control}} [[Category:Vanadium| ]] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Transition metals]] [[Category:Dietary minerals]] [[Category:Restorative dentistry]] [[Category:Chemical elements with body-centered cubic structure]] [[Category:Native element minerals]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:ڪيميائي تت]] [[زمرو:وينيڊيئم گروپ]] ddg6qt1fv3bfu9bvdqk7lnzi6epwgcs سمرن 0 90454 394760 356786 2026-07-16T06:57:13Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394760 wikitext text/x-wiki '''سِمرن''' ({{transliteration|pa|Simran}}؛ گُرمُکھی: ਸਿਮਰਨ، اُچارڻ: {{IPA|pa|sɪmɾǝn|}}؛ {{lang|hi|सिमरण, सिमरन}}؛ سنسڪرت: {{lang|sa|स्मरण}}، ''سمَرڻ''، يعني ياد ڪرڻ، ورجائڻ)، روحانيت ۾ هڪ هندي ۽ پنجابي لفظ آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي ذات جي اعليٰ ترين پهلو جي لڳاتار ياد يا خدا جي مسلسل يادگيري (يا احساس) ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو۔ هي حالت دنياوي ڪمن کي انجام ڏيندي به برقرار رکبي آهي۔<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oshoworld.com/discourses/audio_hindi.asp?album_id=36 |title=Ek Omkaar Satnam Audio Discourse |access-date=2015-04-23 |archive-date=2014-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416174550/http://www.oshoworld.com/discourses/audio_hindi.asp?album_id=36 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == سنت مت == سنت مت ۾ ”سِمرن“ لفظ اُن روحاني مشق لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي جنهن ۾ ديکشا دوران سَتگُرو طرفان ڏنل منتر کي ورجايو ويندو آهي۔ اهو منتر پاڻ به ”سِمرن“ سڏبو آهي۔ سِمرن جي ورجاءُ ڌيان دوران ۽ ڌيان کان ٻاهر به ڪئي ويندي آهي۔<ref>[http://www.kirpalsingh-teachings.org/index.php/en/books-sant-kirpal-singh/jap-ji-the-message-of-guru-nanak/602-simran-what-it-means-and-its-uses.html Simran What it means and its uses] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325102824/https://www.kirpalsingh-teachings.org/index.php/en/books-sant-kirpal-singh/jap-ji-the-message-of-guru-nanak/602-simran-what-it-means-and-its-uses.html |date=2020-03-25 }}, by Kirpal Singh.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA119 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=119 |language=en |quote=The texts explain the path through meditation and the repetition of the name (Nama). After sometime repetition (simran) becomes internal, and the Name resounds in the heart.}}</ref> == سک مت == ”سِمرن“—جيڪو گُرمُکھی ۾ فعل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي—خدا جي نالي (نام) تي ڌيان ڪرڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو۔ سک مت هڪ الڳ عقيدو آهي، جنهن موجب خدا کي صرف ذاتي عقيدت سان محسوس ڪري سگهجي ٿو، بغير ڪنهن پادرين يا وچولي رسمن جي پابنديءَ جي۔ گرو گرنٿ صاحب موجب، سِمرن ذريعي انسان پاڪ ٿئي ٿو ۽ موڪشا (مُڪتي) حاصل ڪري ٿو۔ ڇو ته ”سِ-مَر“ جو مطلب آهي ”مرڻ تي غالب اچڻ“، جيڪو انا جي موت ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو، جنهن سان آخري سچ (سچ) جي سڃاڻپ ممڪن ٿئي ٿي۔ گرو گرنٿ صاحب جي صفحي 202 تي لکيل آهي: {{Verse translation|Simar simar sukh paa-i-aa|ياد ڪندي، ياد ڪندي مون امن حاصل ڪيو}} هي شبد سيکاري ٿو ته جيڪو ماڻهو انساني زندگيءَ مان حقيقي فائدو وٺڻ چاهي ٿو، ان کي دنياوي وابستگين کان آزاد ٿي اعليٰ روحاني حالت حاصل ڪرڻ گهرجي۔ اهڙيءَ طرح روزانو مقدس ڪلام کي ورجائڻ، سمجهڻ ۽ ان مطابق زندگي گذارڻ سان خدائي سچ آهستي آهستي ظاهر ٿئي ٿو اُن شخص لاءِ جيڪو سچائيءَ سان ان جي تلاش ڪري ٿو۔ گرو رام داس ”سارنگ ڪي وار“ (گرو گرنٿ صاحب، 1242) ۾ فرمائن ٿا: {{Quote|نام، جيڪو اڻ ٽٽ ۽ ابدِي آهي، اسان جي سمجهه کان مٿانهون آهي۔ ساڳئي وقت اهو اسان جو دائمي ساٿي آهي ۽ ساري سِرِشٽي جي حفاظت ڪري ٿو۔ تنهنڪري سچ پاڻ کي اسان تي ظاهر ڪري ٿو ۽ اسان کي پنهنجي دلين اندر ان کي ڏسڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو۔ اخلاص سان ئي اسين اهڙي سچ سان ملي سگهون ٿا۔|}} == گُرمُکھی == ”سِمرن“ گُرمُکھی ۾ فعل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جنهن جو مطلب آهي خدا جي نالي جو جپ ڪرڻ۔ سک مت هڪ اهڙو عقيدو آهي جنهن ۾ پرماتما کي بغير پادرين يا رسمن جي، صرف ذاتي عقيدت سان محسوس ڪري سگهجي ٿو۔ گرو گرنٿ صاحب ۾ بيان ٿيل آهي ته سِمرن سان پاڪ مُڪتي حاصل ٿئي ٿي، ڇو ته ”سِ-مَر“ انا جي فنا ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو، جنهن سان سچ جي سڃاڻپ ٿيندي آهي۔ گرو گرنٿ صاحب جي صفحي 202 تي لکيل آهي: ”سِمر سِمر سُک پائيا“ — سِمرن ڪندي مون سڪون حاصل ڪيو۔ هي شبد انسان کي سيکاري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن هو انساني زندگيءَ مان فائدو وٺڻ چاهي ٿو ته کيس دنياوي خواهشن کان مٿانهون ٿي اعليٰ روحاني حالت حاصل ڪرڻي پوندي۔ روزانو نالي کي ورجائڻ، سمجهڻ ۽ ان تي عمل ڪرڻ سان خدائي سچ آهستي آهستي ظاهر ٿئي ٿو اُن لاءِ جيڪو دل سان ان جي تلاش ڪري ٿو۔ گرو رام داس ”سارنگ ڪي وار“ ۾ فرمائن ٿا: ”نام ابدِي آهي ۽ اسان جي سمجهه کان ٻاهر آهي۔ ساڳئي وقت اهو اسان جو دائمي ساٿي آهي ۽ ساري تخليق کي سنڀالي ٿو۔ تنهنڪري سچ پاڻ ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ۽ اسان کي پنهنجي دل ۾ ان کي ڏسڻ ڏئي ٿو۔ اخلاص سان اسين اهڙي سچ سان ملي سگهون ٿا۔“ سِمرن ڪرڻ سان منُ پرامن ٿئي ٿو ۽ هڪ روحاني طاقت محسوس ٿئي ٿي، جنهن کي الوڪڪ طاقت چيو وڃي ٿو۔ <ref name=":0" /> == پڻ ڏسو == * وپاسنا * ڌيانا (بدھ مت) * ڌيانا (هندو مت) == حوالا == {{reflist|2}} {{Sikhism}} {{Hindudharma}} {{Spirituality-related topics}} [[زمرو:روحاني عمل]] [[زمرو:ڌيان]] [[زمرو:سک روايتون]] [[زمرو:سنت مت]] [[زمرو:هندو روايتون]] 7boh9ule4jav2g9xizrph8sv6528k9o شيلا عبدالله 0 91567 394765 380115 2026-07-16T08:26:30Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer | embed = | honorific_prefix = | name = شيلا عبدالله | honorific_suffix = | image_size = | image_upright = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pseudonym = | birth_name = | birth_date = {{birth year and age|1971}} | birth_place = [[ڪراچي]]، پاڪستان | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} --> | death_place = | resting_place = | occupation = | language = | nationality = آمريڪي | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | period = | genre = <!-- or: | genres = --> | subject = <!-- or: | subjects = --> | movement = | notable_works = Saffron Dreams <!-- or: | notablework = --> | spouse = <!-- or: | spouses = --> | partner = <!-- or: | partners = --> | children = | relatives = | awards = | signature = | signature_alt = | years_active = | module = | website = <!-- {{URL|http://www.shailaabdullah.com}} --> | portaldisp = <!-- "on", "yes", "true", etc; or omit --> }} '''شيلا عبدالله''' (پيدائش 1971) هڪ پاڪستاني-آمريڪي ليکڪ ، ليکڪ ۽ ڊزائنر آهي.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/|title=Meet 20 Super Women Who Are Earning Respect For Pakistan|work=Daily Pakistan Global|access-date=2018-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512111340/https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/|archive-date=May 12, 2019|language=en-US|url-status=dead|accessdate=2026-03-02|archivedate=2019-05-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512111340/https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/}}</ref> == زندگي == شيلا عبدالله کي انگريزي ٻولي لاءِ پيٽرس بخاري ايوارڊ، گولڊن ڪوئل ايوارڊ، ريڊر ويويز ايوارڊ، رائٽيڊ آرٽ ايوارڊ ۽ هابسن فائونڊيشن طرفان گرانٽ ملي چڪي آهي. Beyond the Cayenne Wall کي شاندار افسانن لاءِ جيوري انعام مليو جيڪو نورمبيگا فڪشن ايوارڊز ۾ سڀ کان وڏو انعام آهي. <ref name="EncAsianLit">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqN8vZqOGp0C&dq=Shaila+Abdullah&pg=PA4|title=Encyclopedia of Asian-American Literature|last=Oh|first=Seiwoong|date=2009|isbn=9781438120881|pages=4–5|section=Abdullah, Shaila}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/|title=Meet 20 Super Women Who Are Earning Respect For Pakistan|work=Daily Pakistan Global|access-date=2018-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512111340/https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/|archive-date=May 12, 2019|language=en-US|url-status=dead|accessdate=2026-03-02|archivedate=2019-05-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512111340/https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/top-lists/meet-20-super-women-who-are-earning-respect-for-pakistan-2/}}</ref> هن جي ڪتابن ۾ زعفران خواب ، ڪيين وال کان ٻاهر ۽ ٽي ٻارن جا ڪتاب شامل آهن: راڻي هڪ رينبو جي ڳولا ۾ ، منهنجو دوست سوهانا ، ۽ مارڪو لاءِ هڪ دستي. <ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/|title=Interview Shaila Abdullah Author of Children's Book About an Autistic Sibling, A Manual for Marco|date=April 9, 2015|work=Special Needs Book Review|access-date=2018-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023417/http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/|archive-date=March 6, 2018|language=en-US|url-status=dead|accessdate=March 2, 2026|archivedate=March 6, 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023417/http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/}}</ref> هن خاص ضرورتن سان ٻارن لاءِ ڪتاب پڻ لکيا آهن. <ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/|title=Interview Shaila Abdullah Author of Children's Book About an Autistic Sibling, A Manual for Marco|date=April 9, 2015|work=Special Needs Book Review|access-date=2018-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023417/http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/|archive-date=March 6, 2018|language=en-US|url-status=dead|accessdate=March 2, 2026|archivedate=March 6, 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023417/http://www.specialneedsbookreview.com/2015/04/09/interview-shaila-abdullah-author-of-childrens-book-about-an-autistic-sibling-a-manual-for-marco/}}</ref> 2014 جي شروعات ۾ ، واشنگٽن ۽ لي يونيورسٽي جي هڪ تحقيقي ٽيم هڪ مطالعو ڪيو جنهن ۾ انهن اهو معلوم ڪيو ته زعفران خوابن مان 3,000 هزار لفظن جو اقتباس پڙهڻ سان هڪ شخص گهٽ نسل پرست ٿي سگهي ٿو.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://psmag.com/social-justice/reading-literary-fiction-can-make-less-racist-76155|title=Study: Reading Literary Fiction Can Make You Less Racist|work=Pacific Standard|access-date=2018-02-27|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/reading-really-does-broaden-the-mind-2047381|title=Reading really does broaden the mind {{!}} IOL News|access-date=2018-03-05|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://psychcentral.com/news/2016/07/20/reading-fiction-boosts-empathy/107399.html|title=Reading Fiction May Boost Empathy|date=July 20, 2016|access-date=2018-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005944/https://psychcentral.com/news/2016/07/20/reading-fiction-boosts-empathy/107399.html|archive-date=May 17, 2018|language=en-US|url-status=dead|accessdate=March 2, 2026|archivedate=May 17, 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005944/https://psychcentral.com/news/2016/07/20/reading-fiction-boosts-empathy/107399.html}}</ref> ناول اوپن ايجوڪيشن ڊيٽابيس پاران اميگريشن ادب جي 50 عظيم ترين ڪمن مان 1 جو حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://oedb.org/ilibrarian/coming-to-america-50-greatest-works-of-immigration-literature/|title=50 Greatest Works of Immigration Literature|date=January 5, 2011|work=OEDB.org|access-date=2018-02-27|language=en-US}}</ref> == ڪم == * ''لال مرچ جي ڀت کان ٻاهر : مختصر ڪهاڻين جو مجموعو'' ، لنڪن، اين اي : آئي يونيورس، 2005. ، <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondcayennewal0000abdu|title=Beyond the cayenne wall : collection of short stories|last=Abdullah|first=Shaila|date=2005|publisher=Lincoln, NE : iUniverse|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-595-37009-2}}</ref> * ''زعفراني خواب : هڪ ناول'' ، اين آربر، ايم آءِ : ماڊرن هسٽري پريس، 2010. [[ISBN (identifier)|آئي ايس بي اين]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781615990252|<bdi>9781615990252</bdi>]] ، <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://librarycatalog.cityofwoodland.gov/Record/.b19644309|title=Saffron dreams|last=Abdullah|first=Shaila|date=2009|publisher=Modern History Press|language=en|access-date=2026-03-02|archive-date=2025-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307005518/https://librarycatalog.cityofwoodland.gov/Record/.b19644309|url-status=dead}}</ref> * ''منهنجي دوست سوهانا'' ، اين آربر، ايم آءِ : لوونگ هيلنگ پريس، 2014. [[ISBN (identifier)|آئي ايس بي اين]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781615992119|<bdi>9781615992119</bdi>]] ، <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://kidslitreview.com/2014/04/04/534-my-friend-suhana-by-aanyah-abdullah-shaila-abdullah/|title=#534 – My Friend Suhana by Aanyah Abdullah & Shaila Abdullah|date=2014-04-05|website=Kids Lit Review|language=en|access-date=2025-03-05}}</ref> * ''مارڪو، اين آربر، ايم آءِ لاءِ هڪ دستور العمل'' : لوونگ هيلنگ پريس 2015. [[ISBN (identifier)|آئي ايس بي اين]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781615992478|<bdi>9781615992478</bdi>]] ، <ref>{{حوالو ويب|url=https://duquesne.locate.ebsco.com/instances/cfb757f0-ea97-5bab-81a5-82383d40ffa8?%20Detective%20Novels:%20A%20Reference%20Guide%22&option=subject&query=Australia--Fiction|title=EBSCO Locate|website=duquesne.locate.ebsco.com|access-date=2025-03-05}}</ref> == حوالا == {{حوالو}} == خارجي لنڪس == * {{سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ|http://www.shailaabdullah.com}} * [http://niralimagazine.com/2007/04/if-these-walls-could-talk/ If These Walls Could Talk], Nirali Magazine, April 2007 [[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]] [[زمرو:ڪراچي جا ماڻھو]] [[زمرو:1971ع جون پيدائشون]] 8drmsmkehvn6z6bffvlfgipuxingnz3 ماڊيول:Params 828 94268 394759 392549 2026-07-16T06:53:58Z Grufo 22405 Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/mediawikiwiki/Q122696746|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]] 394759 Scribunto text/plain require[[strict]] --- --- --- PRIVATE ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Abstract utilities ]]-- ---------------------------- -- Helper function for `string.gsub()` (for managing zero-padded numbers) local function zero_padded (str) return ('%03d%s'):format(#str, str) end -- Helper function for `table.sort()` (for natural sorting) local function natural_sort (var1, var2) return var1:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) < var2:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) end -- Return a copy or a reference to a table local function copy_or_ref_table (src, refonly) if refonly then return src end local newtab = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do newtab[key] = val end return newtab end -- Copy at most N items (of all kinds) from `src` to `dest` and return `dest` local function copy_table_maxn (dest, src, len) local idx = 1 for key, val in pairs(src) do dest[key], idx = val, idx + 1 if idx > len then break end end return dest end -- Remove some numeric elements from a table, shifting everything to the left local function remove_numeric_keys (tbl, idx, len) local cache, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key >= idx then if key > tmp then cache[key - len] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Make a reduced copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_reduced (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = 1 - idx for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - tmp] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + len] = val end end end return ret end -- Make an expanded copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_expanded (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val else ret[key + len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = idx - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > 0 then ret[key + tmp] = val elseif key < 1 then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val else ret[key - len] = val end end end return ret end -- Given a table, create two new tables containing the sorted list of keys local function get_key_list_sorted (tbl, sort_fn) local nums, words, nn, nw = {}, {}, 0, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then nn = nn + 1 nums[nn] = key else nw = nw + 1 words[nw] = key end end table.sort(nums) table.sort(words, sort_fn) return nums, words, nn, nw end -- Parse a parameter name string and return it as a string or a number local function get_parameter_name (par_str) local ret = par_str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if ret ~= '0' and ret:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' == nil then return ret end return tonumber(ret) end -- Move a key from a table to another, but only if under a different name and -- always parsing numeric strings as numbers local function steal_if_renamed (val, src, skey, dest, dkey) local realkey = get_parameter_name(dkey) if skey ~= realkey then dest[realkey], src[skey] = val, nil end end --[[ Public strings ]]-- ------------------------ -- Special match keywords (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local mkeywords = { ['or'] = 0, pattern = 1, plain = 2, strict = 3 } -- Sort functions (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local sortfunctions = { alphabetically = false, naturally = natural_sort } -- Callback styles for the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of modifiers -- (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) --[[ Meanings of the columns: col[1] = Loop type (0-3) col[2] = Number of module arguments that the style requires (1-3) col[3] = Minimum number of sequential parameters passed to the callback col[4] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter name col[5] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter value col[6] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[4]` col[7] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[5]` A value of `-1` indicates that no meaningful value is stored (i.e. `nil`) ]]-- local mapping_styles = { names_and_values = { 3, 2, 2, 1, 2, -1, -1 }, values_and_names = { 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, -1, -1 }, values_only = { 1, 2, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1 }, names_only = { 2, 2, 1, 1, -1, -1, -1 }, names_and_values_as = { 3, 4, 0, -1, -1, 2, 3 }, names_only_as = { 2, 3, 0, -1, -1, 2, -1 }, values_only_as = { 1, 3, 0, -1, -1, -1, 2 }, blindly = { 0, 2, 0, -1, -1, -1, -1 } } -- Memory slots (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local memoryslots = { h = 'header', f = 'footer', i = 'itersep', l = 'lastsep', n = 'ifngiven', p = 'pairsep', s = 'oxfordsep' } -- Possible trimming modes for the `parsing` modifier local trim_parse_opts = { trim_none = { false, false }, trim_positional = { false, true }, trim_named = { true, false }, trim_all = { true, true } } -- Possible string modes for the iteration separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local isep_parse_opts = { splitter_pattern = false, splitter_string = true } -- Possible string modes for the key-value separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local psep_parse_opts = { setter_pattern = false, setter_string = true } -- Possible position references for the `splicing` modifier local position_references = { add_nothing = 0, add_smallest_number = 1, add_last_of_sequence = 2, add_largest_number = 3 } -- Possible modes for the `reassigning` modifier local a_modes = { duplicate = 0, transfer = 1, provide = 2, spare = 3, sacrifice = 4 } -- Functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names too: `here`, `in_substack`, -- `let`, `expose`, `use`, `with_flushed_glue`, `without_flushed_glue` -- `without_sorting` --[[ Private constants ]]-- --------------------------- -- Hard-coded name of the module (to avoid going through `frame:getTitle()`) local modulename = 'Module:Params' -- The functions listed here declare that they don't need the `frame.args` -- metatable to be copied into a regular table; if they are modifiers they also -- guarantee that they will make their own (modified) copy available local refpipe = { call_for_each_group = true, --coins = true, count = true, evaluating = true, for_each = true, list = true, list_values = true, list_maybe_with_names = true, value_of = true } -- The functions listed here declare that they don't need the -- `frame:getParent().args` metatable to be copied into a regular table; if -- they are modifiers they also guarantee that they will make their own -- (modified) copy available local refparams = { call_for_each_group = true, combining = true, combining_by_calling = true, combining_values = true, concat_and_call = true, concat_and_invoke = true, concat_and_magic = true, count = true, grouping_by_calling = true, mixing_names_and_values = true, keeping_at_most = true, renaming_by_mixing = true, renaming_to_sequence = true, renaming_to_uppercase = true, renaming_to_lowercase = true, --renaming_to_values = true, shifting = true, splicing = true, --swapping_names_and_values = true, value_of = true, with_name_matching = true } -- Maximum number of numeric parameters that can be filled, if missing (we -- chose an arbitrary number for this constant; you can discuss about its -- optimal value at Module talk:Params) local maxfill = 1024 -- The private table of functions local library = {} -- Functions and modifiers that can only be invoked in first position local static_iface = {} --[[ Private functions ]]-- --------------------------- -- Create a new context local function context_new (child_frame) local main_frame = child_frame:getParent() return { frame = main_frame, opipe = child_frame.args, oparams = main_frame.args, firstposonly = static_iface, iterfunc = pairs, sorttype = 0, n_parents = 0, n_children = 0, n_available = maxfill } end -- Move to the next action within the user-given list local function context_iterate (ctx, n_forward) local nextfn if ctx.pipe[n_forward] ~= nil then nextfn = ctx.pipe[n_forward]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if nextfn == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end if library[nextfn] == nil then if ctx.firstposonly[nextfn] == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. nextfn .. '’ does not exist', 0) else error(modulename .. ': The ‘' .. nextfn .. '’ directive can only appear in first position', 0) end end remove_numeric_keys(ctx.pipe, 1, n_forward) return library[nextfn] end -- Main loop local function main_loop (ctx, start_with) local fn = start_with repeat fn = fn(ctx) until not fn if ctx.n_parents > 0 then error(modulename .. ': One or more ‘merging_substack’ directives are missing', 0) end if ctx.n_children > 0 then error(modulename .. ', For some of the snapshots either the ‘flushing’ directive is missing or a group has not been properly closed with ‘merging_substack’', 0) end end -- Load a `setting`-like directive string into the `dest` table local function set_strings_from_opts (dest, opts, start_from) local cmd if opts[start_from] == nil then return start_from - 1 end cmd = opts[start_from]:gsub('%s+', ''):gsub('/+', '/') :match'^/*(.*[^/])' if cmd == nil then return start_from end local vname, chr local amap, sep, argc = {}, string.byte('/'), start_from + 1 for idx = 1, #cmd do chr = cmd:byte(idx) if chr == sep then for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val], amap[key] = opts[argc], nil end argc = argc + 1 else vname = memoryslots[string.char(chr)] if vname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: Unknown slot ‘' .. string.char(chr) .. '’', 0) end table.insert(amap, vname) end end for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val] = opts[argc] end return argc end -- Add a new stack of parameters to `ctx.children` local function new_substack (ctx) local currsnap, newparams = ctx.n_children + 1, {} if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { newparams } else ctx.children[currsnap] = newparams end ctx.n_children = currsnap return newparams end -- Parse a raw argument containing a `sortfunctions` directive, or -- `'without_sorting'`, or `nil` local function load_sort_opt (raw_arg) if raw_arg == nil then return nil, 1, false end local trarg = raw_arg:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if trarg == 'without_sorting' then return nil, 2, false, trarg end local tmp = sortfunctions[trarg] if tmp == nil then return nil, 1, false, trarg end return tmp or nil, 2, true, trarg end -- Parse optional user arguments of type `...|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]| -- [number of additional parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]` local function load_child_opts (src, start_from, append_after, params) local tnamed, tmp1, tmp2 local pin, tbl, mem = start_from, {}, {} while src[pin] ~= nil and src[pin + 1] ~= nil do tmp1 = src[pin]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp1 == 'let' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1]) mem[tmp1], tbl[tmp1], pin = nil, src[pin + 2], pin + 3 --[[ elseif tmp1 == 'expose' then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[tmp1], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 2 ]]-- elseif tmp1 == 'use' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 2]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1])], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 3 else break end end local tnew = copy_or_ref_table(params, next(mem) == nil) for key in pairs(mem) do tnew[key] = nil end if pin ~= start_from then tnamed, tbl = tbl, {} end tmp1 = tonumber(src[pin]) if tmp1 ~= nil and math.floor(tmp1) == tmp1 then if tmp1 < 0 then tmp1 = -1 end tmp2 = append_after - pin for idx = pin + 1, pin + tmp1 do tbl[idx + tmp2] = src[idx] end pin = pin + tmp1 + 1 end if tnamed ~= nil then for key, val in pairs(tnamed) do tbl[key] = val end end return tbl, pin, tnew, mem end -- Load the optional arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` -- class of modifiers local function load_callback_opts (src, n_skip, default_style, params) local style, shf local tmp = src[n_skip + 1] if tmp ~= nil then style = mapping_styles[tmp:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if style == nil then style, shf = default_style, n_skip - 1 else shf = n_skip end local n_exist, karg, varg = style[3], style[4], style[5] tmp = style[6] if tmp > -1 then karg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if karg == '0' or karg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then karg = tonumber(karg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, karg) end end tmp = style[7] if tmp > -1 then varg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if varg == '0' or varg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then varg = tonumber(varg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, varg) end end local dest, argc, tnew, mem = load_child_opts(src, style[2] + shf, n_exist, params) tmp = style[1] if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 2) and dest[karg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 2 end if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 1) and dest[varg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 1 end return dest, argc, tmp, karg, varg, tnew, mem end -- Parse the arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of -- modifiers local function load_replace_args (opts, whoami) if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern string was given', 0) end if opts[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No replacement string was given', 0) end local ptn, repl, nmax, argc = opts[1], opts[2], tonumber(opts[3]), 3 if nmax ~= nil or (opts[3] or ''):match'^%s*$' ~= nil then argc = 4 end local flg = opts[argc] if flg ~= nil then flg = mkeywords[flg:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if flg == 0 then flg = nil elseif flg ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 end return ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, (nmax ~= nil and nmax < 1) or (flg == 3 and ptn == repl) end -- Parse the arguments of the `with_*_matching` class of modifiers local function load_pattern_args (opts, whoami) local keyw local ptns, state, nptns, cnt = {}, 0, 0, 1 for _, val in ipairs(opts) do if state == 0 then nptns, state = nptns + 1, -1 ptns[nptns] = { val, false, false } else keyw = val:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if keyw == nil or mkeywords[keyw] == nil or ( state > 0 and mkeywords[keyw] > 0 ) then break else state = mkeywords[keyw] if state > 1 then ptns[nptns][2] = true end if state == 3 then ptns[nptns][3] = true end end end cnt = cnt + 1 end if state == 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern was given', 0) end return ptns, nptns, cnt end -- Load the optional arguments of the `parsing`, `reinterpreting` and -- `evaluating` modifiers local function load_parse_opts (opts, start_from, isp, psp) local tmp local optslots, noptslots, argc, trimn, trimu, iplain, pplain = { true, true, true }, 3, start_from, true, false, true, true repeat noptslots, tmp = noptslots - 1, opts[argc] if tmp == nil then break end tmp = tmp:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if optslots[1] ~= nil and trim_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then tmp = trim_parse_opts[tmp] trimn, trimu, optslots[1] = tmp[1], tmp[2], nil elseif optslots[2] ~= nil and isep_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 iplain, isp, optslots[2] = isep_parse_opts[tmp], opts[argc], nil elseif optslots[3] ~= nil and psep_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 pplain, psp, optslots[3] = psep_parse_opts[tmp], opts[argc], nil else break end argc = argc + 1 until noptslots < 1 return isp, iplain, psp, pplain, trimn, trimu, argc end -- Map parameters' values using a custom callback and a referenced table local value_maps = { [0] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = fn() end end, [1] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[varg] = val tbl[key] = fn() end end, [2] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg] = key tbl[key] = fn() end end, [3] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg], margs[varg] = key, val tbl[key] = fn() end end } -- Private table for `map_names()` local name_thieves = { [0] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [1] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[varg] = val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [2] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg] = key steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [3] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg], rargs[varg] = key, val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end } -- Map parameters' names using a custom callback and a referenced table local function map_names (tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, fn) local cache = {} name_thieves[looptype](cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Return a new table that contains `src` regrouped according to the numeric -- suffixes in its keys local function make_groups (src) -- NOTE: `src` might be the original metatable! local prefix, gid local groups = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do -- `key` must only be a string or a number... if type(key) == 'string' then prefix, gid = key:match'^%s*(.-)%s*(%-?%d*)%s*$' gid = tonumber(gid) or '' else prefix, gid = '', key end if groups[gid] == nil then groups[gid] = {} end if prefix == '0' or prefix:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then prefix = tonumber(prefix) if prefix < 1 then prefix = prefix - 1 end end groups[gid][prefix] = val end return groups end -- Split into parts a string containing the `$#` and `$@` placeholders and -- return the information as a skeleton table, a canvas table and a length local function parse_placeholder_string (target) local idx, s_pos, skel, canvas = 1, 1, {}, {} local e_pos = string.find(target, '%$[@#]', 1, false) while e_pos ~= nil do canvas[idx] = target:sub(s_pos, e_pos - 1) skel[idx + 1] = target:sub(e_pos, e_pos + 1) == '$@' idx = idx + 2 s_pos = e_pos + 2 e_pos = string.find(target, '%$[@#]', s_pos, false) end if (s_pos > target:len()) then idx = idx - 1 else canvas[idx] = target:sub(s_pos) end return skel, canvas, idx end -- Populate a table by parsing a parameter string (heavy lifting for `parsing`, -- `reinterpreting` and `evaluating`) local function parse_parameter_string (tbl, str, isp, ipl, psp, ppl, trn, tru) local key, val, spos1, spos2, pos1, pos2 local pos3, idx, lenplone = 0, 1, #str + 1 if isp == nil or isp == '' then if psp == nil or psp == '' then if tru then tbl[idx] = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else tbl[idx] = str end return idx end spos1, spos2 = str:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else val = str end idx = idx + 1 else key = get_parameter_name(str:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = str:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val return idx end if psp == nil or psp == '' then repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end tbl[idx], idx = val, idx + 1 until pos2 == nil return idx end repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) spos1, spos2 = val:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end idx = idx + 1 else key = get_parameter_name(val:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = val:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val until pos2 == nil return idx end -- Heavy lifting for `snapshotting` and `remembering` local function make_child (ctx, src, whoami) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len == 0 then local stack = new_substack(ctx) for key, val in pairs(src) do stack[key] = val end return len == nil and 1 or 2 end if len < 0 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: The number of parameters to copy must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end copy_table_maxn(new_substack(ctx), src, len) return 2 end -- Heavy lifting for `setting_by_flushing`, `combining` and `combining_values` local function set_strings_from_substack (ctx, dest, whoami) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children local stack = ctx.children[currsnap] for key, val in pairs(memoryslots) do if stack[key] ~= nil then dest[val] = stack[key] end end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 end -- Heavy lifting for `combining` and `combining_values` local function combine_parameters (ctx, keyval_fn, whoami) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! This function -- MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts = ctx.pipe if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local argc local tbl, vars = ctx.params, {} local sortfn, varsarg0, do_sort, tmp = load_sort_opt(opts[2]) if varsarg0 == 2 then tmp = opts[3] and opts[3]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end if tmp == 'with_flushed_glue' then varsarg0 = varsarg0 + 1 argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, varsarg0 + 1) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, vars, whoami) else if tmp == 'without_flushed_glue' then varsarg0 = varsarg0 + 1 end argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, varsarg0 + 1) end if argc < varsarg0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No setting directive was given', 0) end if next(tbl) == nil then if vars.ifngiven ~= nil then ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = vars.ifngiven } elseif tbl == ctx.oparams then ctx.params = {} end return argc end local cache, len if do_sort then local words cache, words, len, tmp = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, tmp do cache[len + idx] = words[idx] end len = len + tmp else len, cache = 0, {} for key in pairs(tbl) do len = len + 1 cache[len] = key end end local pmap, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, vars.pairsep or '', vars.itersep or '' for idx = 1, len do tmp, pmap[nss + 1] = cache[idx], pps pmap[nss + 2] = keyval_fn(tmp, tbl[tmp], kvs) nss = nss + 2 end tmp = vars.oxfordsep or vars.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and nss > 4 then pmap[nss - 1] = tmp elseif nss > 2 and vars.lastsep ~= nil then pmap[nss - 1] = vars.lastsep end pmap[1] = vars.header or '' if vars.footer ~= nil then pmap[nss + 1] = vars.footer end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = table.concat(pmap) } return argc end -- Concatenate the numeric keys from the table of parameters to the numeric -- keys from the table of options; non-numeric keys from the table of options -- will prevail over colliding non-numeric keys from the table of parameters local function concat_params (ctx) local retval, tbl, nmax = {}, ctx.params, table.maxn(ctx.pipe) if ctx.subset == 1 then -- We need only the sequence for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do retval[key + nmax] = val end else if ctx.subset == -1 then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then retval[key + nmax] = val else retval[key] = val end end end for key, val in pairs(ctx.pipe) do retval[key] = val end return retval end -- Flush the parameters by calling a custom function for each value (after this -- function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function flush_params (ctx, fn) local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.subset == 1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end return end if ctx.subset == -1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, natural_sort) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end return end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end return end if ctx.subset ~= -1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end end -- Flush the parameters by calling one of two custom functions for each value -- (after this function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function mixed_flush_params (ctx, fn_seq, fn_oth) if ctx.subset == 1 then for key, val in ipairs(ctx.params) do fn_seq(key, val) end return end if ctx.subset == -1 then flush_params(ctx, fn_oth) return end local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, natural_sort) local sequence = {} for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do sequence[key] = val end if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end for idx = 1, nn do if sequence[nums[idx]] then fn_seq(nums[idx], sequence[nums[idx]]) else fn_oth(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end end if ctx.sorttype ~= 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end return end for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn_seq(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn_oth(key, val) end end -- Finalize and return a concatenated list local function finalize_and_return_concatenated_list (ctx, lst, len, modsize) if len > 0 then local tmp = ctx.oxfordsep or ctx.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and len > modsize * 2 then lst[len - modsize + 1] = tmp elseif len > modsize and ctx.lastsep ~= nil then lst[len - modsize + 1] = ctx.lastsep end lst[1] = ctx.header or '' if ctx.footer ~= nil then lst[len + 1] = ctx.footer end ctx.text = table.concat(lst) else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end --- --- --- PUBLIC ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Modifiers ]]-- ------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sequential|pipe to library.sequential = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘non-sequential’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ and ‘reassorted’ directives are redundant when followed by ‘sequential’', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = ipairs, 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|non-sequential|pipe to library['non-sequential'] = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘non-sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘non-sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = pairs, -1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|all_sorted|pipe to library.all_sorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘reassorted’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassorted|pipe to library.reassorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘reassorted’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 2 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting|directives|...|pipe to library.setting = function (ctx) local argc = set_strings_from_opts(ctx, ctx.pipe, 1) if argc < 2 then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: No directive was given', 0) end return context_iterate(ctx, argc + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|scoring|new parameter name|[container]|pipe to library.scoring = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘scoring’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local tmp local retval, opts = 0, ctx.pipe for _ in pairs(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end if opts[2] ~= nil then tmp = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == 'in_substack' then new_substack(ctx)[get_parameter_name(opts[1])] = tostring(retval) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end ctx.params[get_parameter_name(opts[1])] = tostring(retval) return context_iterate(ctx, tmp == 'here' and 3 or 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|squeezing|pipe to library.squeezing = function (ctx) local store, indices, tbl, newlen = {}, {}, ctx.params, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then newlen = newlen + 1 indices[newlen], store[key], tbl[key] = key, val, nil end end table.sort(indices) for idx = 1, newlen do tbl[idx] = store[indices[idx]] end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|filling_the_gaps|pipe to library.filling_the_gaps = function (ctx) local newval, tbl, tmp, nmin, nmax, nnums = ctx.pipe[1], ctx.params, {}, 1, nil, -1 if newval == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: No value was provided', 0) end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmax == nil then if key < nmin then nmin = key end nmax = key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end tmp[key], nnums = val, nnums + 1 end end if nmax ~= nil and nmax - nmin > nnums then ctx.n_available = ctx.n_available + nmin + nnums - nmax if ctx.n_available < 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: It is possible to fill at most ' .. tostring(maxfill) .. ' parameters', 0) end for idx = nmin, nmax, 1 do tbl[idx] = newval end for key, val in pairs(tmp) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|clearing|pipe to library.clearing = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil end end for key, val in ipairs(numerics) do tbl[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cutting|left cut|right cut|pipe to library.cutting = function (ctx) local lcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Left cut must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Right cut must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local len = #tbl if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end local tot = lcut + rcut if tot > 0 then local cache = {} if tot >= len then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end tot = len else for idx = len - rcut + 1, len, 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = 1, lcut, 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then if key > len then cache[key - tot] = val else cache[key - lcut] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cropping|left crop|right crop|pipe to library.cropping = function (ctx) local lcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Left crop must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Right crop must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local nmin, nmax for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmin == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end if nmin ~= nil then local len = nmax - nmin + 1 if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end if lcut + rcut - len > -1 then for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key] = nil end end elseif lcut + rcut > 0 then for idx = nmax - rcut + 1, nmax do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = nmin, nmin + lcut - 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end local lshift = nmin + lcut - 1 if lshift > 0 then for idx = lshift + 1, nmax, 1 do tbl[idx - lshift], tbl[idx] = tbl[idx], nil end end end end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|purging|start offset|length|pipe to library.purging = function (ctx) local idx = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if idx == nil or math.floor(idx) ~= idx then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params if len < 1 then len = len + table.maxn(tbl) if idx > len then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end len = len - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(tbl, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|backpurging|start offset|length|pipe to library.backpurging = function (ctx) local last = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if last == nil or math.floor(last) ~= last then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local idx local tbl = ctx.params if len > 0 then idx = last - len + 1 else for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and (idx == nil or key < idx) then idx = key end end if idx == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end idx = idx - len if last < idx then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end len = last - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(ctx.params, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|shifting|addend|pipe to library.shifting = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local nshift = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if nshift == nil or nshift == 0 or math.floor(nshift) ~= nshift then error(modulename .. ', ‘shifting’: A non-zero integer number must be provided', 0) end local tbl = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key + nshift] = val else tbl[key] = val end end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reversing_numeric_names|pipe to library.reversing_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics, nmax = ctx.params, {}, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil if key > nmax then nmax = key end end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[nmax - key + 1] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pivoting_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.pivoting_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params local shift = #tbl + 1 if shift < 2 then return library.reversing_numeric_names(ctx) end local numerics = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key] = val tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[shift - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mirroring_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.mirroring_numeric_names = function (ctx) local nmax, nmin local tbl, numerics = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key] = val tbl[key] = nil if nmax == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[nmax + nmin - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|swapping_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.swapping_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp local tbl, cache, nsize = ctx.params, {}, 0 for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then nsize = nsize + 1 cache[nsize] = key end end table.sort(cache) for idx = math.floor(nsize / 2), 1, -1 do tmp = tbl[cache[idx] ] tbl[cache[idx] ] = tbl[cache[nsize - idx + 1] ] tbl[cache[nsize - idx + 1] ] = tmp end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sorting_sequential_values|[criterion]|pipe to library.sorting_sequential_values = function (ctx) local sortfn if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil then sortfn = sortfunctions[ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if sortfn then table.sort(ctx.params, sortfn) else table.sort(ctx.params) end -- i.e. either `false` or `nil` if sortfn == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|splicing|[add to position]|position|increment| -- [number of elements to write]|...|pipe to library.splicing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp2, argc, pos, refp local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params local tmp1 = opts[1] if tmp1 ~= nil then tmp2 = tonumber(tmp1) if tmp2 == nil or math.floor(tmp2) ~= tmp2 then pos, argc, tmp2 = tonumber(opts[2]), 4, tmp1:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp2 ~= nil then refp = position_references[tmp2] if refp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: ‘' .. tostring(tmp2) .. '’ is not a valid first argument', 0) end else refp = 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tmp2, 3, 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tonumber(opts[2]), 4, 0 end if pos == nil or math.floor(pos) ~= pos then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The position must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[argc - 1]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The increment must be an integer number', 0) end if refp == 2 then for _ in ipairs(tbl) do pos = pos + 1 end refp = 0 end tmp1, tmp2 = nil, nil if refp ~= 0 or len ~= 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if tmp1 == nil then tmp1, tmp2 = key, key elseif key < tmp1 then tmp1 = key elseif key > tmp2 then tmp2 = key end end end end if tmp2 == nil then len = 0 elseif refp == 3 then pos = pos + tmp2 elseif refp == 1 then pos = pos + tmp1 end if len > 0 and pos + len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_expanded(tbl, pos, len) elseif len < 0 and pos - len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_reduced(tbl, pos, -len) else tbl = copy_or_ref_table(tbl, tbl ~= ctx.oparams) end ctx.params = tbl tmp1 = tonumber(opts[argc]) if len == 0 and (tmp1 == nil or tmp1 < 1) then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: When the increment is zero the number of elements to add cannot be zero', 0) end if tmp1 == nil or tmp1 < 0 or math.floor(tmp1) ~= tmp1 then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end tmp2 = argc - pos + 1 for key = pos, pos + tmp1 - 1 do tbl[key] = opts[key + tmp2] end return context_iterate(ctx, argc + tmp1 + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|imposing|name|value|pipe to library.imposing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘imposing’: Missing parameter name to impose', 0) end ctx.params[get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = ctx.pipe[2] return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|providing|name|value|pipe to library.providing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘providing’: Missing parameter name to provide', 0) end local key = get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1]) if ctx.params[key] == nil then ctx.params[key] = ctx.pipe[2] end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassigning|source|destination|[mode]|pipe to library.reassigning = function (ctx) local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing source parameter', 0) end if opts[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing destination parameter', 0) end local mode local src = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local val = tbl[src] if opts[3] ~= nil then mode = a_modes[opts[3]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end local argc = mode == nil and 3 or 4 if val == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local dest = get_parameter_name(opts[2]) if mode == 1 or mode == 4 or (mode == 3 and tbl[dest] == nil) then tbl[src] = nil end if mode == nil or mode < 2 or tbl[dest] == nil then tbl[dest] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|discarding|name|[how many]|pipe to library.discarding = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: Missing parameter name to discard', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil then ctx.params[get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = nil return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local key = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if key == nil or math.floor(key) ~= key then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range was provided, but the initial parameter name is not an integer number', 0) end if len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range can only be an integer number greater than zero', 0) end for idx = key, key + len - 1 do ctx.params[idx] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_non-numeric_names|pipe to library['excluding_non-numeric_names'] = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_numeric_names|pipe to library.excluding_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or] -- |[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_name_matching = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp, ptn local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_name_matching') local tbl, newparams = ctx.params, {} for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then tmp = ptn[1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tmp = tonumber(tmp) end newparams[tmp] = tbl[tmp] else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then newparams[key] = val end end end end ctx.params = newparams return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1] -- |[and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_name_not_matching = function (ctx) local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_name_not_matching') local tbl = ctx.params if nptns == 1 and targets[1][3] then local tmp = targets[1][1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tbl[tonumber(tmp)] = nil else tbl[tmp] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local yesmatch, ptn for key in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if tostring(key) ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or] -- |[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_value_matching = function (ctx) local nomatch, ptn local tbl = ctx.params local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_value_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do nomatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val == ptn[1] then nomatch = false break end elseif val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then nomatch = false break end end if nomatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1] -- |[and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_value_not_matching = function (ctx) local yesmatch, ptn local tbl = ctx.params local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_value_not_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|keeping_at_most|number of parameters to pick|pipe to library.keeping_at_most = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘keeping_at_most’: The number of parameters to keep must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end ctx.params = copy_table_maxn({}, ctx.params, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|trimming_values|pipe to library.trimming_values = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_lowercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_lowercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:lower() end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_uppercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_uppercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:upper() end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_calling = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = margs } value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_invoking|module name|function name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_invoking = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 2, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = margs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_magic = function (ctx) local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, margs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.mapping_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, 'mapping_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if val == ptn then tbl[key] = repl end end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:gsub(ptn, repl, nmax) end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.mapping_by_mixing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local tbl, mix = ctx.params, ctx.pipe[1] if mix == '$#' then for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = tostring(key) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end tbl[key] = table.concat(cnv) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_names|pipe to --[[ library.mapping_to_names = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = tostring(key) end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_lowercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_lowercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:lower()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_uppercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_uppercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:upper()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_sequence|[sort order]|pipe to library.renaming_to_sequence = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache, len local tbl = ctx.params local sortfn, argc, do_sort = load_sort_opt(ctx.pipe[1]) if do_sort then local words, wl cache, words, len, wl = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, len do cache[idx] = tbl[cache[idx]] end for idx = 1, wl do cache[len + idx] = tbl[words[idx]] end else len, cache = 0, {} for _, val in pairs(tbl) do len = len + 1 cache[len] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_calling = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = rargs } map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_invoking|module name|function -- name|[call style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of -- additional arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument -- N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_invoking = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 2, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = rargs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_magic = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local magic if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, rargs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.renaming_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, 'renaming_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then ptn = get_parameter_name(ptn) local val = tbl[ptn] if val ~= nil then tbl[ptn], tbl[get_parameter_name(repl)] = nil, val end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, tostring(key):gsub(ptn, repl, nmax)) end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.renaming_by_mixing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local mix = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' local cache = {} if mix == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = val end else local skel, canvas, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then canvas[idx] = val else canvas[idx] = tostring(key) end end cache[get_parameter_name(table.concat(canvas))] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_values|pipe to --[[ library.renaming_to_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[val] = val end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|grouping_by_calling|template -- name|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.grouping_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp, argc, tbl, mem = load_child_opts(ctx.pipe, 2, 0, ctx.params) local gargs = {} for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' and key < 1 then gargs[key - 1] = val else gargs[key] = val end end tmp = ctx.pipe[1] if tmp ~= nil then tmp = tmp:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘grouping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local groups = make_groups(tbl) for gid, group in pairs(groups) do for key, val in pairs(gargs) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args = gid, group groups[gid] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end for key, val in pairs(mem) do groups[key] = val end ctx.params = groups return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|parsing|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.parsing = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘parsing’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '|', '=') parse_parameter_string(ctx.params, opts[1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reinterpreting|parameter to reinterpret|[trim -- flag]|[iteration delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter -- setter]|[...]|pipe to library.reinterpreting = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reinterpreting’: No parameter to reinterpret was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '|', '=') local tbl, tmp = ctx.params, get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local str = tbl[tmp] if str ~= nil then tbl[tmp] = nil parse_parameter_string(tbl, str, isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|evaluating|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.evaluating = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘evaluating’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '!', ':') if opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' == nil then ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(opts, opts ~= ctx.opipe) return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local new_opts, cache = {}, {} local shift = parse_parameter_string(cache, opts[1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) - argc for key, val in pairs(opts) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < 1 then new_opts[key] = val elseif key >= argc then new_opts[key + shift] = val end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do new_opts[key] = val end ctx.pipe = new_opts return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mixing_names_and_values|mixing string|pipe to library.mixing_names_and_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter names', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter values', 0) end local tmp local mix_k = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' local cache, mix_v = {}, ctx.pipe[2] if mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = val end elseif mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$#' then for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = tostring(key) end elseif mix_k == '$#' and mix_v == '$#' then for key in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[key] = tostring(key) end else local skel_k, cnv_k, n_parts_k = parse_placeholder_string(mix_k) local skel_v, cnv_v, n_parts_v = parse_placeholder_string(mix_v) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do tmp = tostring(key) for idx = 2, n_parts_k, 2 do if skel_k[idx] then cnv_k[idx] = val else cnv_k[idx] = tmp end end for idx = 2, n_parts_v, 2 do if skel_v[idx] then cnv_v[idx] = val else cnv_v[idx] = tmp end end cache[get_parameter_name(table.concat(cnv_k))] = table.concat(cnv_v) end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|swapping_names_and_values|pipe to --[[ library.swapping_names_and_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[val] = key end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return key .. kvs .. val end, 'combining' ) + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_values|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return val end, 'combining_values' ) + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_calling|template name|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tname = ctx.pipe[1] if tname ~= nil then tname = tname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[2])] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = ctx.params } } return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_invoking|module name|function name|new -- parameter name|pipe to library.combining_by_invoking = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local mname = ctx.pipe[1] if mname ~= nil then mname = mname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = ctx.pipe[2] if fname ~= nil then fname = fname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[3] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = ctx.params } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[3])] = tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) } return context_iterate(ctx, 4) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_magic|parser function|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local magic = ctx.pipe[1] if magic ~= nil then magic = magic:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[2])] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, ctx.params) } return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|snapshotting|[maximum number]|pipe to library.snapshotting = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, make_child(ctx, ctx.params, 'snapshotting')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|remembering|[maximum number]|pipe to library.remembering = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, make_child(ctx, ctx.oparams, 'remembering')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|entering_substack|[new]|pipe to library.entering_substack = function (ctx) local tbl, ncurrparent = ctx.params, ctx.n_parents + 1 if ctx.parents == nil then ctx.parents = { tbl } else ctx.parents[ncurrparent] = tbl end ctx.n_parents = ncurrparent if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil and ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*new%s*$' then ctx.params = {} return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children if currsnap > 0 then ctx.params, ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = ctx.children[currsnap], nil, currsnap - 1 else local newparams = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do newparams[key] = val end ctx.params = newparams end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pulling|parameter name|pipe to library.pulling = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘pulling’: No parameter to pull was provided', 0) end local tmp = ctx.n_parents local parent = tmp < 1 and ctx.oparams or ctx.parents[tmp] tmp = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) if parent[tmp] ~= nil then ctx.params[tmp] = parent[tmp] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|recalling|parameter name|pipe to library.recalling = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘recalling’: No parameter to recall was provided', 0) end local arg = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|finding|parameter name|pipe to --[[ library.finding = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘finding’: No parameter to find was provided', 0) end local arg = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local parent for idx = ctx.n_parents, 1, -1 do parent = ctx.parents[idx] if parent[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = parent[arg] return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end end if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|picking|number of parameters to pick|pipe to --[[ library.picking = function (ctx) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘picking’: The number of parameters to pick must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end if ctx.n_parents < 1 then copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.oparams, len) else copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.parents[ctx.n_parents], len) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|detaching_substack|pipe to library.detaching_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘detaching_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local parent = ctx.parents[ncurrparent] for key in pairs(ctx.params) do parent[key] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|dropping_substack|pipe to library.dropping_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘dropping_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|leaving_substack|pipe to library.leaving_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘leaving_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children + 1 if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { ctx.params } else ctx.children[currsnap] = ctx.params end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents, ctx.n_children = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1, currsnap return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|merging_substack|pipe to library.merging_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘merging_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local parent, child = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.params ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = parent, nil, ncurrparent - 1 for key, val in pairs(child) do parent[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|flushing|pipe to library.flushing = function (ctx) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘flushing’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local parent, currsnap = ctx.params, ctx.n_children for key, val in pairs(ctx.children[currsnap]) do parent[key] = val end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting_by_flushing|pipe to library.setting_by_flushing = function (ctx) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, ctx, 'setting_by_flushing') return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end --[[ Functions ]]-- ----------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|count library.count = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local retval = 0 for _ in ctx.iterfunc(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end if ctx.subset == -1 then retval = retval - #ctx.params end ctx.text = retval return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_call|template name|[prepend 1]|[prepend 2] -- |[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n=value -- n]|[...] library.concat_and_call = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_call’: No template name was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) ctx.text = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = concat_params(ctx) } return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_invoke|module name|function name|[prepend -- 1]|[prepend 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- item n=value n]|[...] library.concat_and_invoke = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No function name was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 2) local mfunc = require('Module:' .. mname)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.text = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild{ title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = concat_params(ctx) }) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_magic|parser function|[prepend 1]|[prepend -- 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n= -- value n]|[...] library.concat_and_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) ctx.text = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, concat_params(ctx)) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|value_of|parameter name library.value_of = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘value_of’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local val local key = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if key == '0' or key:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then key = tonumber(key) val = ctx.params[key] -- No worries: #ctx.params is unused when the modifier is in -- first position (and therefore `ctx.params` is a metatable) if val ~= nil and ( ctx.subset ~= -1 or key > #ctx.params or key < 1 ) and ( ctx.subset ~= 1 or (key <= #ctx.params and key > 0) ) then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end else val = ctx.params[key] if ctx.subset ~= 1 and val ~= nil then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list library.list = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_values library.list_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! -- NOTE: `library.coins()` and `library.unique_coins()` rely on us local ret, nss, pps = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], nss = pps, val, nss + 2 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_maybe_with_names library.list_maybe_with_names = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' mixed_flush_params( ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, '', '', val, nss + 4 end, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end ) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|coins|[first coin = value 1]|[second coin = value -- 2]|[...]|[last coin = value N] --[[ library.coins = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = opts[get_parameter_name(val)] end return library.list_values(ctx) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|unique_coins|[first coin = value 1]|[second coin = -- value 2]|[...]|[last coin = value N] --[[ library.unique_coins = function (ctx) local tmp local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tmp = get_parameter_name(val) tbl[key], opts[tmp] = opts[tmp], nil end return library.list_values(ctx) end ]] -- Syntax: #invoke:params|for_each|wikitext library.for_each = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, pps, txt = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '', ctx.pipe[1] or '' local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(txt) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end ret[nss + 1], nss = pps, nss + 2 ret[nss] = table.concat(cnv) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each|template name|[append 1]|[append 2] -- |[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tname, args = opts } local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' table.insert(opts, 1, true) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each|module name|module function|[append -- 1]|[append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...] -- |[named param n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No function name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = opts } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each|parser function|[append 1]|[append 2] -- |[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each = function (ctx) local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' table.insert(opts, 1, true) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, opts) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_value|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_value = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_value’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tname, args = opts } local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each_value|module name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local mname, fname if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No function name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = opts } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each_value|parser function|[append 1] -- |[append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- param n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local magic if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each_value’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, opts) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_group|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_group = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local tmp if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil then tmp = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_group’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local opts, ret, nss, ccs = {}, {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' for key, val in pairs(ctx.pipe) do if type(key) == 'number' then opts[key - 1] = val else opts[key] = val end end ctx.pipe = opts ctx.params = make_groups(ctx.params) flush_params(ctx, function (gid, group) for key, val in pairs(opts) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args, ret[nss + 1], nss = gid, group, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end --[[ First-position-only modifiers ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|new|pipe to static_iface.new = function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame) ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.opipe, false) ctx.params = {} main_loop(ctx, context_iterate(ctx, 1)) return ctx.text end --[[ First-position-only functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|self static_iface.self = function (frame) return frame:getParent():getTitle() end --[[ Public metatable of functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- return setmetatable({}, { __index = function (_, query) local fname = query:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end local func = static_iface[fname] if func ~= nil then return func end func = library[fname] if func == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end return function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame) ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.opipe, refpipe[fname]) ctx.params = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.oparams, refparams[fname]) main_loop(ctx, func) return ctx.text end end }) jm8x5ug81bre69dpt2csm0n3owsmu2i ايمبيڊڊ نظام 0 99706 394735 390312 2026-07-16T02:11:27Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|ڪنهن مخصوص ڪم لاءِ وقف ڪمپيوٽر نظام}} [[File:DHCOM Computer On Module - AM35x.jpg|thumb|right|هڪ پلگ-اِن ڪارڊ تي ٻڌل ''ايمبيڊڊ نظام''، جنهن ۾ پروسيسر، يادگيري، بجلي جي فراهمي ۽ ٻاهريان رابطا شامل آهن.]] '''ايمبيڊڊ نظام''' ('''Embedded System''') هڪ خاص مقصد وارو [[ڪمپيوٽر نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو [[ڪمپيوٽر پروسيسر]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر يادگيري]] ۽ [[ان پُٽ/آئوٽ پُٽ]] [[پرديئي ڊوائيس]]ن جي ميلاپ تي مشتمل هوندو آهي ۽ ڪنهن وڏي ميڪانيڪي يا [[اليڪٽرانڪس|اليڪٽرانڪ]] نظام جي اندر هڪ مخصوص ڪم سرانجام ڏيندو آهي.<ref name="Barr-glossary">{{cite web |author=Michael Barr |title=Embedded Systems Glossary |work=Neutrino Technical Library |access-date=2007-04-21 |url=http://www.netrino.com/Embedded-Systems/Glossary |author-link=Michael Barr (software engineer)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heath |first=Steve |title=Embedded systems design|publisher=Newnes |year=2003 |edition=2 |series=EDN series for design engineers |page=[https://archive.org/details/embeddedsystemsd0000heat/page/2 2] |url=https://archive.org/details/embeddedsystemsd0000heat |url-access=registration|quote= An embedded system is a [[microprocessor]] based system that is built to control a function or a range of functions. | isbn=978-0-7506-5546-0}}</ref> اهو مڪمل ڊوائيس جي هڪ حصي طور شامل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ اڪثر برقي يا اليڪٽرانڪ هارڊويئر ۽ ميڪانيڪي حصا پڻ شامل هوندا آهن. ايمبيڊڊ نظام روزمره استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪيترن ئي ڊوائيسن کي ڪنٽرول ڪندا آهن.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Michael Barr|author2=Anthony J. Massa|title=Programming embedded systems: with C and GNU development tools|publisher=O'Reilly|year=2006|pages=1–2|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPZaPJrw_L0C&pg=PA1 | isbn=978-0-596-00983-0}}</ref> 2009ع تائين اندازو لڳايو ويو هو ته تيار ٿيندڙ سڀني [[مائڪرو پروسيسر]]ن مان لڳ ڀڳ 98٪ ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا هئا.<ref>{{cite web | title=Real men program in C | last=Barr |first=Michael | page=2 | date=1 August 2009 | work=Embedded Systems Design | publisher=TechInsights (United Business Media) | url=http://www.embedded.com/electronics-blogs/barr-code/4027479/Real-men-program-in-C | access-date=2009-12-23 }}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=Computing has changed a lot since 2009.|date=March 2022}} ڇاڪاڻ ته ايمبيڊڊ نظام عام طور تي ان مشين جي جسماني عملن کي ڪنٽرول ڪندو آهي، جنهن ۾ اهو شامل هوندو آهي، تنهن ڪري ان تي اڪثر [[حقيقي وقت ڪمپيوٽنگ]] جون پابنديون لاڳو ٿينديون آهن. جديد ايمبيڊڊ نظام گهڻو ڪري [[مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر]]ن تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن (يعني اهڙا مائڪرو پروسيسر، جن ۾ يادگيري ۽ پرديئي رابطا اڳ ۾ ئي مربوط هوندا آهن)، پر عام مائڪرو پروسيسر (جيڪي يادگيري ۽ پرديئي رابطن لاءِ ٻاهرين چِپن جو استعمال ڪندا آهن) پڻ عام آهن، خاص طور تي وڌيڪ پيچيده نظامن ۾. ٻنهي حالتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ پروسيسر عام مقصد وارن کان وٺي مخصوص حسابن لاءِ تيار ڪيل يا خاص طور تي ڪنهن مخصوص استعمال لاءِ ترتيب ڏنل قسمن جا ٿي سگهن ٿا. مخصوص پروسيسرن جي هڪ عام درجي کي [[ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسر]] (DSP) چيو ويندو آهي. ڇاڪاڻ ته ايمبيڊڊ نظام مخصوص ڪمن لاءِ وقف هوندو آهي، تنهن ڪري [[ڊزائن انجنيئر]] ان کي اهڙي نموني بهتر بڻائيندا آهن، جو پيداوار جي سائيز ۽ قيمت گهٽجي وڃي ۽ ان جي اعتبار ۽ ڪارڪردگي ۾ واڌ اچي. ڪيترائي ايمبيڊڊ نظام وڏي پيماني تي تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن، جنهن سان [[پيماني جي معيشت]] مان فائدو حاصل ٿيندو آهي. ايمبيڊڊ نظام سائيز ۾ ننڍن پورٽبل ذاتي ڊوائيسن، جهڙوڪ [[ڊجيٽل واچ]] ۽ [[MP3 پليئر]]، کان وٺي وڏين مشينن، جهڙوڪ [[گهريلو اوزار]]، صنعتي [[اسيمبلي لائين]]ن، [[روبوٽ]]ن، ٽرانسپورٽ گاڏين، [[ٽريفڪ لائيٽ ڪنٽرولر]]ن ۽ [[طبي تصويرنگ]] نظامن تائين پکڙيل آهن. اهي اڪثر ٻين مشينن جا ذيلي نظام هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[ايويونڪس]]، جيڪا [[هوائي جهاز]]ن ۾، ۽ [[ااسٽرائيونِڪس|خلائي جهازي برقيات]]، جيڪا [[خلائي جهاز]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. وڏا تنصيب، جهڙوڪ [[ڪارخانو|ڪارخانا]]، [[پائپ لائين]]ون ۽ [[برقي گرڊ]]، هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل ڪيترن ئي ايمبيڊڊ نظامن تي ڀاڙين ٿا. سافٽويئر ذريعي عام بڻايل ايمبيڊڊ نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پروگراميبل لاجڪ ڪنٽرولر]]، گهڻو ڪري پنهنجي اندر ئي مختلف فعالي حصن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن. == تاريخ == === پسمنظر === {{See also|مائڪروپروسيسر ڪرونالاجي}} مائڪرو پروسيسر ۽ مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر جي شروعات کي [[موس مربوط سرڪٽ]] (MOS) سان ڳنڍيو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو [[موسفيٽ]] (MOS) (ڌاتو–آڪسائيڊ–سيميڪنڊڪٽر [[فيلڊ-ايفيڪٽ ٽرانزسٽر]]) مان تيار ڪيل [[مربوط سرڪٽ]] چِپ آهي ۽ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ ترقي ڪئي وئي. 1964ع تائين MOS چِپن ۾ [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن جي ڪثافت وڌيڪ ۽ پيداوار جي قيمت [[بائي پولر جنڪشن ٽرانزسٽر|بائي پولر]] چِپن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿي چڪي هئي. ان کان پوءِ [[مور جو قانون]] مطابق MOS چِپن جي پيچيدگي تيزيءَ سان وڌندي رهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر تائين [[وڏي پيماني واري مربوطي]] (LSI) ممڪن ٿي، جتي هڪ ئي MOS چِپ تي سوين [[ٽرانزسٽر]] شامل هوندا هئا. ڪمپيوٽنگ ۾ MOS LSI چِپن جي استعمال سان پهرين مائڪرو پروسيسرن جي بنياد پئي، جڏهن انجنيئرن اهو محسوس ڪيو ته مڪمل ڪمپيوٽر پروسيسر نظام کي چند MOS LSI چِپن تي سموئي سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal |last1=Shirriff |first1=Ken |title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors |journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=48–54 |date=30 August 2016 |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors |access-date=13 October 2019|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 |s2cid=32003640 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> پهريان گهڻ-چِپ مائڪرو پروسيسر، [[چار-فيز نظام اي ايل1]] (1969ع) ۽ [[گاريٽ اي آء ريسرچ]] [[ايم پي 944]] (1970ع)، ڪيترن ئي MOS LSI چِپن تي ٻڌل هئا. پهريون هڪ-چِپ مائڪرو پروسيسر [[انٽيل 4004]] هو، جيڪو 1971ع ۾ جاري ڪيو ويو. ان کي [[فيڊريڪو فيگن]] پنهنجي [[سلڪون-گيٽ]] MOS ٽيڪنالاجي جي بنياد تي [[انٽيل]] جي انجنيئرن [[مارسيئن هوف]] ۽ [[اسٽين ميزور]] سان گڏ، ۽ [[بسيڪام]] جي انجنيئر [[ماساتوشي شيما]] جي سهڪار سان تيار ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |website=The Silicon Engine |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> === ترقي === پهريون جديد طرز جو سڃاڻپ لائق ايمبيڊڊ نظام [[اپالو گائيڊنس ڪمپيوٽر]] هو،<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=1962: Aerospace systems are the first applications for ICs in computers |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/aerospace-systems-are-first-the-applications-for-ics-in-computers/ |access-date=March 13, 2025 |website=Computer History Museum}}</ref> جيڪو لڳ ڀڳ 1965ع ۾ [[چارلس اسٽارڪ ڊريپر]] طرفان[[ايم آئي ٽي انسٽرومينٽيشن ليبارٽري]] ۾ تيار ڪيو ويو. منصوبي جي شروعات ۾ اپولو گائيڊنس ڪمپيوٽر کي سڄي اپولو منصوبي جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ خطري وارو حصو سمجهيو ويندو هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي سائيز ۽ وزن گهٽائڻ لاءِ نون تيار ڪيل [[مونولٿڪ مربوط سرڪٽ]] استعمال ڪيا ويا هئا. شروعاتي وڏي پيماني تي تيار ٿيندڙ ايمبيڊڊ نظامن مان هڪ [[منٽمين ميزائل]] لاءِ [[آٽونيٽڪس D-17 گائيڊنس ڪمپيوٽر]] هو، جيڪو 1961ع ۾ متعارف ٿيو. جڏهن 1966ع ۾ منٽمين II جي پيداوار شروع ٿي، ته D-17 جي جاءِ هڪ نئين ڪمپيوٽر ورتي، جيڪو مربوط سرڪٽن جي وڏي پيماني تي استعمال جو پهريون مثال بڻيو. 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي جي انهن شروعاتي استعمالن کان پوءِ ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جي قيمت ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي، جڏهن ته انهن جي پروسيسنگ طاقت ۽ ڪارڪردگي ۾ تمام گهڻي واڌ ٿي. شروعاتي مائڪرو پروسيسر [[انٽيل 4004]] (1971ع) [[ڪيلڪيوليٽر]]ن ۽ ٻين ننڍن نظامن لاءِ ٺاهيو ويو هو، پر ان کي اڃا به ٻاهرين يادگيري ۽ مددگار چِپن جي ضرورت هوندي هئي. 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات تائين يادگيري، ان پُٽ ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جا جزا ساڳئي چِپ تي پروسيسر سان گڏ مربوط ڪيا ويا، جنهن سان مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر وجود ۾ آيو. مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر انهن حالتن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جتي عام مقصد وارو ڪمپيوٽر تمام مهانگو ثابت ٿئي. مائڪرو پروسيسرن ۽ مائڪرو ڪنٽرولرن جي قيمت گهٽجڻ سان ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جو استعمال تيزيءَ سان وڌيو. نسبتاً گهٽ قيمت وارو مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر ڪيترن ئي الڳ جزن جي برابر ڪم سرانجام ڏئي سگهي ٿو. مائڪرو ڪنٽرولرن جي آمد سان، صارفين جي شين ۾ به مهانگا [[اينالاگ اليڪٽرانڪس|اينالاگ]] جزا، جهڙوڪ [[پوٽينشيوميٽر]] ۽ [[متغير ڪئپيسيٽر]]، مائڪرو پروسيسر ذريعي پڙهيا ويندڙ مٿي/هيٺ بٽڻن يا ڪنٽرول نوبن سان مٽائڻ ممڪن ٿي ويو. جيتوڻيڪ اهڙي صورت ۾ ايمبيڊڊ نظام روايتي حل جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي، پر اها پيچيدگي گهڻي ڀاڱي خود مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر جي اندر هوندي آهي. نتيجي ۾ تمام ٿورا اضافي جزا گهربل هوندا آهن ۽ ڊزائن جي گهڻي ڪوشش سافٽويئر تي مرڪوز هوندي آهي. سافٽويئر جو نمونو (پروٽو ٽائيپ) تيار ڪرڻ ۽ ان جي جاچ، اهڙي نئين سرڪٽ جي ڊزائن ۽ تعمير جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ تيز ٿي سگهي ٿي، جنهن ۾ ايمبيڊڊ پروسيسر استعمال نه ڪيو ويو هجي. == استعمال == [[File:Accupoll-embedded-computer.jpg|thumb|Accupoll اليڪٽرانڪ ووٽنگ مشين لاءِ ايمبيڊڊ ڪمپيوٽر سب-اسيمبلي<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eff.org/|title=Electronic Frontier Foundation|website=Electronic Frontier Foundation}}</ref>]] ايمبيڊڊ نظام عام طور تي صارفين جي شين، صنعتي نظامن، [[گاڏين جي صنعت]]، [[گهريلو اوزار]]ن، طبي اوزارن، مواصلات، واپاري نظامن، هوابازي ۽ فوجي استعمالن ۾ ملندا آهن. [[ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن نظام]]ن ۾ نيٽ ورڪ لاءِ [[ٽيليفون ايڪسچينج]]ن کان وٺي آخري استعمال ڪندڙ وٽ موجود [[موبائل فون]]ن تائين بيشمار ايمبيڊڊ نظام استعمال ٿيندا آهن. ڪمپيوٽر نيٽ ورڪن ۾ ڊيٽا جي منتقلي لاءِ خاص [[رائوٽر (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|رائوٽر]] ۽ [[نيٽ ورڪ برج]] استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[صارف اليڪٽرانڪس]] ۾ [[ايم پي 3 پليئر]]، [[ٽيليويزن]]، [[موبائل فون]]، [[وڊيو گيم ڪنسول]]، [[ڊجيٽل ڪيمرا]]، [[جي پي ايس رسيور]] ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر پرنٽر|پرنٽر]] شامل آهن. گهريلو اوزار، جهڙوڪ [[مائڪروويو اوون]]، [[واشنگ مشين]] ۽ [[ڊش واشر]]، لچڪ، ڪارڪردگي ۽ وڌيڪ سهولتن لاءِ ايمبيڊڊ نظام استعمال ڪندا آهن. جديد [[گرمائش، هواداري ۽ ايئر ڪنڊيشننگ]] (HVAC) نظام نيٽ ورڪ سان ڳنڍيل [[ٿرموسٽيٽ]] استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي ڏينهن جي وقت ۽ [[موسم]] جي تبديليءَ مطابق گرمي پد کي وڌيڪ صحيح ۽ مؤثر طريقي سان ڪنٽرول ڪندا آهن. [[گهر جي خودڪاري]] (ھوم آٽوميشن) ۾ تارن وارا ۽ بغير تارن وارا نيٽ ورڪ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ذريعي روشني، موسمي ڪنٽرول، سيڪيورٽي، آڊيو/وڊيو، نگراني وغيره کي سنڀاليو ويندو آهي، ۽ انهن سڀني ۾ احساس (سينسنگ) ۽ ڪنٽرول لاءِ ايمبيڊڊ ڊوائيس استعمال ٿيندا آهن. هوائي سفر کان وٺي گاڏين تائين ٽرانسپورٽ جا نظام وڌندڙ حد تائين ايمبيڊڊ نظامن تي ڀاڙين ٿا. جديد [[هوائي جهاز]]ن ۾ ترقي يافته [[ايويونڪس]]، جهڙوڪ [[انرشيل گائيڊنس سسٽم]] ۽ [[جي پي ايس رسيور]]، شامل هوندا آهن، جن لاءِ اعليٰ حفاظتي گهرجون پڻ هونديون آهن. [[خلائي جهاز]] پنهنجي رستي جي درستگي لاءِ [[خلائي جهازي برقيات]] (ااسٽرائيونِڪس) تي ڀاڙيندا آهن. مختلف برقي موٽر، جهڙوڪ [[برش کان آزاد ڊي سي موٽر]]، [[انڊڪشن موٽر]] ۽ [[ڊي سي موٽر]]، اليڪٽرانڪ [[موٽر ڪنٽرولر]] استعمال ڪندا آهن. [[گاڏي]]ون، [[برقي گاڏي]]ون ۽ [[هائبرڊ گاڏي]]ون ڪارڪردگي وڌائڻ ۽ آلودگي گهٽائڻ لاءِ وڌندڙ حد تائين ايمبيڊڊ نظام استعمال ڪن ٿيون. گاڏين جي ٻين حفاظتي نظامن ۾ [[اينٽي لاڪ بريڪنگ سسٽم]] (ABS)، [[اليڪٽرانڪ استحڪام ڪنٽرول]] (ESC/ESP)، [[ٽريڪشن ڪنٽرول]] (TCS) ۽ خودڪار [[چار ڦيٿن واري ڊرائيو]] شامل آهن. [[طبي اوزار]] نگراني ([[طبي نگراني]]) ۽ مختلف [[طبي تصويرنگ]] طريقن، جهڙوڪ [[پوزيٽرون ايميشن ٽوموگرافي]] (PET)، [[سنگل فوٽان ايميشن ڪمپيوٽيڊ ٽوموگرافي]] (SPECT)، [[ڪمپيوٽيڊ ٽوموگرافي]] (CT) ۽ [[مقناطيسي گونج تصويرنگ]] (MRI)، ۾ ايمبيڊڊ نظام استعمال ڪندا آهن، جيڪي جسم جي اندروني حصن جي بغير جراحي جاچ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. طبي اوزارن ۾ موجود ايمبيڊڊ نظام اڪثر صنعتي ڪمپيوٽرن ذريعي هلندا آهن.<ref>[http://content.dell.com/us/en/enterprise/oem-industry-solutions-build-your-product-with-dell Embedded Systems Dell OEM Solutions | Dell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127080734/http://content.dell.com/us/en/enterprise/oem-industry-solutions-build-your-product-with-dell |date=2013-01-27 }}. Content.dell.com (2011-01-04). Retrieved on 2013-02-06.</ref> ايمبيڊڊ نظام هوابازي ۽ دفاعي صنعتن ۾ [[حياتي-اهم نظام]] (سيفٽي-ڪرٽيڪل سسٽمز) لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي IoT نگراني ۽ ڪنٽرول لاءِ چِپ تي موجود 3G سيلولر يا ٻين وائرڊ/وائرليس نيٽ ورڪن سان ڳنڍيل نه هجن، ته اهي هيڪنگ کان الڳ رهندا آهن ۽ ان ڪري وڌيڪ محفوظ ٿي سگهن ٿا.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} باهه کان تحفظ لاءِ اهڙا نظام وڌيڪ گرمي پد برداشت ڪرڻ ۽ ڪم جاري رکڻ جي صلاحيت سان ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. سيڪيورٽي جي لحاظ کان، ايمبيڊڊ نظام خودمختيار ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ بجلي يا مواصلاتي رابطا ختم ٿيڻ جي صورت ۾ به ڪم جاري رکي سگهن ٿا. ننڍڙا وائرليس ڊوائيس، جن کي [[موٽ (سينسر)|موٽ]] چيو ويندو آهي، نيٽ ورڪ سان ڳنڍيل وائرليس سينسر هوندا آهن. [[وائرليس سينسر نيٽ ورڪ]] جديد [[مربوط سرڪٽ]] (IC) ڊزائن ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ ننڍڙي سائيز جي ٽيڪنالاجي استعمال ڪري مڪمل وائرليس ذيلي نظامن کي ترقي يافته سينسرن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي، جنهن سان ماڻهو ۽ ادارا حقيقي دنيا ۾ بيشمار شين جي ماپ ڪري سگهن ٿا ۽ انهن معلوماتن کي نگراني ۽ ڪنٽرول نظامن ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي موٽ مڪمل طور خودمختيار هوندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي بيٽرين تي ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين هلندا آهن، ان کان اڳ جو بيٽري تبديل يا ٻيهر چارج ڪرڻ جي ضرورت پوي. == خاصيتون == ايمبيڊڊ نظام خاص مقصد وارا ڪم سرانجام ڏيڻ لاءِ ٺاهيا ويندا آهن، جڏهن⁠ته عام مقصد وارا ڪمپيوٽر ڪيترن ئي مختلف ڪمن لاءِ تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجهه ايمبيڊڊ نظامن تي [[حقيقي وقت ڪمپيوٽنگ|حقيقي وقت]] (Real-time) جون ڪارڪردگي گهرجون لاڳو هونديون آهن، جيئن حفاظت ۽ استعمال جي سهولت کي يقيني بڻائي سگهجي؛ جڏهن⁠ته ٻين ۾ ڪارڪردگي جون گهرجون تمام گهٽ يا نه هجڻ برابر هونديون آهن، جنهن سبب نظام جي هارڊويئر کي سادو بڻائي قيمت گهٽائي سگهجي ٿي. ايمبيڊڊ نظام هميشه الڳ ڊوائيس نه هوندا آهن. ڪيترائي ايمبيڊڊ نظام ڪنهن وڏي ڊوائيس جو ننڍڙو حصو هوندا آهن، جيڪو وڌيڪ عام مقصد سرانجام ڏيندو آهي. مثال طور [[گبسن روبوٽ گٽار]] ۾ تارن کي پاڻمرادو ٺيڪ سُر ۾ آڻڻ لاءِ هڪ ايمبيڊڊ نظام موجود هوندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته سڄي گٽار جو بنيادي مقصد موسيقي وڄائڻ هوندو آهي.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.embedded.com/underthehood/207401418 |title=Under the Hood: Robot Guitar embeds autotuning |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708195311/http://embedded.com/underthehood/207401418 |archive-date=2008-07-08 |author=David Carey |date=2008-04-22 |magazine=Embedded Systems Design}}</ref> اهڙيءَ طرح [[گاڏي]] ۾ موجود ايمبيڊڊ نظام، گاڏي جي هڪ ذيلي نظام (Subsystem) طور مخصوص ڪم سرانجام ڏيندو آهي. [[File:ESOM270 eSOM300 Computer on Modules.jpg|thumb|e-con Systems جا eSOM270 ۽ eSOM300 ڪمپيوٽر ماڊيول]] ايمبيڊڊ نظامن لاءِ لکيل پروگرام هدايتن کي [[فرم ويئر]] چيو ويندو آهي. اهي عام طور صرف پڙهڻ واري يادگيري (ROM) يا [[فليش يادگيري]] جي چِپن ۾ محفوظ ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي محدود ڪمپيوٽري وسيلن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ گهٽ يادگيري، ننڍڙي يا بلڪل نه هجڻ برابر ڪيبورڊ يا اسڪرين. === استعمال ڪندڙ جو رابطو === [[File:MicroVGA TUI demoapp.jpg|thumb|MicroVGA استعمال ڪندڙ ايمبيڊڊ نظام جو [[متني استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو]]<ref group="nb" name="MicroVGA">For more details of MicroVGA see this [http://www.microvga.com/pdf/uvga-text-ds.pdf PDF].</ref>]] ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ استعمال ڪندڙ سان رابطي جا طريقا بلڪل مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. ڪي نظام اهڙا هوندا آهن، جن ۾ [[بغير استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو وارو ڪمپيوٽر|ڪو به استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو]] نه هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي صرف هڪ ئي ڪم لاءِ مخصوص هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠ته ڪجهه نظام جديد ڪمپيوٽرن جهڙا پيچيده [[گرافيائي استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو]] (GUI) رکن ٿا. سادا ايمبيڊڊ ڊوائيس [[بٽڻ]]، [[روشني خارج ڪندڙ ڊائيوڊ]] (LED)، گرافيائي يا حرفي [[مائع قلمو نمايشگر]] (LCD) ۽ سادي [[مينيو (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|مينيو]] تي ٻڌل نظام استعمال ڪندا آهن. وڌيڪ ترقي يافته ڊوائيس، جيڪي گرافيائي اسڪرين، [[ڇهاءُ حساس اسڪرين]] يا اسڪرين جي ڪنارن تي موجود [[سافٽ ڪي]] استعمال ڪندا آهن، گهٽ جڳهه والاريندي وڌيڪ لچڪ فراهم ڪندا آهن. اهڙين حالتن ۾ بٽڻن جو مطلب اسڪرين تي ڏيکاريل مواد مطابق تبديل ٿيندو رهي ٿو، ۽ استعمال ڪندڙ رڳو گهربل شئي تي ڇهڻ سان چونڊ ڪري سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه نظام [[سيريل رابطي]] (جهڙوڪ [[آر ايس-232]]) يا نيٽ ورڪ (جهڙوڪ [[ايٿرنيٽ]]) ذريعي پري کان استعمال ڪندڙ سان رابطو فراهم ڪندا آهن. اهڙي طريقي سان ايمبيڊڊ نظام جون صلاحيتون وڌن ٿيون، الڳ ڊسپلي جي ضرورت ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي، [[بورڊ سپورٽ پيڪيج]] (BSP) سادو بڻجي وڃي ٿو، ۽ ڊزائنر ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر تي وڌيڪ ترقي يافته استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو تيار ڪري سگهن ٿا. ان جو سٺو مثال ڪنهن [[آئي پي ڪيمرا]] يا [[نيٽ ورڪ رائوٽر]] ۾ هلندڙ [[ايمبيڊڊ ايڇ ٽي ٽي پي سرور]] آهي، جنهن جو استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو ڊوائيس سان ڳنڍيل ڪمپيوٽر جي [[ويب برائوزر]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيندو آهي. === ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ پروسيسر === عام مقصد وارن ڪمپيوٽرن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ايمبيڊڊ ڪمپيوٽرن جون خاصيتون گهٽ بجلي واپرائڻ، ننڍڙي جسامت، سخت ماحول ۾ ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت ۽ في يونٽ گهٽ قيمت هونديون آهن. البت ان جي بدلي ۾ انهن وٽ پروسيسنگ جا وسيلا محدود هوندا آهن. ايمبيڊڊ نظامن لاءِ خاص طور تي [[عام مائڪرو ڪنٽرولرن جي فهرست|بيشمار مائڪرو ڪنٽرولر]] تيار ڪيا ويا آهن. عام مقصد وارا مائڪرو پروسيسر به ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، پر انهن کي عام طور مائڪرو ڪنٽرولرن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ مددگار سرڪٽري جي ضرورت هوندي آهي. ==== تيار ٿيل ڪمپيوٽر بورڊ ==== [[PC/104]] ۽ PC/104+ ننڍن، گهٽ مقدار ۾ تيار ٿيندڙ ۽ سخت ماحول ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ ايمبيڊڊ نظامن لاءِ تيار ڪيل ڪمپيوٽر بورڊن جا معياري مثال آهن. اهي گهڻو ڪري x86 بنياد وارا هوندا آهن ۽ روايتي ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جسامت ۾ ننڍا، پر گهڻن سادن (8/16-bit) ايمبيڊڊ نظامن کان وڏا هوندا آهن. انهن ۾ [[لينڪس]] يا [[نيٽ بي ايس ڊي]] جهڙا معياري آپريٽنگ نظام، يا [[مائڪرو سي/او ايس-II]]، [[ڪيو اين ايڪس]] ۽ [[وي ايڪس ورڪس]] جهڙا ايمبيڊڊ [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] (RTOS) استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه استعمالن ۾، جتي ننڍڙي جسامت يا توانائي جي بچت بنيادي ضرورت نه هجي، اتي اهڙا جزا استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي عام مقصد وارن x86 ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن سان هم آهنگ هوندا آهن. VIA جي [[اي پي آءِ اي]] جهڙا بورڊ ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن سان مطابقت رکندي به وڌيڪ مربوط، ننڍي جسامت وارا يا ٻين خاصيتن سبب ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جي انجنيئرن لاءِ پرڪشش هوندا آهن. هن طريقي جو فائدو اهو آهي ته گهٽ قيمت وارا معياري جزا ۽ اهي ئي سافٽويئر ترقياتي اوزار استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي عام ڪمپيوٽر سافٽويئر جي ترقي ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. اهڙي طريقي سان تيار ڪيل نظام اڃا به ايمبيڊڊ نظام سڏبا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ڪنهن وڏي ڊوائيس جو حصو هوندا آهن ۽ هڪ مخصوص ڪم سرانجام ڏيندا آهن. هن طريقي جا مثال [[خودڪار ٽيلر مشين]] (ATM) ۽ [[آرڪيڊ مشين]]ون آهن، جن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪوڊ مخصوص مقصد لاءِ لکيل هوندو آهي. پر گهڻا تيار ٿيل ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جا بورڊ ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن تي ٻڌل نه هوندا آهن ۽ نه ئي [[انڊسٽري اسٽينڊرڊ آرڪيٽيڪچر]] (ISA) يا [[پيريفيرل ڪمپوننٽ انٽرڪنيڪٽ]] (PCI) بس استعمال ڪندا آهن. جڏهن [[سسٽم آن اي چپ]] (SoC) پروسيسر استعمال ٿيندو آهي، تڏهن الڳ جزن کي ڳنڍڻ لاءِ معياري بس رکڻ جو فائدو تمام گهٽ هوندو آهي، ۽ هارڊويئر توڙي سافٽويئر اوزارن جو ماحول به بلڪل مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو. هڪ عام ڊزائن انداز ۾ ننڍڙو نظامي ماڊيول استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ڪاروباري ڪارڊ جيتري جسامت جو به ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان ۾ اعليٰ ڪثافت وارا [[بال گرڊ ايري]] (BGA) چِپ، جهڙوڪ [[آرم آرڪيٽيڪچر]] تي ٻڌل [[سسٽم آن اي چپ]] پروسيسر ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل پيريفيرلز، ذخيري لاءِ ٻاهرين [[فليش يادگيري]] ۽ هلندڙ يادگيري لاءِ [[ڊائنامڪ رينڊم ايڪسيس ميموري]] (DRAM) شامل هوندي آهي. ماڊيول ٺاهيندڙ عام طور شروعاتي (Boot) سافٽويئر مهيا ڪندو آهي ۽ مختلف آپريٽنگ نظامن جي سهولت پڻ ڏيندو آهي، جن ۾ عام طور [[لينڪس]] ۽ ڪجهه [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] (RTOS) شامل هوندا آهن. اهڙا ماڊيول وڏي مقدار ۾ تيار ڪري سگهجن ٿا ۽ پوءِ گهٽ مقدار ۾ تيار ٿيندڙ خاص مقصد وارن مين بورڊن سان، جن تي مخصوص پيريفيرلز لڳل هوندا آهن، گڏ ڪيا ويندا آهن. هن طريقي جا نمايان مثال [[آرڊوينو]] ۽ [[راسبيري پائي]] آهن. ==== ASIC ۽ FPGA تي ٻڌل SoC حل ==== [[سسٽم آن اي چپ]] (SoC) هڪ اهڙي چِپ آهي، جنهن ۾ مڪمل نظام شامل هوندو آهي. ان ۾ ڪيترائي پروسيسر، ملٽي پلائر، ڪيش، مختلف قسمن جون يادگيريون ۽ گهڻو ڪري تار وارن يا وائرليس رابطن لاءِ مختلف انٽرفيس پڻ شامل هوندا آهن. اهڙين چِپن ۾ اڪثر [[گرافيڪس پروسيسنگ يونٽ]] (GPU) ۽ [[ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسر]] (DSP) پڻ موجود هوندا آهن. SoC کي يا ته [[ايپليڪيشن مخصوص مربوط سرڪٽ]] (ASIC) جي صورت ۾ يا [[فيلڊ-پروگرامبل گيٽ ايري]] (FPGA) ذريعي تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي عام طور ٻيهر ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. ASIC تي ٻڌل عملدرآمد وڏي مقدار ۾ تيار ٿيندڙ ايمبيڊڊ نظامن، جهڙوڪ [[موبائل فون]] ۽ [[سمارٽ فون]]، ۾ عام آهي. جڏهن⁠ته ASIC يا FPGA تي ٻڌل عملدرآمد اهڙن ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جتي سگنل پروسيسنگ، انٽرفيس يا اعتبار جي لحاظ کان خاص گهرجون هجن، جيئن [[ايويونڪس]] ۾. === پيريفيرلز === [[File:SMSC LAN91C110 ethernet chip.jpg|thumb|SMSC LAN91C110 (SMSC 91x) ايمبيڊڊ [[ايٿرنيٽ]] چِپ]] ايمبيڊڊ نظام ٻاهرين دنيا سان [[پيريفيرل]]ن ذريعي رابطو ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ: * [[سيريل رابطي جو انٽرفيس]] (SCI): [[آر ايس-232]]، [[آر ايس-422]]، [[آر ايس-485]] وغيره. * [[هم وقتي سيريل انٽرفيس]]: [[I2C]]، [[سيريل پيريفيرل انٽرفيس]] (SPI)، SSC ۽ ESSI. * [[يونيورسل سيريل بس]] (USB) * ميديا ڪارڊ ([[ايس ڊي ڪارڊ]]، [[ڪامپيڪٽ فليش]] وغيره) * [[نيٽ ورڪ انٽرفيس ڪنٽرولر]]: [[ايٿرنيٽ]]، [[وائي فائي]] وغيره. * [[فيلڊ بس]]: [[ڪين بس]] CAN، [[مقامي انٽرڪنيڪٽ نيٽ ورڪ|LIN بس]]، [[پروفي بس]] وغيره. * ٽائمر: [[فيز لاڪڊ لوپ]]، [[پروگرامبل انٽرول ٽائمر]] * [[عام مقصد ان پُٽ/آئوٽ پُٽ]] (GPIO) * [[اينالاگ کان ڊجيٽل ڪنورٽر]] ۽ [[ڊجيٽل کان اينالاگ ڪنورٽر]] * ڊيبگنگ: [[جي ٽيگ]] (JTAG)، [[اِن-سسٽم پروگرامنگ]]، بيڪگرائونڊ ڊيبگ موڊ انٽرفيس پورٽ، BITP ۽ DB9 پورٽ. === اوزار === ٻين سافٽويئرن وانگر، ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جا ڊزائنر به [[ڪمپائلر]]، [[اسمبلر (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|اسمبلر]] ۽ [[ڊيبگر]] استعمال ڪندا آهن، پر ان سان گڏ هيٺيان خاص اوزار پڻ استعمال ڪري سگهن ٿا: * اِن-سرڪٽ ڊيبگر يا ايميوليٽر (ڏسو [[#ڊيبگنگ]]). * اهڙا اوزار، جيڪي پروگرام ۾ چيڪ سم يا [[سائيڪلنڪ ريڊنڊنسي چيڪ]] (CRC) شامل ڪن، جيئن ايمبيڊڊ نظام پروگرام جي درست هجڻ جي تصديق ڪري سگهي. * [[ڊجيٽل سگنل پروسيسنگ]] استعمال ڪندڙ نظامن لاءِ [[حسابي نوٽ بڪ]]، جنهن ذريعي رياضيائي نمونن جي نقل (Simulation) ڪئي وڃي. * نظامي سطح جا ماڊلنگ ۽ سموليشن اوزار، جيڪي پروسيسر، [[يادگيري]]، [[سڌي يادگيري رسائي]] (DMA)، [[انٽرفيس (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|انٽرفيس]]، بس ۽ سافٽويئر جي وهڪري جا ماڊل تيار ڪن. انهن ذريعي توانائي، ڪارڪردگي، اعتبار ۽ رڪاوٽن جو جائزو وٺي مناسب جزا چونڊيا ويندا آهن. * ماڊل تي ٻڌل ترقياتي اوزار، جيڪي گرافيائي ڊيٽا فلو ۽ UML اسٽيٽ چارٽ جي صورت ۾ جزن، جهڙوڪ ڊجيٽل فلٽر، موٽر ڪنٽرولر، رابطي جي پروٽوڪول ۽ گهڻ-رفتاري وارن ڪمن جا ماڊل تيار ۽ نقل ڪن. * خاص هارڊويئر لاءِ بهتر ڪيل [[ڪمپائلر]] ۽ لنڪر. * ايمبيڊڊ نظام لاءِ پنهنجون خاص پروگرامنگ ٻوليون يا اوزار، يا موجوده ٻولين جهڙوڪ [[فورٿ (پروگرامنگ ٻولي)|فورٿ]] يا [[بيسڪ اسٽيمپ]] جون واڌايون. * يا وري [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] (RTOS) يا [[ايمبيڊڊ آپريٽنگ نظام]] جو استعمال. * [[يو ايم ايل اوزار]]، جيڪي گهڻو ڪري [[يو ايم ايل اسٽيٽ مشين]]ن تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. اهي سافٽويئر اوزار مختلف ذريعن کان حاصل ٿي سگهن ٿا: * ايمبيڊڊ مارڪيٽ ۾ ماهر سافٽويئر ڪمپنيون. * [[GNU]] جا پورٽ ڪيل ترقياتي اوزار. * يا جيڪڏهن ايمبيڊڊ پروسيسر عام ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر جي پروسيسر سان ويجهو لاڳاپيل هجي، ته ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر جا ترقياتي اوزار پڻ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ايمبيڊڊ سافٽويئر جي ترقي لاءِ عام طور ڪيترن ئي اوزارن جي ضرورت هوندي آهي، جن ۾ [[سي++]]، [[رسٽ (پروگرامنگ ٻولي)|رسٽ]] ۽ [[پائٿن (پروگرامنگ ٻولي)|پائٿن]] جهڙيون پروگرامنگ ٻوليون، ۽ گرافيائي استعمال ڪندڙ رابطو ٺاهڻ لاءِ [[ڪيو ٽي]] جهڙا فريم ورڪ شامل آهن. اهي اوزار ڊولپرن کي اهڙيون مؤثر، توسيع لائق ۽ خصوصيتن سان ڀرپور ايپليڪيشنون تيار ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڏين ٿا، جيڪي ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جي مخصوص گهرجن کي پورو ڪن. اوزارن جي چونڊ عام طور حقيقي وقت واري ڪارڪردگي، هارڊويئر سان هم آهنگي ۽ توانائي جي بچت جهڙن عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي. جيئن⁠جيئن ايمبيڊڊ نظام وڌيڪ پيچيده ٿيندا پيا وڃن، تيئن اعليٰ درجي جا اوزار ۽ آپريٽنگ نظام به انهن ۾ شامل ٿيندا پيا وڃن. مثال طور [[موبائل فون]]، [[ذاتي ڊجيٽل مددگار]] (PDA) ۽ ٻيا صارف ڪمپيوٽر اڪثر اهڙي اهم سافٽويئر جا محتاج هوندا آهن، جيڪو اليڪٽرانڪس ٺاهيندڙ بدران ڪنهن ٽئين ڌر طرفان تيار يا مهيا ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهڙن نظامن ۾ [[لينڪس]]، [[نيٽ بي ايس ڊي]]، [[فري بي ايس ڊي]]، [[او ايس جي آئي]] يا [[ايمبيڊڊ جاوا]] جهڙو کليل پروگرامنگ ماحول ضروري هوندو آهي، جيئن ٽئين ڌر جا سافٽويئر تيار ڪندڙ وڏي مارڪيٽ تائين پنهنجيون ايپليڪيشنون پهچائي سگهن. == ڊيبگنگ == ايمبيڊڊ [[ڊيبگنگ]] موجود سهولتن جي لحاظ کان مختلف سطحن تي انجام ڏئي سگهجي ٿي. ان دوران ڪيترن ئي ڳالهين تي غور ڪيو ويندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: ڇا ڊيبگنگ بنيادي ايپليڪيشن جي رفتار گهٽائي ٿي؟ ڇا ڊيبگ ٿيندڙ نظام يا ايپليڪيشن اصل نظام جي ڪيتري ويجهو آهي؟ ڊيبگنگ لاءِ مقرر ڪيل ٽرگر ڪيترا تفصيلي آهن (مثال طور، جڏهن [[پروگرام ڪائونٽر]] ڪنهن خاص قدر تي پهچي ته يادگيري جو جائزو وٺڻ)، ۽ ڊيبگنگ دوران ڪهڙين شين جو معائنو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جهڙوڪ رڳو يادگيري يا يادگيري سان گڏ رجسٽر وغيره. سادن کان وٺي وڌيڪ ترقي يافته طريقن تائين، ڊيبگنگ جون ٽيڪنيڪون ۽ نظام تقريباً هيٺين قسمن ۾ ورهايا وڃن ٿا: * ايمبيڊڊ آپريٽنگ نظام پاران مهيا ڪيل سادي شيل (Shell) استعمال ڪندي رابطي واري رهائشي ڊيبگنگ، جهڙوڪ [[فورٿ (پروگرامنگ ٻولي)|فورٿ]] ۽ بيسڪ. * صرف سافٽويئر تي ٻڌل ڊيبگر، جن جو فائدو اهو آهي ته انهن لاءِ هارڊويئر ۾ ڪا تبديلي ڪرڻي نه پوندي آهي، پر وقت ۽ اسٽوريج بچائڻ لاءِ انهن کي احتياط سان طئي ڪرڻو پوندو آهي ته ڪهڙي معلومات محفوظ ڪئي وڃي.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tancreti |first1=Matthew |last2=Sundaram |first2=Vinaitheerthan |last3=Bagchi |first3=Saurabh |last4=Eugster |first4=Patrick |title=Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks |chapter=TARDIS |date=2015 |series=IPSN '15 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=ACM |pages=286–297 |doi=10.1145/2737095.2737096 |isbn=9781450334754 |s2cid=10120929}}</ref> * لاگنگ يا سيريل پورٽ جي آئوٽ پُٽ ذريعي ٻاهرين ڊيبگنگ، جنهن ۾ فليش ۾ موجود مانيٽر يا [[ريميڊي ڊيبگر]] جهڙو ڊيبگ سرور استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو مختلف قسمن جي [[گهڻ-مرڪزي پروسيسنگ|گهڻ-ڪور]] نظامن سان پڻ ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. * [[اِن-سرڪٽ ڊيبگر]] (ICD)، جيڪو هڪ هارڊويئر اوزار هوندو آهي ۽ [[جي ٽيگ]] يا [[نيڪسس (معيار)|نيڪسس]] انٽرفيس ذريعي مائڪرو پروسيسر سان ڳنڍبو آهي.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tancreti|first1=Matthew|last2=Hossain|first2=Mohammad Sajjad|last3=Bagchi|first3=Saurabh|last4=Raghunathan|first4=Vijay|title=Proceedings of the 9th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems |chapter=Aveksha |date=2011|series=SenSys '11|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=288–301|doi=10.1145/2070942.2070972|isbn=9781450307185|s2cid=14769602}}</ref> ان سان مائڪرو پروسيسر جي عمل کي ٻاهران ڪنٽرول ڪري سگهجي ٿو، پر عام طور اهو پروسيسر جي مخصوص ڊيبگنگ صلاحيتن تائين محدود هوندو آهي. * [[اِن-سرڪٽ ايميوليٽر]] (ICE)، جيڪو اصل مائڪرو پروسيسر جي جاءِ تي ان جو نقل رکندو آهي ۽ مائڪرو پروسيسر جي سڀني حصن تي مڪمل ڪنٽرول فراهم ڪندو آهي. * مڪمل [[ايميوليٽر]]، جيڪو هارڊويئر جي هر پهلوءَ جي نقل فراهم ڪندو آهي، جنهن سان هر شيءِ کي ڪنٽرول ۽ تبديل ڪري سگهجي ٿو ۽ عام ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر تي ڊيبگنگ به ممڪن ٿيندي آهي. البت ان جون خاميون وڌيڪ قيمت ۽ گهٽ رفتار آهن، جيڪا ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصل نظام جي ڀيٽ ۾ سئو ڀيرا به گهٽ ٿي سگهي ٿي. * SoC ڊزائنن لاءِ عام طريقيڪار اهو آهي ته ڊزائن کي [[فيلڊ-پروگرامبل گيٽ ايري]] (FPGA) جي نمونياتي بورڊ تي جانچيو ۽ ڊيبگ ڪيو وڃي. Certus جهڙا اوزار<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eejournal.com/archives/articles/20121030-tektronix/ |author-first1=Kevin|author-last1=Morris|title=Tektronix Shakes Up Prototyping, Embedded Instrumentation Boosts Boards to Emulator Status |publisher=Electronic Engineering Journal |date= 2012-10-30 |access-date=2012-10-30}}</ref> FPGA ۾ جاچ لاءِ پروب شامل ڪندا آهن، جن ذريعي سگنلن جو مشاهدو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان سان ڪيترن ئي FPGA تي ٻڌل عملدرآمد ۾ هارڊويئر، فرم ويئر ۽ سافٽويئر جي گڏيل عمل کي، لاجڪ اينالائيزر جهڙين صلاحيتن سان، ڊيبگ ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ڊيبگنگ صرف ٻاهرين اوزارن تائين محدود نه هجي، ته پروگرامر عام طور اوزارن جي مدد سان سافٽويئر لوڊ ۽ هلائي سگهي ٿو، پروسيسر ۾ هلندڙ ڪوڊ ڏسي سگهي ٿو ۽ ان جي عمل کي شروع يا بند ڪري سگهي ٿو. ڪوڊ جو ڏيک [[اعليٰ سطحي پروگرامنگ ٻولي]]، [[اسمبلي ٻولي]] يا ٻنهي جي گڏيل صورت ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿو. === ٽريسنگ === [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] اڪثر [[ٽريسنگ (سافٽويئر)|ٽريسنگ]] جي سهولت فراهم ڪندا آهن، جنهن ذريعي آپريٽنگ نظام جي واقعن کي رڪارڊ ڪيو ويندو آهي. نظام جي رويي جي رڪارڊ جي بنياد تي ميزبان ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر جو اوزار ان جو گرافيائي ڏيک پيش ڪندو آهي. ٽريس رڪارڊنگ سافٽويئر، RTOS يا خاص ٽريسنگ هارڊويئر ذريعي ڪري سگهجي ٿي. RTOS ٽريسنگ ڊولپرن کي سافٽويئر نظام جي وقتبندي ۽ ڪارڪردگي سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن کي سمجهڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿي ۽ نظام جي اعليٰ سطحي رويي جي به سٺي ڄاڻ فراهم ڪري ٿي. ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ ٽريس رڪارڊنگ هارڊويئر يا سافٽويئر ٻنهي طريقن سان ممڪن آهي. سافٽويئر تي ٻڌل ٽريسنگ لاءِ خاص ڊيبگنگ هارڊويئر جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي ۽ ان کي اڳ ئي استعمال هيٺ موجود ڊوائيسن ۾ به استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو، پر ان جو اثر CPU ۽ RAM جي استعمال تي پئجي سگهي ٿو.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kraft |first1=Johan |chapter=Trace Recording for Embedded Systems: Lessons Learned from Five Industrial Projects |date=2010 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-16612-9_24 |title=Runtime Verification |volume=6418 |pages=315–329 |editor-last=Barringer |editor-first=Howard |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-16612-9_24 |isbn=978-3-642-16611-2 |access-date=2022-08-16 |last2=Wall |first2=Anders |last3=Kienle |first3=Holger |editor2-last=Falcone |editor2-first=Ylies |editor3-last=Finkbeiner |editor3-first=Bernd |editor4-last=Havelund |editor4-first=Klaus|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> RTOS ماحول ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ اهڙي سافٽويئر ٽريسنگ جو هڪ مثال خالي [[ميڪرو (ڪمپيوٽر سائنس)|ميڪرو]] آهن، جيڪي آپريٽنگ نظام طرفان ڪوڊ جي اهم هنڌن تي سڏيا ويندا آهن ۽ [[هوڪنگ]] لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا. === ڀروسي جوڳائپ === ايمبيڊڊ نظام اڪثر اهڙين مشينن ۾ نصب هوندا آهن، جن کان اميد ڪئي ويندي آهي ته اهي سالن تائين بنا ڪنهن غلطي جي لڳاتار ڪم ڪندا رهندا، ۽ ڪجهه حالتن ۾ جيڪڏهن ڪا خرابي پيدا ٿئي ته پاڻ ئي بحال به ٿي وڃن. انهيءَ سبب انهن جو سافٽويئر عام ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن جي سافٽويئر جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهڻو وڌيڪ احتياط سان تيار ۽ آزمائيو ويندو آهي، ۽ غير قابلِ اعتماد مشيني حرڪت وارا حصا، جهڙوڪ ڊسڪ ڊرائيو، سوئچ يا بٽڻ، عام طور استعمال کان پاسو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڀروسي جوڳائپ سان لاڳاپيل مخصوص مسئلن ۾ هيٺيان شامل آهن: * نظام کي مرمت لاءِ محفوظ نموني بند نٿو ڪري سگهجي، يا اهو مرمت لاءِ تمام گهڻو ڏورانهين هنڌ تي هوندو آهي. مثالن ۾ خلائي نظام، سمنڊ هيٺان ڪيبلون، سامونڊي رهنمائي جا بتي گهر، بور هول نظام ۽ گاڏيون شامل آهن. * حفاظتي سببن جي ڪري نظام جو هلندڙ رهڻ لازمي هوندو آهي. اهڙين حالتن ۾ خرابي دوران محدود ڪارڪردگي به ناقابلِ قبول ٿي سگهي ٿي. گهڻو ڪري بيڪ اپ نظام آپريٽر جي چونڊ سان استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثالن ۾ جهازن جا نيويگيشن نظام، ري ايڪٽر ڪنٽرول نظام، حفاظتي لحاظ کان اهم ڪيميائي ڪارخانن جا ڪنٽرول، ريلوي سگنل وغيره شامل آهن. * جيڪڏهن نظام بند ٿي وڃي ته وڏي مالي نقصان جو انديشو هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ٽيليفون ايڪسچينج، ڪارخانن جا ڪنٽرول، پلن ۽ لفٽن جا ڪنٽرول، رقم جي منتقلي ۽ مارڪيٽ ميڪنگ جا نظام، خودڪار وڪرو ۽ خدمتي نظام. سافٽويئر جي خرابين، جهڙوڪ [[ميموري ليڪ]]، ۽ هارڊويئر ۾ ٿيندڙ [[عارضي هارڊويئر غلطي|عارضي غلطي]]ن مان بحالي لاءِ مختلف طريقا، ڪڏهن گڏيل طور، استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن، جن ۾ شامل آهن: * [[واچ ڊاگ ٽائمر]]، جيڪو ان صورت ۾ نظام کي ٻيهر شروع ڪري ڇڏيندو آهي جيڪڏهن سافٽويئر مقرر وقفي سان واچ ڊاگ ذيلي نظام کي اطلاع نه ڏئي. * [[قابلِ اعتماد ڪمپيوٽنگ بنياد]] (TCB) تي ٻڌل جوڙجڪ سان ڊزائن، جيڪا انتهائي محفوظ ۽ ڀروسي جوڳو نظامي ماحول مهيا ڪري ٿي.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://c59951.r51.cf2.rackcdn.com/5557-528-heiser.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129070740/http://c59951.r51.cf2.rackcdn.com/5557-528-heiser.pdf |archive-date=2014-11-29 |url-status=live |title=Your System is secure? Prove it! |first1=Gernot |last1=Heiser |date=December 2007 |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=35–8 |journal=[[;login:]]}}</ref> * ايمبيڊڊ نظامن لاءِ تيار ڪيل [[هائپروائيزر]]، جيڪو هر ذيلي نظام کي محفوظ الڳ ماحول مهيا ڪندو آهي، جنهن سان جيڪڏهن ڪو سافٽويئر جزو متاثر به ٿي وڃي ته اهو ٻين ذيلي نظامن يا اعليٰ اختيار رکندڙ نظامي سافٽويئر ۾ مداخلت نٿو ڪري سگهي.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moratelli|first1=C|last2=Johann|first2=S|last3=Neves|first3=M|last4=Hessel|first4=F|title=Proceedings of the 27th International Symposium on Rapid System Prototyping: Shortening the Path from Specification to Prototype|chapter=Embedded virtualization for the design of secure IoT applications|pages=2–6|date=2016|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7909116|access-date=2 February 2018|doi=10.1145/2990299.2990301|isbn=9781450345354|s2cid=17466572}}</ref> اهڙي الڳ رکڻ سان هڪ ذيلي نظام جي خرابي ٻئي تائين منتقل نه ٿيندي آهي، جنهن سان ڀروسي جوڳائپ بهتر ٿيندي آهي. ان سان اهو به ممڪن ٿيندو آهي ته خرابي معلوم ٿيڻ تي ذيلي نظام کي پاڻمرادو بند ڪري ٻيهر شروع ڪيو وڃي. * غلطيءَ کان بچاءَ بابت آگاهي واري پروگرامنگ (Immunity-aware programming)، جيڪا انجنيئرن کي وڌيڪ ڀروسي جوڳو ايمبيڊڊ ڪوڊ تيار ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿي.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Short|first=Michael|title=2008 IEEE/ACS International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications |chapter=Development guidelines for dependable real-time embedded systems |date=March 2008|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4493674|pages=1032–1039|doi=10.1109/AICCSA.2008.4493674|isbn=978-1-4244-1967-8|s2cid=14163138|url=https://figshare.com/articles/conference_contribution/Development_Guidelines_for_Dependable_Real-Time_Embedded_Systems_/10083272 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Motor Industry Software Reliability Association|title=MISRA C:2012 Third Edition, First Revision|url=https://www.misra.org.uk/product/misra-c2012-third-edition-first-revision/|access-date=2022-02-03|language=en-GB}}</ref> [[MISRA C]] ۽ C++ جهڙيون هدايتون ۽ ڪوڊنگ ضابطا ڊولپرن جي مدد ڪن ٿا ته جيئن هو اهڙين ڪوڊنگ طريقن کان پاسو ڪن جيڪي هلندڙ وقت غلطيون پيدا ڪري سگهن، جهڙوڪ ميموري ليڪ، غلط پوائنٽرن جو استعمال، رن ٽائيم جاچ، استثنا سنڀال، حدن ۽ منطقي درستگي جون جاچون، صفر سان ورهاست کان بچاءُ، بفر انڊيڪس جي تصديق، لوپن جون حدون مقرر ڪرڻ، پڙهڻ ۾ آسان ۽ چڱيءَ طرح تبصرا ڪيل ڪوڊ لکڻ، ۽ پروگرامنگ ٻولي جي اهڙين ابهامن کان پاسو ڪرڻ جيڪي ڪمپائلر جي مختلف رويي يا ضمني اثرن جو سبب بڻجي سگهن. اهي ضابطا گهڻو ڪري [[جامد ڪوڊ جاچيندڙ]] يا محدود [[ماڊل جاچ]] سان گڏ فنڪشنل تصديق لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ۽ ڪوڊ جي [[بدترين عملدرآمد وقت]] جي تعين ۾ پڻ مدد ڏيندا آهن.<ref name=":1"/> === وڏي پيماني تي پيداوار بمقابله گهٽ پيماني تي پيداوار === وڏي پيماني تي تيار ٿيندڙ نظامن، جهڙوڪ [[موبائل فون]]ن، ۾ عام طور قيمت کي گهٽ کان گهٽ رکڻ ڊزائن جو بنيادي مقصد هوندو آهي. انجنيئر اڪثر اهڙو هارڊويئر چونڊيندا آهن، جيڪو صرف گهربل ڪم سرانجام ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪافي هجي. گهٽ پيماني تي تيار ٿيندڙ يا نمونياتي ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ عام مقصد وارا ڪمپيوٽر به استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا، جتي غير ضروري پروگرامن کي محدود ڪيو ويندو آهي يا آپريٽنگ نظام جي جاءِ تي [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] (RTOS) نصب ڪيو ويندو آهي. == ايمبيڊڊ سافٽويئر جون ساختون == {{Main|ايمبيڊڊ سافٽويئر}} 1978ع ۾ [[نيشنل اليڪٽريڪل مينيوفيڪچررز ايسوسيئيشن]]، ICS 3-1978 نالي هڪ معيار جاري ڪيو، جيڪو پروگرام لائق مائڪرو ڪنٽرولرن لاءِ تيار ڪيو ويو هو.<ref>{{cite web |title=FAQs: Programmable Controllers |url=https://www.nema.org/docs/default-source/standards-document-library/faq-programmable-controllers.pdf?sfvrsn=a03312d_2 |access-date=2020-01-10}}</ref> هن معيار ۾ تقريباً سڀئي ڪمپيوٽر تي ٻڌل ڪنٽرولر شامل هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سنگل بورڊ ڪمپيوٽر]]، عددي ڪنٽرولر ۽ واقعن تي ٻڌل ڪنٽرولر. ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ سافٽويئر جون ڪيتريون ئي مختلف ساختون عام استعمال ۾ آهن. === سادي ڪنٽرول لوپ === هن ڊزائن ۾ سافٽويئر رڳو هڪ [[لوپ (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|لوپ]] تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪو ان پُٽ ڊوائيسن جي مسلسل نگراني ڪندو رهي ٿو. هي لوپ [[ذيلي معمول|ذيلي معمولن]] (Subroutines) کي سڏيندو آهي، جن مان هر هڪ هارڊويئر يا سافٽويئر جي ڪنهن مخصوص حصي کي سنڀاليندو آهي. انهيءَ ڪري هن کي ''سادي ڪنٽرول لوپ'' يا ''پروگرام ڪيل ان پُٽ-آئوٽ پُٽ'' چيو ويندو آهي. === وقفي (انٽرپٽ) ذريعي ڪنٽرول ٿيندڙ نظام === ڪجهه ايمبيڊڊ نظام بنيادي طور [[وقفو (ڪمپيوٽنگ)|وقفن]] (انٽرپٽس) ذريعي هلندا آهن. ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته نظام جا ڪم مختلف قسمن جي واقعن جي نتيجي ۾ شروع ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، هڪ مقرر وقت تي ٽائمر طرفان يا سيريل پورٽ ڪنٽرولر وٽ ڊيٽا پهچڻ تي وقفو پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو. هيءَ ساخت انهن حالتن ۾ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جتي واقعن کي سنڀاليندڙ معمولن (ايوينٽ ھينڊلرس) کي تمام گهٽ دير سان جواب ڏيڻ ضروري هجي ۽ اهي مختصر ۽ سادا هجن. اهڙن نظامن ۾ بنيادي لوپ به هڪ سادو ڪم هلائيندي آهي، پر اهو غير متوقع دير کان گهڻو متاثر نه ٿيندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن وقفي وارو معمول ڊگهن ڪمن کي هڪ قطار ۾ شامل ڪندو آهي. پوءِ، وقفي وارو معمول مڪمل ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، اهي ڪم بنيادي لوپ ذريعي سرانجام ڏنا ويندا آهن. هي طريقو نظام کي الڳ عملن واري گهڻ-ڪاري ڪرنل جي ويجهو آڻي ڇڏيندو آهي. === گڏيل گهڻ-ڪاري (ڪوآپريٽو ملٽي ٽاسڪنگ) === [[گڏيل گهڻ-ڪاري]] سادي ڪنٽرول لوپ جهڙي هوندي آهي، پر ان ۾ لوپ هڪ [[اي پي آءِ]] (API) جي اندر لڪل هوندي آهي.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Barr-glossary" /> پروگرامر ڪيترائي ڪم (ٽاسڪس) بيان ڪندو آهي، ۽ هر ڪم کي هلڻ لاءِ پنهنجو الڳ ماحول ڏنو ويندو آهي. جڏهن ڪو ڪم فارغ ٿيندو آهي ته اهو هڪ آئڊل روٽين کي سڏيندو آهي، جيڪا ڪنٽرول ايندڙ ڪم ڏانهن منتقل ڪري ڇڏيندي آهي. هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان گهڻي ڀاڱي سادي ڪنٽرول لوپ جهڙا هوندا آهن، پر نئون سافٽويئر شامل ڪرڻ وڌيڪ آسان هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صرف نئون ڪم لکڻو يا موجوده قطار ۾ شامل ڪرڻو پوندو آهي. === اڳواٽ مداخلت واري گهڻ-ڪاري يا گهڻ-ڌاڳي (پريئيمپٽو ملٽي ٽاسڪنگ/ ملٽي ٿريڊنگ) === هن قسم جي نظام ۾ هيٺين سطح جو ڪوڊ، ٽائمر ذريعي پيدا ٿيندڙ وقفي جي بنياد تي مختلف ڪمن يا ٿريڊن جي وچ ۾ تبديلي آڻيندو آهي. عام طور تي اهو ئي اهو درجو هوندو آهي، جتي نظام کي آپريٽنگ سسٽم جو ڪرنل موجود سمجهيو ويندو آهي. گهربل ڪارڪردگي جي حساب سان، هي طريقو ڪيترن ئي هڪ ئي وقت هلندڙ ڪمن جي انتظام سان لاڳاپيل پيچيدگيون به آڻيندو آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنهن به وقت هلندڙ ڪوڊ ٻئي ڪم جي ڊيٽا کي نقصان پهچائي سگهي ٿو (سواءِ انهن نظامن جي، جيڪي [[ميموري مئنيجمينٽ يونٽ]] استعمال ڪن ٿا)، تنهن ڪري پروگرامن کي تمام احتياط سان تيار ۽ آزمائبو آهي. گڏيل ڊيٽا تائين رسائي کي [[پيغام قطار]]، [[سيميفور (پروگرامنگ)|سيميفور]] يا [[نان-بلاڪنگ هم وقت سازي]] جهڙن طريقن سان سنڀاليو ويندو آهي. انهن پيچيدگين جي ڪري گهڻيون تنظيمون تيار ٿيل [[حقيقي وقت آپريٽنگ نظام]] (RTOS) استعمال ڪرڻ کي ترجيح ڏينديون آهن، جيئن ايپليڪيشن پروگرامر آپريٽنگ سسٽم جي خدمتن بدران ڊوائيس جي اصل ڪارڪردگي تي ڌيان ڏئي سگهن. بهرحال، RTOS چونڊڻ جو فيصلو ايپليڪيشن جي ترقي شروع ٿيڻ کان اڳ ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ ڊولپرن کي موجوده ضرورتن جي بنياد تي آپريٽنگ سسٽم چونڊڻو پوندو آهي ۽ مستقبل ۾ اختيار محدود ٿي سگهن ٿا.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.clarinox.com/docs/whitepapers/Whitepaper_06_CrossPlatformDiscussion.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219200027/http://www.clarinox.com/docs/whitepapers/Whitepaper_06_CrossPlatformDiscussion.pdf |archive-date=2011-02-19 |url-status=live |title= Working across Multiple Embedded Platforms |publisher=clarinox |access-date=2010-08-17 }}</ref> ايمبيڊڊ نظامن جي پيچيدگي مسلسل وڌندي پئي وڃي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هاڻي انهن کي سيريل مواصلات، USB، TCP/IP، [[بلوٽوٿ]]، [[وائرليس مقامي علائقائي نيٽ ورڪ]] (وائرليس LAN)، ٽرنڪ ريڊيو، گهڻن چينلن، ڊيٽا ۽ آواز، بهتر گرافڪس، ڪيترين حالتن، ڪيترن ٿريڊن ۽ مختلف انتظار وارين حالتن جهڙن ڪمَن کي سنڀالڻو پوي ٿو. انهن رجحانن سبب RTOS سان گڏ [[ايمبيڊڊ مڊل ويئر]] جو استعمال پڻ وڌي رهيو آهي. === مائڪروڪرنيل ۽ ايگزوڪرنيل === [[مائڪروڪرنيل]] ميموري ورهائيندو آهي ۽ مرڪزي پروسيسر (CPU) کي مختلف هلندڙ ٿريڊن جي وچ ۾ تبديل ڪندو آهي. فائيل سسٽم، نيٽ ورڪ انٽرفيس ۽ ٻيا اهم ڪم يوزر موڊ وارا عمل سرانجام ڏيندا آهن. [[ايگزوڪرنيل]] عام ذيلي معمولن جي سڏ ذريعي انتهائي مؤثر نموني رابطو ڪندا آهن. هارڊويئر ۽ نظام جو سمورو سافٽويئر ايپليڪيشن پروگرامرن لاءِ دستياب هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي وڌائي به سگهجي ٿو. === مونولٿڪ ڪرنيل === [[مونولٿڪ ڪرنيل]] نسبتاً وڏو ڪرنيل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ ايمبيڊڊ ماحول لاءِ مناسب ڪيترين ئي ترقي يافته صلاحيتن کي شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهو پروگرامرن کي [[لينڪس]] يا [[مائڪروسافٽ ونڊوز]] جهڙي ڊيسڪ ٽاپ آپريٽنگ سسٽم وارو ماحول فراهم ڪندو آهي، جنهن سان ترقي جو عمل وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻجي ويندو آهي. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ وڌيڪ هارڊويئر وسيلن جي ضرورت پوندي آهي، خرچ وڌي سگهي ٿو، ۽ پيچيدگي سبب اهڙا ڪرنيل ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گهٽ اڳڪٿي لائق ۽ گهٽ ڀروسي جوڳا هوندا آهن. ايمبيڊڊ مونولٿڪ ڪرنيلن جا عام مثال [[ايمبيڊڊ لينڪس]]، [[وي ايڪس ورڪس]] ۽ [[ونڊوز سي اي]] آهن. هارڊويئر جي وڌيڪ قيمت باوجود، هن قسم جا ايمبيڊڊ نظام خاص طور تي وڌيڪ طاقتور ڊوائيسن، جهڙوڪ [[وائرليس رائوٽر]]ن ۽ [[گاڏين جو نيويگيشن نظام|جي پي ايس نيويگيشن نظام]]ن، ۾ تيزيءَ سان مقبول ٿي رهيا آهن. === اضافي سافٽويئر جزا === بنيادي آپريٽنگ سسٽم کان علاوه، ڪيترن ئي ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۾ مٿين سطح جا اضافي سافٽويئر جزا به شامل هوندا آهن. انهن ۾ [[ڪنٽرولر-ايريا نيٽ ورڪ]] (CAN)، [[ٽي سي پي/آء پي]]، [[ايف ٽي پي]]، [[ايڇ ٽي ٽي پي]] ۽ [[ايڇ ٽي ٽي پي ايس]] جهڙا نيٽ ورڪنگ پروٽوڪول اسٽيڪ، ۽ [[فائيل الاڪيشن ٽيبل]] (FAT) ۽ فليش ميموري انتظامي نظام جهڙيون اسٽوريج صلاحيتون شامل آهن. جيڪڏهن ايمبيڊڊ ڊوائيس ۾ آواز ۽ وڊيو جون سهولتون موجود هجن، ته انهن لاءِ مناسب ڊرائيور ۽ ڪوڊيڪ به نظام جو حصو هوندا آهن. مونولٿڪ ڪرنيل جي صورت ۾ انهن مان ڪيترائي سافٽويئر پرت خود ڪرنيل ۾ شامل هوندا آهن، جڏهن⁠تہ RTOS ۾ اضافي سافٽويئر جزن جي دستيابي واپاري فراهم ڪندڙ جي پيشڪش تي دارومدار رکندي آهي. === مخصوص شعبي لاءِ ساختون === گاڏين جي صنعت ۾ [[آٽوسار]] (AUTOSAR) ايمبيڊڊ سافٽويئر لاءِ هڪ معياري ساخت آهي. == پڻ ڏسو == {{Portal|اليڪٽرانڪس}} {{Div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[ڪميونيڪيشن سرور]] * [[سائبر-جسماني نظام]] * [[اليڪٽرانڪ ڪنٽرول يونٽ]] * [[معلوماتي اوزار]] * [[مربوط ترقياتي ماحول]] * [[فوٽونڪ طور بهتر ڪيل ايمبيڊڊ مائڪروپروسيسر]] * [[سلڪون ڪمپائلر]] * [[سافٽويئر انجنيئرنگ]] * [[سسٽم آن ماڊيول]] * [[هر هنڌ موجود ڪمپيوٽنگ]] {{Div col end}} == نوٽ == <references group="nb" /> == حوالا == {{Reflist}} == وڌيڪ مطالعو == * {{Cite book |title=Designing Embedded Hardware, 2nd Edition |author=John Catsoulis |date=May 2005 |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=0-596-00755-8}} * {{Cite book |title=Embedded Systems, An Introduction Using the Renesas RX62N Microcontroller |author1=James M. Conrad |author2=Alexander G. Dean |date=September 2011 |publisher=Micrium |isbn=978-1935-7729-96}} * {{Cite book |title=Embedded Software Development for the Internet Of Things, The Basics, The Technologies and Best Practices |author=Klaus Elk |date=August 2016 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1534602533}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{Commons category|Embedded systems}} {{Wikibooks|Embedded Systems}} {{Wikiversity|Embedded System Engineering}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-OKGOMoCSI&list=PLo7bVbJhQ6qwlDa-R6pz7tA7kPzn1s5Ae Embedded Systems course with mbed] YouTube، 2015ع کان جاري * [http://geer.tinho.net/geer.nro.6xi13.txt Trends in Cyber Security and Embedded Systems] Dan Geer، نومبر 2013ع * [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLPW8O6W-1chwyTzI3BHwBLbGQoPFxPAPM Modern Embedded Systems Programming Video Course] YouTube، 2013ع کان جاري * [http://www.esweek.org/ Embedded Systems Week (ESWEEK)] ايمبيڊڊ نظامن ۽ سافٽويئر جي سڀني پهلوئن بابت سالياني تقريب، جنهن ۾ ڪانفرنسون، ورڪشاپون ۽ سبق شامل هوندا آهن. * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211173413/http://www.emsig.net/conf/2015/wese/ |date=2018-02-11 |title=Workshop on Embedded and Cyber-Physical Systems Education}} * [https://microcontrollershop.com/An%20Embedded%20Tools%20Introduction.php Developing Embedded Systems - A Tools Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906232346/https://microcontrollershop.com/An%20Embedded%20Tools%20Introduction.php |date=2025-09-06 }} {{Computer sizes}} {{Computer science}} {{Embedded systems}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:ايمبيڊيڊ نظام ]] 0t9i0ad6pbwjp6a6f0cx9g92uuoyhol پاور اليڪٽرانڪس 0 99730 394817 390730 2026-07-16T11:19:13Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي ٽيڪنالاجي}} {{About|طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي ٽيڪنالاجي|موسيقي جي صنف|پاور اليڪٽرانڪس (موسيقي)}} [[File:Baltic Cable Thyristorturm.jpg|thumb|سويڊن ۾ بالٽڪ ڪيبل اي بي جي هال ۾ 16.8 ميٽر اوچو [[ايڇ وي ڊي سي]] [[ٿائرسٽر]] والو ٽاور]] [[File:Absaar Batterie Ladegerät.jpg|thumb|[[بيٽري چارجر]] طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جو هڪ مثال آهي.]] [[File:ATX power supply interior-1000px transparent.png|thumb|ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر جي پاور سپلاءِ، جيڪا ڪيبينيٽ جي اندر هجي يا ٻاهر، طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جو هڪ مثال آهي.]] '''طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس''' (Power electronics) [[اليڪٽرانڪس]] جو اهو شعبو آهي، جيڪو [[برقي طاقت]] جي ڪنٽرول ۽ تبديلي سان لاڳاپيل آهي. پهريان اعليٰ طاقت وارا اليڪٽرانڪ ڊوائيس [[مرڪري-آرڪ والو]] استعمال ڪندي تيار ڪيا ويا. جديد نظامن ۾ برقي طاقت جي تبديلي [[سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر]] سوئچنگ ڊوائيسن، جهڙوڪ [[ڊائيوڊ]]، [[ٿائرسٽر]]، ۽ [[طاقتي ٽرانزسٽر]] (جهڙوڪ [[طاقتي موس فيٽ]] ۽ [[IGBT]]) ذريعي ڪئي ويندي آهي. سگنلن ۽ ڊيٽا جي منتقلي ۽ پروسيسنگ سان لاڳاپيل اليڪٽرانڪ نظامن جي ابتڙ، طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس ۾ وڏي مقدار ۾ برقي توانائي کي سنڀاليو ۽ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي. AC/DC ڪنورٽر ([[ريڪٽيفائر]]) طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي سڀ کان عام ڊوائيسن مان هڪ آهي، جيڪو ڪيترن ئي صارفين جي اليڪٽرانڪ شين، جهڙوڪ [[ٽيليويزن]]، ذاتي [[ڪمپيوٽر]]، [[بيٽري چارجر]] وغيره ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ان جي طاقت جي حد عام طور ڪجهه ڏهن [[واٽ]]ن کان وٺي ڪيترن ئي سؤ واٽن تائين هوندي آهي. صنعت ۾ ان جو هڪ عام استعمال [[متغير-رفتار ڊرائيو]] (VSD) آهي، جيڪو [[انڊڪشن موٽر]] جي رفتار کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. VSD جي طاقت جي حد ڪجهه سؤ واٽن کان شروع ٿي ڪيترن ئي [[ميگاواٽ]]ن تائين پهچي ٿي. طاقت جي تبديلي وارن نظامن کي ان پُٽ ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ طاقت جي قسم مطابق هن ريت ورهايو وڃي ٿو: * AC کان DC ([[ريڪٽيفائر]]) * DC کان AC ([[طاقتي انورٽر|انورٽر]]) * DC کان DC ([[ڊي سي کان ڊي سي ڪنورٽر]]) * AC کان AC ([[اي سي کان اي سي ڪنورٽر]]) == تاريخ == طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي شروعات [[مرڪري-آرڪ ريڪٽيفائر]] جي ترقي سان ٿي. ان کي 1902ع ۾ [[پيٽر ڪوپر هيئٽ]] ايجاد ڪيو، ۽ اهو متبادل رو (AC) کي سڌي رو (DC) ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو. 1920ع واري ڏهاڪي کان پوءِ، [[ٿائراٽرون]] ۽ گرڊ-ڪنٽرول ٿيل مرڪري-آرڪ والوز کي برقي طاقت جي منتقلي ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ بابت تحقيق جاري رهي. [[اونو لام]] گريڊنگ اليڪٽروڊن سان مرڪري والوز تيار ڪيا، جيڪي [[اعليٰ-وولٽيج سڌي رو]] (HVDC) جي منتقلي لاءِ موزون ثابت ٿيا. 1933ع ۾ [[سيلينيم ريڪٽيفائر]] ايجاد ڪيا ويا.<ref name=Thompson>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=M.T.|title=Notes 01|url=http://www.thompsonrd.com/NOTES%2001%20INTRODUCTION%20TO%20POWER%20ELECTRONICS.pdf|work=Introduction to Power Electronics|publisher=Thompson Consulting, Inc.}}</ref> 1926ع ۾ [[جوليس ايڊگر ليلينفيلڊ]] [[فيلڊ-ايفيڪٽ ٽرانزسٽر]] جو تصور پيش ڪيو، پر ان وقت اهڙو ڪارائتو ڊوائيس ٺاهڻ ممڪن نه هو.<ref>{{cite web |title=1926 – Field Effect Semiconductor Device Concepts Patented |website=Computer History Museum |url=http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/field-effect-semiconductor-device-concepts-patented/ |access-date=March 25, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322023120/http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/field-effect-semiconductor-device-concepts-patented/ |archive-date=March 22, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> 1947ع ۾ [[والٽر ايڇ. بريٽن]] ۽ [[جان بارڊين]]، [[وليم شاڪلي]] جي نگرانيءَ ۾ [[بيل ليبز]] ۾، ٻه-قطبي [[پوائنٽ-ڪنٽيڪٽ ٽرانزسٽر]] ايجاد ڪيو. 1948ع ۾ شاڪلي جي [[ٻه-قطبي جنڪشن ٽرانزسٽر]] (BJT) واري ايجاد ٽرانزسٽرن جي استحڪام ۽ ڪارڪردگي بهتر ڪئي ۽ انهن جي قيمت گهٽائي. 1950ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين وڌيڪ طاقت وارا سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر [[ڊائيوڊ]] دستياب ٿي ويا، جن آهستي آهستي [[ويڪيوم ٽيوب]]ن جي جاءِ ورتي. 1956ع ۾ [[جنرل اليڪٽرڪ]] [[سليڪان ڪنٽرولڊ ريڪٽيفائر]] (SCR) متعارف ڪرايو، جنهن طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي استعمالن کي تمام گهڻو وسيع ڪيو.<ref name=Kharagpur>{{cite web|last=Kharagpur|title=Power Semiconductor Devices|url=http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Power%20Electronics/PDF/L-1(SSG)(PE)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf|work=EE IIT|access-date=25 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920222959/http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Power%20Electronics/PDF/L-1(SSG)(PE)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf|archive-date=20 September 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1960ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين ٻه-قطبي جنڪشن ٽرانزسٽرن جي تيز سوئچنگ رفتار اعليٰ فريڪوئنسي DC/DC ڪنورٽرن کي ممڪن بڻائي ڇڏيو. [[آر. ڊي. مڊلبروڪ]] طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي ترقيءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. 1970ع ۾ هن [[ڪيلٽيڪ]] ۾ [[پاور اليڪٽرانڪس گروپ]] قائم ڪيو.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. R. David Middlebrook 1929 - 2010 |url=https://www.powerelectronics.com/content/dr-r-david-middlebrook-1929-2010 |website=Power Electronics |access-date=29 October 2019 |ref=May 1, 2010 |language=en |date=1 May 2010}}</ref> هن ''اسٽيٽ-اسپيس ايوريجنگ'' تجزياتي طريقو ۽ ٻيا ڪيترائي اوزار تيار ڪيا، جيڪي جديد طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي ڊيزائن لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ieee-pels.org/pels-news/220-professor-r-d-middlebrook-passed-away |title = IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification - IEEE Power Electronics Society| date=October 2024 }}</ref> === طاقتي موس فيٽ === {{Main|طاقتي موس فيٽ}} {{See also|موس فيٽ|VMOS|LDMOS|موصل-گيٽ ٻه-قطبي ٽرانزسٽر}} 1957ع ۾ [[فروش]] ۽ [[ڊيرڪ]] [[بيل ليبز]] ۾ پهريون سليڪان ڊاءِ آڪسائيڊ فيلڊ-ايفيڪٽ ٽرانزسٽر تيار ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، جيڪو اهڙو پهريون ٽرانزسٽر هو جنهن ۾ ڊرين ۽ سورس مٿاڇري تي هڪ ٻئي جي ويجهو هئا.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ان کان پوءِ 1960ع ۾ [[داوون ڪانگ]] پنهنجي بيل ليبز جي ٽيم سان گڏ ڪارائتو [[موس فيٽ]] پيش ڪيو. هن ٽيم ۾ E. E. LaBate ۽ E. I. Povilonis شامل هئا، جن ڊوائيس تيار ڪيو؛ M. O. Thurston، L. A. D’Asaro ۽ J. R. Ligenza جن ڊفيوزن جا عمل تيار ڪيا؛ ۽ H. K. Gummel ۽ R. Lindner جن ڊوائيس جون خاصيتون جانچيون.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KAHNG |first=D. |date=1961 |title=Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |journal=Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories |pages=583–596 |doi=10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |isbn=978-981-02-0209-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref> 1969ع ۾ [[هٽاچي]] پهريون عمودي طاقتي موس فيٽ متعارف ڪرايو،<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oxner |first1=E. S. |title=Fet Technology and Application |date=1988 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780824780500 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AE-0e-sAnsC&pg=PA18}}</ref> جيڪو بعد ۾ [[VMOS]] (V-groove MOSFET) جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو.<ref name="powerelectronics">{{cite journal |title=Advances in Discrete Semiconductors March On |url=https://www.powerelectronics.com/content/advances-discrete-semiconductors-march |journal=Power Electronics Technology |publisher=[[Informa]] |pages=52–6 |access-date=31 July 2019 |date=September 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060322222716/http://powerelectronics.com/mag/509PET26.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2006 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060322222716/http://powerelectronics.com/mag/509PET26.pdf |date=22 March 2006 }}</ref> 1974ع کان [[ياماها ڪارپوريشن|ياماها]]، [[JVC]]، [[پائنيئر ڪارپوريشن|پائنيئر]]، [[سوني]] ۽ [[توشيبا]] طاقتي موس فيٽ تي ٻڌل [[آڊيو ايمپلي فائر]] تيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪيا.<ref name="Duncan177">{{cite book |last1=Duncan |first1=Ben |title=High Performance Audio Power Amplifiers |date=1996 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=9780080508047 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/highperfomanceau0000dunc/page/177 177-8, 406] |url=https://archive.org/details/highperfomanceau0000dunc/page/177 }}</ref> [[انٽرنيشنل ريڪٽيفائر]] 1978ع ۾ 25&nbsp;A، 400&nbsp;V طاقتي موس فيٽ متعارف ڪرايو.<ref name="DEP">Jacques Arnould, Pierre Merle ''Dispositifs de l'électronique de puissance'', Éditions Hermès, {{ISBN|2-86601-306-9}} (in French)</ref> هي ڊوائيس ٻه-قطبي ٽرانزسٽر جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ فريڪوئنسي تي ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو، پر گهٽ وولٽيج وارن استعمالن تائين محدود آهي. طاقتي موس فيٽ پنهنجي گهٽ گيٽ ڊرائيو طاقت، تيز سوئچنگ رفتار،<ref name="aosmd">{{cite web |title=Power MOSFET Basics |url=http://www.aosmd.com/res/application_notes/mosfets/Power_MOSFET_Basics.pdf |website=Alpha & Omega Semiconductor |access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref> آساني سان متوازي ڳنڍجڻ جي صلاحيت،<ref name="aosmd"/><ref name="Duncan178">{{cite book |last1=Duncan |first1=Ben |title=High Performance Audio Power Amplifiers |date=1996 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=9780080508047 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/highperfomanceau0000dunc/page/178 178-81] |url=https://archive.org/details/highperfomanceau0000dunc/page/178 }}</ref> وسيع [[بينڊوڊٿ (سگنل پروسيسنگ)|بينڊوڊٿ]]، مضبوط بناوت، آسان ڊرائيو، سادي باياسنگ، آسان استعمال ۽ مرمت جي سهولت سبب دنيا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ [[طاقتي ڊوائيس]] بڻجي ويو آهي.<ref name="Duncan178"/> ان جا استعمال تمام وسيع آهن، جن ۾ پورٽيبل [[معلوماتي اوزار]]، طاقتي انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ، [[موبائل فون]]، [[نوٽ بڪ ڪمپيوٽر]]، ۽ [[مواصلاتي ڍانچو]] شامل آهن، جيڪو [[انٽرنيٽ]] کي ممڪن بڻائي ٿو.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whiteley |first1=Carol |last2=McLaughlin |first2=John Robert |title=Technology, Entrepreneurs, and Silicon Valley |date=2002 |publisher=Institute for the History of Technology |isbn=9780964921719 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9koAQAAIAAJ |quote=[[سليڪانڪس]] جا هي فعال اليڪٽرانڪ جزا، يا طاقتي سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر مصنوعات، مختلف قسمن جي نظامن ۾ برقي طاقت جي سوئچنگ ۽ تبديلي لاءِ استعمال ٿين ٿا، جيڪي پورٽيبل [[معلوماتي اوزار]]ن کان وٺي ان [[مواصلاتي ڍانچو|مواصلاتي ڍانچي]] تائين پکڙيل آهن، جيڪو [[انٽرنيٽ]] کي ممڪن بڻائي ٿو. ڪمپني جا [[طاقتي موس فيٽ]] — ننڍڙا سالڊ-اسٽيٽ سوئچ، يا ڌاتو–آڪسائيڊ–سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر فيلڊ-ايفيڪٽ ٽرانزسٽر — ۽ طاقتي انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ [[موبائل فون]]ن ۽ [[نوٽ بڪ ڪمپيوٽر]]ن ۾ بيٽري جي طاقت کي مؤثر نموني منظم ڪرڻ لاءِ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿين ٿا.}}</ref> 1982ع ۾ [[موصل-گيٽ ٻه-قطبي ٽرانزسٽر]] (IGBT) متعارف ڪرايو ويو، جيڪو 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ وڏي پيماني تي دستياب ٿيو. هي جزو ٻه-قطبي ٽرانزسٽر جي اعليٰ طاقت سنڀالڻ جي صلاحيت ۽ طاقتي موس فيٽ جي موصل گيٽ ڊرائيو جي فائدن کي گڏ ڪري ٿو. == ڊوائيس == {{See also|طاقتي سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر ڊوائيس}} طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي ڪنهن به نظام جي صلاحيت ۽ اقتصادي ڪارڪردگي ان ۾ موجود فعال ڊوائيسن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. انهن جون خاصيتون ۽ حدون طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جي نظامن جي ڊيزائن ۾ بنيادي عنصر آهن. ماضي ۾ [[مرڪري-آرڪ والو]]، اعليٰ خال وارا ۽ گئس سان ڀريل ڊائيوڊ ٿرميونڪ ريڪٽيفائر، ۽ [[ٿائراٽرون]] ۽ [[اگنائيٽرون]] جهڙا ٽرگر ٿيل ڊوائيس وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا هئا. جيئن جيئن سالڊ-اسٽيٽ ڊوائيسن جي وولٽيج ۽ رو سنڀالڻ جي صلاحيت وڌندي وئي، ويڪيوم ڊوائيس تقريباً مڪمل طور سالڊ-اسٽيٽ ڊوائيسن سان تبديل ٿي ويا. طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ ڊوائيسن کي سوئچ يا ايمپلي فائر طور استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.<ref name=Rashid07>Muhammad H. Rashid, ''محمد ايڇ. رشيد، ''Power Electronics Handbook: Devices, Circuits, and Applications''، ٽيون ڇاپو. هن ڪتاب ۾ متعارف ڪرايل بناوت هڪ گهڻ-سطحي انورٽر آهي، جيڪو الڳ الڳ DC ذريعا استعمال ڪري ٿو. هي گهڻ-سطحي انورٽر، SDCS سان گڏ ڪيسڪيڊ انورٽر استعمال ڪندي، ڪيترن ئي آزاد DC وولٽيج ذريعن مان گهربل وولٽيج تيار ڪري ٿو. اهي DC ذريعا بيٽرين، فيول سيلن يا شمسي سيلن مان حاصل ٿي سگهن ٿا. هي بناوت تازو ئي AC برقي فراهمي ۽ [[متغير-رفتار ڊرائيو]] جي استعمالن ۾ تمام گهڻي مقبول ٿي آهي. هي نئون انورٽر اضافي ڪليمپنگ ڊائيوڊن يا وولٽيج توازن برقرار رکڻ وارن ڪيپيسيٽرن جي ضرورت کي ختم ڪري سگهي ٿو. Butterworth-Heinemann، 2007. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-12-382036-5}}</ref> هڪ [[مثالي سوئچ]] يا ته مڪمل طور کليل هوندو آهي يا مڪمل طور بند، تنهن ڪري ان ۾ طاقت ضايع نه ٿيندي آهي؛ اهو لاڳو ٿيل وولٽيج برداشت ڪندو آهي ۽ يا ته ڪا به رو نه وهڻ ڏيندو آهي يا بنا وولٽيج ڊراپ جي ڪنهن به مقدار جي رو گذرڻ ڏيندو آهي. سوئچ طور استعمال ٿيندڙ سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر ڊوائيس هن مثالي خاصيت جي ويجهو هوندا آهن، تنهن ڪري طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جون گهڻيون ايپليڪيشنون ڊوائيسن کي بار بار آن ۽ آف ڪرڻ تي ٻڌل هونديون آهن، جنهن سان نظام انتهائي ڪارائتو بڻجي ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سوئچ ۾ تمام ٿوري طاقت ضايع ٿيندي آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، ايمپلي فائر جي صورت ۾ ڊوائيس مان گذرندڙ رو ڪنٽرول ٿيل ان پُٽ جي مطابق مسلسل تبديل ٿيندي رهندي آهي. ڊوائيس جي ٽرمينلن تي وولٽيج ۽ رو [[لوڊ لائين]] جي پيروي ڪندا آهن، ۽ ڊوائيس جي اندر طاقت جو نقصان لوڊ ڏانهن منتقل ٿيندڙ طاقت جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهڻو وڌيڪ هوندو آهي. ڊوائيسن جي استعمال جو طريقو ڪيترين ئي خاصيتن تي منحصر هوندو آهي. [[ڊائيوڊ]] جهڙا ڊوائيس اڳتي واري وولٽيج لاڳو ٿيڻ تي پاڻمرادو رو وهڻ ڏيندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ وهڪري جي شروعات تي ٻاهرين ڪنٽرول موجود نه هوندو آهي. [[سليڪان ڪنٽرولڊ ريڪٽيفائر]] ۽ [[ٿائرسٽر]] (ان سان گڏ مرڪري والو ۽ [[ٿائراٽرون]]) جهڙا طاقتي ڊوائيس وهڪري جي شروعات کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ جي سهولت ڏين ٿا، پر بند ٿيڻ لاءِ انهن کي رو جي وقت بوقت رخ بدلجڻ جي ضرورت هوندي آهي. جڏهن ته [[گيٽ-ٽرن-آف ٿائرسٽر]]، [[ٻه-قطبي جنڪشن ٽرانزسٽر|به جي ٽي]] ۽ [[موس فيٽ]] مڪمل سوئچنگ ڪنٽرول مهيا ڪن ٿا، ۽ انهن کي رو جي رخ کان سواءِ ڪنهن به وقت آن يا آف ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ٽرانزسٽر تناسبي ايمپليفيڪيشن جي صلاحيت به رکن ٿا، پر اها خاصيت ڪجهه سؤ واٽن کان وڌيڪ طاقت وارن نظامن ۾ گهٽ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. ڊوائيس جي ڪنٽرول ان پُٽ جون خاصيتون پڻ ڊيزائن تي اهم اثر وجهنديون آهن؛ ڪڏهن ڪنٽرول ان پُٽ زمين جي نسبت تمام اعليٰ وولٽيج تي هوندو آهي، جنهن کي الڳ برقي ذريعو استعمال ڪري هلائڻو پوندو آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس ڪنورٽر ۾ اعليٰ ڪارڪردگي تمام اهم هوندي آهي، تنهن ڪري طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ ڊوائيسن مان ٿيندڙ طاقت جو نقصان جيترو ٿي سگهي اوترو گهٽ هجڻ گهرجي. ڊوائيسن جي سوئچنگ رفتار هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندي آهي. ڪجهه ڊائيوڊ ۽ ٿائرسٽر نسبتاً گهٽ رفتار وارن استعمالن لاءِ مناسب هوندا آهن ۽ [[برقي فراهمي جي فريڪوئنسي]] تي سوئچنگ ۽ ڪنٽرول لاءِ فائديمند هوندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته ڪجهه ٿائرسٽر چند ڪلوهرٽز تائين ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. [[موس فيٽ]] ۽ [[بي جي ٽي]] جهڙا ڊوائيس طاقتي استعمالن ۾ ڏهن ڪلوهرٽز کان وٺي ڪيترن ميگاهرٽز تائين سوئچ ڪري سگهن ٿا، پر جيئن فريڪوئنسي وڌندي آهي، تيئن طاقت جي سطح گهٽجندي ويندي آهي. ويڪيوم ٽيوب ڊوائيس انتهائي اعليٰ فريڪوئنسي (سوين يا هزارين ميگاهرٽز) تي وڏي طاقت (سوين ڪلوواٽ) وارن استعمالن ۾ اڃا به اهم حيثيت رکن ٿا. وڌيڪ تيز سوئچنگ ڪندڙ ڊوائيس آن کان آف ۽ وري آف کان آن ٿيڻ دوران ضايع ٿيندڙ توانائي کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر اهي شعاعن ذريعي پيدا ٿيندڙ برقي-مقناطيسي مداخلت جا مسئلا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا. گيٽ ڊرائيو (يا ان جهڙا) سرڪٽ اهڙي طرح ڊزائن ڪيا ويندا آهن جو ڊوائيس کي مڪمل سوئچنگ رفتار حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪافي ڊرائيو رو ملي. جيڪڏهن تيز سوئچنگ لاءِ مناسب ڊرائيو فراهم نه ڪئي وڃي، ته وڌيڪ گرم ٿيڻ سبب ڊوائيس تباهه ٿي سگهي ٿو. عملي ڊوائيسن ۾ آن حالت دوران ڪجهه وولٽيج ڊراپ موجود هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب طاقت ضايع ٿيندي آهي، ۽ آن يا آف حالت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ انهن کي ڪجهه وقت سرگرم علائقي مان گذرڻو پوندو آهي. اهي نقصان ڪنورٽر جي ڪل طاقت جي نقصان جو اهم حصو هوندا آهن. ڊوائيسن جي طاقت سنڀالڻ ۽ گرمي خارج ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت پڻ ڊيزائن ۾ انتهائي اهم هوندي آهي. طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ ڊوائيس، جيتوڻيڪ تمام ڪارائتي سوئچنگ ڪن، تڏهن به انهن کي ڏهن يا سوين واٽن جي فضول گرمي خارج ڪرڻي پئجي سگهي ٿي. سوئچنگ موڊ ۾ ڪنٽرول ٿيندڙ طاقت، سوئچ ۾ ضايع ٿيندڙ طاقت کان گهڻي وڌيڪ هوندي آهي. وهڪري واري حالت ۾ اڳتي وارو وولٽيج ڊراپ گرمي پيدا ڪندو آهي، جنهن کي خارج ڪرڻ لازمي هوندو آهي. اعليٰ طاقت وارن سيمي ڪنڊڪٽرن لاءِ خاص [[هيٽ سنڪ]] يا فعال ٿڌي ڪرڻ وارا نظام استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته جيئن جنڪشن جو [[گرمي پد]] مناسب حد اندر رهي. هن لحاظ کان [[سيليڪان ڪاربائڊ]] جهڙا جديد سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر عام سليڪان جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ فائديمند آهن، جڏهن ته جرمينيم، جيڪو هڪ وقت سالڊ-اسٽيٽ اليڪٽرانڪس جو بنيادي مواد هو، اعليٰ گرمي پد تي ڪمزور ڪارڪردگي سبب هاڻي گهٽ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر ڊوائيس هڪ ئي جزي ۾ ڪجهه ڪلو وولٽ تائين وولٽيج برداشت ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکن ٿا. جڏهن تمام اعليٰ وولٽيج کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻو هجي، تڏهن ڪيترائي ڊوائيس سلسليوار ڳنڍيا ويندا آهن، ۽ سڀني ڊوائيسن تي وولٽيج برابر ورهائڻ لاءِ خاص نيٽورڪ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. هتي به سوئچنگ رفتار انتهائي اهم هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ سڀ کان آهستي سوئچ ٿيندڙ ڊوائيس کي مجموعي وولٽيج جو غير متناسب حصو برداشت ڪرڻو پوندو. ماضي ۾ مرڪري والوز هڪ ئي يونٽ ۾ 100&nbsp;kV تائين وولٽيج سنڀالي سگهندا هئا، جنهن سبب انهن جو [[اعليٰ-وولٽيج سڌي رو]] (HVDC) نظامن ۾ استعمال وڌيڪ آسان هوندو هو. ڪنهن سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر ڊوائيس جي رو سنڀالڻ جي حد، چپ جي اندر پيدا ٿيندڙ گرمي ۽ رابطي واري ليڊن ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ مزاحمتي گرمي تي منحصر هوندي آهي. اهڙن ڊوائيسن کي اهڙي نموني ڊزائن ڪرڻ ضروري هوندو آهي، جو رو سندن اندروني جنڪشنن يا چينلن ۾ هڪجهڙي نموني ورهائجي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن هنڌ "گرم نقطو" (ھاٽ اسپاٽ) پيدا ٿي وڃي، ته بريڪ ڊائون جا اثر ڊوائيس کي تمام تيزي سان تباهه ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه [[ايس سي آر]] هڪ ئي يونٽ ۾ 3000 ايمپيئر تائين رو سنڀالڻ جي صلاحيت رکن ٿا. == DC/AC ڪنورٽر (انورٽر) == {{Main|پاور انورٽر}} DC کان AC ڪنورٽر، DC ذريعو مان AC آئوٽ پُٽ موج (waveform) پيدا ڪندا آهن. انهن جا استعمال [[متغير-رفتار ڊرائيو]] (ASD)، [[بي رڪاوٽ بجلي فراهمي]] (UPS)، [[لچڪدار AC ٽرانسميشن سسٽم]] (FACTS)، وولٽيج ڪمپنسيٽرن ۽ [[فوٽووولٽائڪس|فوٽووولٽائيڪ]] [[پاور انورٽر]]ن ۾ ٿيندا آهن. انهن ڪنورٽرن جون بناوتون ٻن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايل آهن: وولٽيج سورس انورٽر (VSI) ۽ ڪرنٽ سورس انورٽر (CSI). وولٽيج سورس انورٽرن (VSI) کي اهو نالو ان ڪري ڏنو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو آزاديءَ سان ڪنٽرول ٿيندڙ آئوٽ پُٽ هڪ وولٽيج موج هوندي آهي. ساڳيءَ طرح، ڪرنٽ سورس انورٽرن (CSI) ۾ ڪنٽرول ٿيندڙ AC آئوٽ پُٽ هڪ ڪرنٽ موج هوندي آهي. DC کان AC طاقت جي تبديلي پاور سوئچنگ ڊوائيسن جي ذريعي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪي عام طور مڪمل طور تي ڪنٽرول لائق سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر پاور سوئچ هوندا آهن. ان ڪري آئوٽ پُٽ موجون لڳاتار نه پر جدا جدا قدرن تي ٻڌل هونديون آهن، جنهن سبب تيز تبديليون پيدا ٿينديون آهن. ڪجهه استعمالن لاءِ AC جي سائنوسي موج جي صرف هڪ سادي ويجهڙائي ئي ڪافي هوندي آهي. جڏهن تقريباً مڪمل سائنوسي موج گهربل هجي ته سوئچنگ ڊوائيسن کي گهربل آئوٽ پُٽ فريڪوئنسي کان گهڻو وڌيڪ رفتار سان هلائبو آهي، ۽ هر حالت ۾ رهڻ جو وقت اهڙي طرح سنڀاليو ويندو آهي جو سراسري آئوٽ پُٽ تقريباً سائنوسي بڻجي وڃي. عام ماڊوليشن طريقن ۾ ڪيريئر-بنياد [[نبض-ويڪر ماڊوليشن]] (PWM)، [[خلائي سمتي ماڊوليشن]] (Space Vector Modulation) ۽ سليڪٽو هارمونڪ ايلمنيشن شامل آهن.<ref name=Rashid3>{{cite book|last=Rashid|first=M.H.|title=Power Electronics Handbook|year=2001|publisher=Academic Press|pages=225–250}}</ref> وولٽيج سورس انورٽر عملي طور هڪ-مرحلي ۽ ٽن-مرحلي ٻنهي قسمن جي نظامن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. هڪ-مرحلي VSI، هاف-برج ۽ فل-برج بناوتون استعمال ڪندا آهن ۽ پاور سپلاءِ، هڪ-مرحلي UPS ۽ گهڻ-سيل وارين اعليٰ طاقت واري بناوتن ۾ عام آهن. ٽن-مرحلي VSI انهن استعمالن ۾ ڪم ايندا آهن، جتي سائنوسي وولٽيج موجون گهربل هجن، جهڙوڪ ASD، UPS ۽ FACTS جا ڪجهه قسم، مثال طور [[STATCOM]]. اهي فعال پاور فلٽرن ۽ وولٽيج ڪمپنسيٽرن ۾ به استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جتي مرضيءَ مطابق وولٽيج پيدا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.<ref name="Rashid3" /> ڪرَنٽ سورس انورٽر، DC ڪرنٽ سپلاءِ مان AC ڪرنٽ موج پيدا ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. اهڙي قسم جو انورٽر خاص طور ٽن-مرحلي نظامن لاءِ موزون هوندو آهي، جتي اعليٰ معيار جون وولٽيج موجون گهربل هجن. انورٽرن جي هڪ نسبتاً نئين درجي، جنهن کي گهڻ-سطحي انورٽر (ملٽي ليول انورٽر) چيو وڃي ٿو، وڏي دلچسپي حاصل ڪئي آهي. عام VSI ۽ CSI کي ٻن-سطحي انورٽر سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جا پاور سوئچ يا ته مثبت DC بس سان يا منفي DC بس سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. جيڪڏهن انورٽر جي آئوٽ پُٽ تي ٻن کان وڌيڪ وولٽيج سطحون موجود هجن ته AC آئوٽ پُٽ سائنوسي موج جي وڌيڪ ويجهو ٿي سگهي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب، جيتوڻيڪ گهڻ-سطحي انورٽر وڌيڪ پيچيده ۽ مهانگا آهن، پر انهن جي ڪارڪردگي وڌيڪ بهتر هوندي آهي.<ref name=Trzynadlowski>{{cite book|last=Trzynadlowski|first=A.M.|title=Introduction to Modern Power Electronics|year=2010|publisher=Wiley|pages=269–341}}</ref> هر قسم جو انورٽر استعمال ٿيندڙ DC لنڪن ۽ [[فري وِيلنگ ڊائيوڊ]]ن جي ضرورت جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندو آهي. هر قسم کي، ان جي استعمال مطابق، چورس-موج يا [[نبض-ويڪر ماڊوليشن]] (PWM) موڊ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. چورس-موج موڊ سادو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته PWM ڪيترن ئي طريقن سان لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو ۽ وڌيڪ اعليٰ معيار جون آئوٽ پُٽ موجون مهيا ڪندو آهي.<ref name="Rashid3" /> وولٽيج سورس انورٽر (VSI) پنهنجي آئوٽ پُٽ انورٽر واري حصي کي تقريباً مستقل وولٽيج واري ذريعي سان هلائيندا آهن.<ref name=Rashid3 /> ڪرَنٽ آئوٽ پُٽ موج جي گهربل معيار موجب مناسب ماڊوليشن طريقو چونڊيو ويندو آهي. VSI جو آئوٽ پُٽ جدا جدا قدرن تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي. هموار ڪرنٽ موج حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ لوڊ ۾ چونڊيل هارمونڪ فريڪوئنسيز تي انڊڪٽو خاصيت هجڻ ضروري آهي. جيڪڏهن ذريعو ۽ لوڊ جي وچ ۾ ڪو انڊڪٽو فلٽر موجود نه هجي ته ڪيپيسٽو لوڊ کي وڏن ۽ بار بار پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪرنٽ اسپائڪن سان ٽٽل ڦٽل ڪرنٽ حاصل ٿيندو.<ref name=Rashid3 /> VSI جا ٽي بنيادي قسم آهن: # هڪ-مرحلي هاف-برج انورٽر # هڪ-مرحلي فل-برج انورٽر # ٽن-مرحلي وولٽيج سورس انورٽر === هڪ-مرحلي هاف-برج انورٽر === هڪ-مرحلي وولٽيج سورس هاف-برج انورٽر گهٽ وولٽيج وارن استعمالن لاءِ ٺاهيا ويندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي پاور سپلاءِ ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.<ref name=Rashid3 /> شڪل 9 هن انورٽر جي سرڪٽ جو خاڪو ڏيکاري ٿي. انورٽر جي عمل دوران هيٺين درجي جا ڪرنٽ هارمونڪس ٻيهر ذريعو وولٽيج ڏانهن موٽايا ويندا آهن، تنهن ڪري هن بناوت ۾ فلٽرنگ لاءِ ٻه وڏا ڪيپيسيٽر گهربل هوندا آهن.<ref name=Rashid3 /> جيئن شڪل 9 ۾ ڏيکاريل آهي، انورٽر جي هر ٽنگ (leg) ۾ هڪ ئي وقت صرف هڪ سوئچ هلندڙ حالت ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ساڳئي ٽنگ جا ٻئي سوئچ هڪ ئي وقت آن ٿي وڃن ته DC ذريعو شارٽ سرڪٽ ٿي ويندو. سوئچنگ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ انورٽر ڪيترائي ماڊوليشن طريقا استعمال ڪري سگهي ٿو. ڪيريئر-بنياد PWM ۾ AC آئوٽ پُٽ موج v<sub>c</sub> کي ڪيريئر وولٽيج سگنل v<sub>Δ</sub> سان ڀيٽيو ويندو آهي. جڏهن v<sub>c</sub>، v<sub>Δ</sub> کان وڌيڪ هوندو آهي ته S+ آن ٿيندو آهي، ۽ جڏهن v<sub>c</sub>، v<sub>Δ</sub> کان گهٽ هوندو آهي ته S− آن ٿيندو آهي. جيڪڏهن AC آئوٽ پُٽ جي فريڪوئنسي f<sub>c</sub> ۽ ان جو ايمپليٽيوڊ v<sub>c</sub> هجي، جڏهن⁠تہ ٽڪنڊي ڪيريئر سگنل جي فريڪوئنسي f<sub>Δ</sub> ۽ ايمپليٽيوڊ v<sub>Δ</sub> هجي، ته PWM، ڪيريئر-بنياد PWM جي خاص سائنوسي صورت بڻجي ويندو آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> هن حالت کي سائنوسي نبض-ويڪر ماڊوليشن (SPWM) چيو ويندو آهي. ان لاءِ ايمپليٽيوڊ يا ماڊوليشن انڊيڪس هيئن بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي: '''{{math|m<sub>a</sub> {{=}} v<sub>c</sub>/v<sub>∆</sub> }}''' جڏهن⁠تہ نارملائيزڊ ڪيريئر فريڪوئنسي يا فريڪوئنسي-ماڊوليشن نسبت هيٺين مساوات سان حاصل ڪئي ويندي آهي: '''{{math|m<sub>f</sub> {{=}} f<sub>∆</sub>/f<sub>c</sub> }}'''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kiruthiga|first=Murugeshan R. & Sivaprasath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDRlDwAAQBAJ&q=mf+%3D+f%E2%88%86%2Ffc&pg=PA918|title=Modern Physics, 18th Edition|date=2017|publisher=S. Chand Publishing|isbn=978-93-5253-310-7|language=en}}</ref> جيڪڏهن اوور-ماڊوليشن واري علائقي ۾ m<sub>a</sub> هڪ کان وڌي وڃي ته بنيادي AC آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج وڌي ويندو، پر ان سان گڏ سيچوريشن پڻ پيدا ٿيندي. SPWM ۾ آئوٽ پُٽ موج جا هارمونڪس واضح فريڪوئنسي ۽ ايمپليٽيوڊ تي موجود هوندا آهن، جنهن سان فلٽرن جي ڊزائن آسان ٿي ويندي آهي. هن موڊ ۾ وڌ ۾ وڌ آئوٽ پُٽ ايمپليٽيوڊ ذريعو وولٽيج جي اڌ جي برابر هوندي آهي. جيڪڏهن وڌ ۾ وڌ آئوٽ پُٽ ايمپليٽيوڊ، يعني m<sub>a</sub>، 3.24 کان وڌي وڃي ته انورٽر جي آئوٽ پُٽ موج چورس موج (Square Wave) بڻجي ويندي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> جيئن PWM ۾، تيئن چورس-موج ماڊوليشن دوران به ساڳئي ٽنگ جا ٻئي سوئچ هڪ ئي وقت آن نٿا ڪري سگهجن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان سان وولٽيج ذريعو شارٽ سرڪٽ ٿي ويندو. هن سوئچنگ طريقي ۾ AC آئوٽ پُٽ جي هر اڌ چڪر دوران S+ ۽ S− مان هڪ سوئچ آن رهندو آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> بنيادي AC آئوٽ پُٽ ايمپليٽيوڊ هن مساوات سان ڏني ويندي آهي: '''{{math|v<sub>o1</sub> {{=}} v<sub>aN</sub> {{=}} 2v<sub>i</sub>/π }}''' ۽ ان جا هارمونڪس هيٺين ايمپليٽيوڊ رکندا آهن: '''{{math|v<sub>oh</sub> {{=}} v<sub>o1</sub>/h}}''' تنهن ڪري AC آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج جو ڪنٽرول انورٽر نه، پر انورٽر جي DC ان پُٽ وولٽيج جي مقدار ڪندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> جيڪڏهن سليڪٽو هارمونڪ ايلمنيشن (SHE) کي ماڊوليشن طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي ته انورٽر جي سوئچنگ اهڙي نموني ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿي جو مخصوص فطري هارمونڪس ختم ٿي وڃن. هن طريقي سان بنيادي AC آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج کي به گهربل حد اندر ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ هن ماڊوليشن مان حاصل ٿيندڙ AC آئوٽ پُٽ موج ۾ اڻ برابري واري اڌ-موج ۽ چوٿين-موج هم آهنگي موجود هوندي آهي، تنهن ڪري زوجي (Even) هارمونڪس پيدا ناهن ٿيندا.<ref name=Rashid3 /> ان سان گڏ آئوٽ پُٽ موج مان گهربل فردي (Odd) فطري هارمونڪس کي به ختم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. === هڪ-مرحلي فل-برج انورٽر === فل-برج انورٽر هاف-برج انورٽر سان ملندڙ جلندڙ هوندو آهي، پر ان ۾ هڪ اضافي ٽنگ هوندي آهي جيڪا نيوٽرل پوائنٽ کي لوڊ سان ڳنڍيندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> شڪل 3 هڪ-مرحلي فل-برج وولٽيج سورس انورٽر جو سرڪٽ ڏيکاري ٿي. وولٽيج ذريعو شارٽ سرڪٽ ٿيڻ کان بچائڻ لاءِ S1+ ۽ S1− هڪ ئي وقت آن نٿا ٿي سگهن، ساڳيءَ طرح S2+ ۽ S2− پڻ هڪ ئي وقت آن نٿا ٿي سگهن. فل-برج ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ هر ماڊوليشن طريقي ۾ هر ٽنگ جو يا ته مٿيون يا هيٺيون سوئچ ڪنهن به وقت آن هجڻ لازمي آهي. اضافي ٽنگ سبب آئوٽ پُٽ موج جي وڌ ۾ وڌ ايمپليٽيوڊ Vi جي برابر هوندي آهي، جيڪا هاف-برج جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻيڻي هوندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> == AC/AC ڪنورٽر == {{Main|اي سي-کان-اي سي تائين ڪنورٽر}} AC طاقت کي AC طاقت ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ سان فراهم ڪيل AC نظام مان لوڊ تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ موج جي وولٽيج، فريڪوئنسي ۽ فيز کي ڪنٽرول ڪري سگهجي ٿو.<ref name=Rashid>{{cite book|last=Rahsid|first=M.H.|title=Power Electronics Handbook: Devices, Circuits, and Applications|year=2010|publisher=Elsevier|isbn= 978-0-12-382036-5|pages=147–564}}</ref> ڪنورٽرن جي قسمن کي ورهائڻ لاءِ ٻه مکيه درجا استعمال ٿين ٿا: ڇا موج جي فريڪوئنسي تبديل ٿئي ٿي يا نه.<ref name=Skvarenina>{{cite book|last=Skvarenina|first=T.L.|title=The power electronics handbook Industrial electronics series|year=2002|publisher=CRC Press|isbn= 978-0-8493-7336-7|pages=94–140}}</ref> اهڙا [[AC-to-AC converter|AC/AC ڪنورٽر]]، جيڪي استعمال ڪندڙ کي فريڪوئنسي تبديل ڪرڻ جي اجازت نٿا ڏين، AC وولٽيج ڪنٽرولر يا AC ريگيوليٽر سڏبا آهن. اهڙا AC ڪنورٽر، جيڪي استعمال ڪندڙ کي فريڪوئنسي تبديل ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏين ٿا، عام طور AC-to-AC تبديلي لاءِ فريڪوئنسي ڪنورٽر سڏبا آهن. فريڪوئنسي ڪنورٽرن هيٺ عام طور ٽي قسم جا ڪنورٽر استعمال ٿين ٿا: سائيڪلوڪنورٽر، ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ۽ DC-لنڪ ڪنورٽر ({{a.k.a.}} AC/DC/AC ڪنورٽر). '''AC وولٽيج ڪنٽرولر:''' AC وولٽيج ڪنٽرولر يا AC ريگيوليٽر جو مقصد، مستقل فريڪوئنسي تي لوڊ تي لڳندڙ RMS وولٽيج کي تبديل ڪرڻ آهي.<ref name=Rashid /> عام طور قبول ڪيل ٽي ڪنٽرول طريقا هي آهن: ON/OFF ڪنٽرول، فيز-اينگل ڪنٽرول، ۽ نبض-ويڪر ماڊوليشن AC چاپر ڪنٽرول (PWM AC چاپر ڪنٽرول).<ref name=Rashid2>{{cite book|last=Rashid|first=M.H.|title=Digital power electronics and applications Electronics & Electrical|year=2005|publisher=Academic Press|isbn= 978-0-12-088757-6}}</ref> اهي ٽيئي طريقا نه رڳو هڪ-مرحلي سرڪٽن ۾، پر ٽن-مرحلي سرڪٽن ۾ به لاڳو ڪري سگهجن ٿا. * ON/OFF ڪنٽرول: هي ڪنٽرول طريقو عام طور حرارتي لوڊن يا موٽرن جي رفتار ڪنٽرول لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن ۾ سوئچ کي n مڪمل چڪرن لاءِ آن ۽ m مڪمل چڪرن لاءِ آف ڪيو ويندو آهي. سوئچن کي آن ۽ آف ڪرڻ سان اڻ وڻندڙ هارمونڪس پيدا ٿين ٿا، تنهن ڪري سوئچن کي صفر-وولٽيج ۽ صفر-ڪرنٽ حالتن ۾، يعني زيرو-ڪراسنگ تي، آن ۽ آف ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان ڊسٽارشن گهٽجي ٿي.<ref name=Rashid2 /> * فيز-اينگل ڪنٽرول: مختلف موجن، جهڙوڪ هاف-ويو يا فل-ويو وولٽيج ڪنٽرول، تي فيز-اينگل ڪنٽرول لاڳو ڪرڻ لاءِ مختلف سرڪٽ موجود آهن. عام طور استعمال ٿيندڙ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ جزا [[ڊائيوڊ]]، [[ايس سي آر]] ۽ ٽرائيڪ آهن. انهن جزن جي مدد سان استعمال ڪندڙ موج ۾ فائرنگ زاويي کي دير سان شروع ڪري سگهي ٿو، جنهن سبب موج جو صرف هڪ حصو آئوٽ پُٽ طور ملي ٿو.<ref name=Rashid /> * PWM AC چاپر ڪنٽرول: ٻيا ٻه ڪنٽرول طريقا اڪثر هارمونڪس، آئوٽ پُٽ ڪرنٽ جي معيار ۽ ان پُٽ پاور فيڪٽر جي لحاظ کان ڪمزور هوندا آهن. انهن قدرن کي بهتر ڪرڻ لاءِ انهن طريقن بدران PWM استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. PWM AC چاپر ۾ سوئچ ان پُٽ وولٽيج جي متبادل اڌ-چڪرن اندر ڪيترائي ڀيرا آن ۽ آف ٿيندا آهن.<ref name=Rashid2 /> '''ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ۽ سائيڪلوڪنورٽر:''' [[سائيڪلوڪنورٽر]] AC کان AC تبديليءَ لاءِ صنعت ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي اعليٰ طاقت وارن استعمالن لاءِ مناسب هوندا آهن. اهي سپلاءِ لائين سان هم وقت ٿيل سڌا فريڪوئنسي ڪنورٽر آهن. سائيڪلوڪنورٽر جي آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج موجن ۾ پيچيده هارمونڪس هوندا آهن، جن مان اعليٰ درجي جا هارمونڪس مشين جي انڊڪٽنس ذريعي فلٽر ٿي ويندا آهن. ان سان مشين جي ڪرنٽ ۾ گهٽ هارمونڪس رهندا آهن، جڏهن ته بچيل هارمونڪس نقصان ۽ ٽارڪ جي ڌڙڪن پيدا ڪندا آهن. ياد رهي ته سائيڪلوڪنورٽر ۾ ٻين ڪنورٽرن جي ابتڙ، نه انڊڪٽر هوندا آهن نه ڪيپيسيٽر، يعني ڪو به توانائي ذخيرو ڪندڙ ڊوائيس موجود نه هوندو آهي. انهيءَ ڪري تڪڙي ان پُٽ طاقت ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ طاقت برابر هونديون آهن.<ref name=Tolbert>{{cite web|last=Tolbert|first=L.M.|title=Cycloconverters|url=https://www.scribd.com/sagar%20jaiswal/d/18197288-Cycloconverters|publisher=University of Tennessee|access-date=23 March 2012}}</ref> * هڪ-مرحلي کان هڪ-مرحلي [[سائيڪلوڪنورٽر]]: هڪ-مرحلي کان هڪ-مرحلي سائيڪلوڪنورٽرن ۾ تازو وڌيڪ دلچسپي پيدا ٿي آهي{{when|date=March 2012}}، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ سوئچن جي جسامت ۽ قيمت ٻنهي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي آهي. هڪ-مرحلي اعليٰ فريڪوئنسي AC وولٽيج يا ته سائنوسي ٿي سگهي ٿو يا ٽريپيزوئڊل. ڪنٽرول يا زيرو-وولٽيج ڪميٽيشن لاءِ انهن ۾ صفر وولٽيج وارا وقفا به ٿي سگهن ٿا. * ٽن-مرحلي کان هڪ-مرحلي [[سائيڪلوڪنورٽر]]: ٽن-مرحلي کان هڪ-مرحلي سائيڪلوڪنورٽرن جا ٻه قسم آهن: 3φ کان 1φ هاف-ويو سائيڪلوڪنورٽر ۽ 3φ کان 1φ برج سائيڪلوڪنورٽر. مثبت ۽ منفي ٻئي ڪنورٽر ڪنهن به پوليريٽي تي وولٽيج پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا؛ نتيجي ۾ مثبت ڪنورٽر صرف مثبت ڪرنٽ فراهم ڪري ٿو، ۽ منفي ڪنورٽر صرف منفي ڪرنٽ فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڊوائيسن ۾ تازين ترقيات سان سائيڪلوڪنورٽرن جون نيون صورتون، جهڙوڪ ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر، تيار ٿي رهيون آهن. پهرين نمايان تبديلي اها آهي ته ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ٻه-رخا، ٻه-قطبي سوئچ استعمال ڪن ٿا. هڪ-مرحلي کان هڪ-مرحلي ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر 9 سوئچن جي هڪ ميٽرڪس تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا ٽن ان پُٽ مرحلن کي ٽن آئوٽ پُٽ مرحلن سان ڳنڍي ٿي. ڪنهن به ان پُٽ مرحلي ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ مرحلي کي ڪنهن به وقت پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو، پر ساڳئي مرحلي جا ٻه سوئچ هڪ ئي وقت ڳنڍڻ نه گهرجن؛ ٻي صورت ۾ ان پُٽ مرحلن ۾ شارٽ سرڪٽ پيدا ٿيندو. ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ٻين ڪنورٽر حلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ هلڪا، وڌيڪ ٺهڪندڙ ۽ وڌيڪ ورسٽائل هوندا آهن. نتيجي طور، اهي وڌيڪ انضمام، وڌيڪ گرمي پد تي ڪم ڪرڻ، وسيع آئوٽ پُٽ فريڪوئنسي ۽ قدرتي ٻه-رخو طاقت وهڪرو مهيا ڪن ٿا، جيڪو توانائي کي واپس يوٽلٽي ڏانهن موٽائڻ لاءِ مناسب آهي. ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ٻن قسمن ۾ ورهايل آهن: سڌا ۽ اڻ سڌا ڪنورٽر. ٽن-مرحلي ان پُٽ ۽ ٽن-مرحلي آئوٽ پُٽ واري سڌي ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ۾، سوئچ ٻه-رخا هجڻ گهرجن، يعني اهي ٻنهي پوليريٽين جي وولٽيج کي روڪي سگهن ۽ ٻنهي رخن ۾ ڪرنٽ وهائي سگهن. هي سوئچنگ حڪمت عملي سڀ کان وڌيڪ ممڪن آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج مهيا ڪري ٿي ۽ لائين پاسي واري ري ايڪٽو ڪرنٽ کي گهٽائي ٿي. تنهن ڪري ڪنورٽر مان طاقت جو وهڪرو الٽجي به سگهي ٿو. پر ڪميٽيشن جي مسئلن ۽ پيچيده ڪنٽرول سبب، اهو صنعت ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال نٿو ٿئي. سڌي ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽرن جي ابتڙ، اڻ سڌا ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ساڳيو ڪم ڪن ٿا، پر اهي الڳ ان پُٽ ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ حصا استعمال ڪن ٿا، جيڪي ذخيري جزن کان سواءِ DC لنڪ ذريعي ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. هن ڊيزائن ۾ چار-ڪواڊرنٽ ڪرنٽ سورس ريڪٽيفائر ۽ وولٽيج سورس انورٽر شامل هوندو آهي. ان پُٽ حصو ٻه-رخن، ٻه-قطبي سوئچن تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ڪميٽيشن حڪمت عملي ان پُٽ حصي جي سوئچنگ حالت بدلائي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿي، جڏهن ته آئوٽ پُٽ حصو فري وِيلنگ موڊ ۾ هوندو آهي. هي ڪميٽيشن الگورٿم روايتي سڌي ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر جي ڀيٽ ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ پيچيده ۽ وڌيڪ قابل اعتماد آهي.<ref name=Klumpner>{{cite web|last=Klumpner|first=C.|title=Power Electronics 2|url=http://hermes.eee.nott.ac.uk/teaching/h5cpe2/|access-date=23 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927105049/http://hermes.eee.nott.ac.uk/teaching/h5cpe2/|archive-date=27 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> '''DC لنڪ ڪنورٽر:''' DC لنڪ ڪنورٽر، جن کي AC/DC/AC ڪنورٽر به چيو ويندو آهي، وچ ۾ DC لنڪ استعمال ڪندي AC ان پُٽ کي AC آئوٽ پُٽ ۾ تبديل ڪن ٿا. مطلب ته ڪنورٽر ۾ طاقت پهريان ريڪٽيفائر ذريعي AC مان DC ۾ تبديل ٿئي ٿي، ۽ پوءِ انورٽر ذريعي DC مان ٻيهر AC ۾ تبديل ٿئي ٿي. آخري نتيجو اهڙو آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي جنهن جو وولٽيج گهٽ ۽ فريڪوئنسي تبديل ٿيندڙ، يعني وڌيڪ يا گهٽ، هوندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid2 /> وسيع استعمالن سبب AC/DC/AC ڪنورٽر اڄڪلهه سڀ کان عام حل آهن. انهن جو ٻيو فائدو اهو آهي ته اهي اوورلوڊ ۽ نو-لوڊ حالتن ۾ مستحڪم رهندا آهن ۽ نقصان کان سواءِ لوڊ کان ڌار ڪري سگهجن ٿا.<ref name=Vodovozov>{{cite book|last=Vodovozov|first=V|title=Electronic engineering|year=2006|isbn= 978-9985-69-039-0}}</ref> '''هائبرڊ ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر:''' هائبرڊ ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر AC/AC ڪنورٽرن لاءِ نسبتاً نوان آهن. اهي ڪنورٽر AC/DC/AC ڊيزائن کي ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ڊيزائن سان گڏ ڪن ٿا. هن نئين درجي ۾ هائبرڊ ڪنورٽرن جا ڪيترائي قسم تيار ڪيا ويا آهن، مثال طور اهڙو ڪنورٽر جيڪو هڪ-رخا سوئچ ۽ DC لنڪ کان سواءِ ٻه ڪنورٽر مرحلا استعمال ڪري ٿو؛ DC لنڪ لاءِ گهربل ڪيپيسيٽرن يا انڊڪٽرن جي غير موجودگي سبب ڪنورٽر جو وزن ۽ جسامت گهٽجي وڃن ٿا. هائبرڊ ڪنورٽرن جا ٻه ذيلي قسم آهن: هائبرڊ ڊائريڪٽ ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر (HDMC) ۽ هائبرڊ اِنڊائريڪٽ ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر (HIMC). HDMC وولٽيج ۽ ڪرنٽ کي هڪ ئي مرحلي ۾ تبديل ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته HIMC، AC/DC/AC ڪنورٽر وانگر، الڳ مرحلا استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر وچ ۾ ذخيري جزو استعمال نٿو ڪري.<ref name=Lipo>{{cite journal|last=Lipo|author2=Kim, Sul|title=AC/AC Power Conversion Based on Matric Converter Topology with Unidirectional Switches|journal=IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications|volume=36|issue=1|pages=139–145|doi=10.1109/28.821808|year=2000|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Wheeler>{{cite journal|last=Wheeler|author2=Wijekoon, Klumpner|title=Implementation of a Hybrid AC/AC Direct Power Converter with Unity Voltage Transfer Ratio|journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics]]|date=July 2008|volume=23|issue=4|pages=1918–1986|doi=10.1109/tpel.2008.924601|s2cid=25517304|url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/34835/1/TPEL-_Thiwanka_hybrid%20acac%20unity.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719095619/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/34835/1/TPEL-_Thiwanka_hybrid%20acac%20unity.pdf |date=2018-07-19 }}</ref> '''استعمال:''' هيٺ عام استعمالن جي فهرست ڏني وئي آهي، جن ۾ هر ڪنورٽر استعمال ٿئي ٿو. * AC وولٽيج ڪنٽرولر: روشنيءَ جو ڪنٽرول؛ گهريلو ۽ صنعتي حرارت؛ فين، پمپ يا هوئسٽ ڊرائيوز جي رفتار ڪنٽرول؛ انڊڪشن موٽرن جي سافٽ اسٽارٽنگ؛ جامد AC سوئچ<ref name=Rashid />، جهڙوڪ گرمي پد ڪنٽرول، ٽرانسفارمر ٽيپ تبديل ڪرڻ وغيره. * سائيڪلوڪنورٽر: اعليٰ طاقت، گهٽ رفتار وارا الٽجندڙ AC موٽر ڊرائيوز؛ تبديل ٿيندڙ ان پُٽ فريڪوئنسي سان مستقل فريڪوئنسي پاور سپلاءِ؛ پاور فيڪٽر درستگي لاءِ ڪنٽرول لائق VAR جنريٽر؛ ٻن آزاد پاور نظامن کي ڳنڍيندڙ AC سسٽم انٽرٽائيز.<ref name=Rashid /> * ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر: هن وقت ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽرن جا استعمال محدود آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اعليٰ فريڪوئنسي تي ڪم ڪندڙ ٻه-رخا مونو ليٿڪ سوئچ دستياب نه آهن، ڪنٽرول قانون لاڳو ڪرڻ پيچيده آهي، ڪميٽيشن جا مسئلا آهن، ۽ ٻيا سبب موجود آهن. انهن ترقيات سان ميٽرڪس ڪنورٽر ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ سائيڪلوڪنورٽرن جي جاءِ وٺي سگهن ٿا.<ref name=Rashid /> * DC لنڪ: مشين بلڊنگ ۽ تعميراتي شعبن ۾ هڪ يا گهڻن لوڊ وارن استعمالن لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.<ref name="Vodovozov" /> == پاور اليڪٽرانڪ نظامن جون نقليون == [[File:Regulated rectifier.gif|thumb|right|ڪنٽرول ٿيل ٿائرسٽرن سان فل-ويو ريڪٽيفائر جو آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج]] پاور اليڪٽرانڪ سرڪٽن جون نقليون ڪمپيوٽر سموليشن پروگرامن، جهڙوڪ SIMBA، [[پليڪس|PLECS]]، [[پي سم سافٽويئر|PSIM]]، [[اسپائس (اليڪٽرانڪس)|SPICE]]، [[ميٽ ليب]]/سميولنڪ ۽ [[اوپن ماڊليڪا]]، جي مدد سان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن. سرڪٽن کي پيداوار کان اڳ سموليٽ ڪيو ويندو آهي ته جيئن ڏسي سگهجي ته مخصوص حالتن هيٺ اهي ڪيئن جواب ڏين ٿا. ان کان علاوه، سموليشن ٺاهڻ جاچ لاءِ پروٽوٽائپ ٺاهڻ جي ڀيٽ ۾ سستو ۽ تيز هوندو آهي.<ref name=Khader>{{cite web|last=Khader|first=S|title=The Application of PSIM & Matlab/ Simulink in Power Electronics Courses|url=http://www.psut.edu.jo/sites/educon/program/contribution1139_b.pdf|access-date=25 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324022210/http://www.psut.edu.jo/sites/educon/program/contribution1139_b.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> == استعمال == طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جا استعمال ننڍن [[سوئچڊ موڊ پاور سپلاءِ]]ن، [[AC اڊاپٽر]]ن، بيٽري چارجرن، آڊيو ايمپليفائرن، [[فلوريسنٽ ليمپ]] بيلسٽن، [[ويريئيبل فريڪوئنسي ڊرائيو]]ن ۽ ڊي سي موٽر ڊرائيوز (جيڪي پمپن، پنکڙين ۽ صنعتي مشينري کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿين ٿا) کان وٺي گيگاواٽ سطح جي [[هاءِ وولٽيج ڊائريڪٽ ڪرنٽ]] (HVDC) برقي توانائي جي منتقلي وارن نظامن تائين پکڙيل آهن، جيڪي مختلف برقي گرڊن کي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reliance Electric 57C494 {{!}} Automation Industrial |url=https://57c494.com/blog |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=57c494.com |language=en}}</ref> طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ نظام تقريباً هر اليڪٽرانڪ اوزار ۾ موجود هوندا آهن. مثال طور: * [[ڊي سي کان ڊي سي وارو ڪنورٽر]] اڪثر موبائل اوزارن (جهڙوڪ موبائل فون، PDA وغيره) ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن ته جيئن بيٽري جي وولٽيج ۾ تبديلي باوجود آئوٽ پُٽ وولٽيج مقرر قدر تي برقرار رهي. اهي ڪنورٽر برقي الڳائپ (اليڪٽريڪل آئسوليشن) ۽ [[پاور فيڪٽر]] جي درستگي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. [[پاور آپٽيمائزر]] به ڊي سي/ڊي سي ڪنورٽر جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيڪو [[شمسي فوٽووولٽائيڪ نظام]] يا [[هوائي ٽربائن]] مان توانائي جي حاصلات وڌائڻ لاءِ تيار ڪيو ويو آهي. * اي سي/ڊي سي ڪنورٽر ([[ريڪٽيفائر]]) هر اُن اوزار ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن جيڪو مکيه بجليءَ جي فراهمي سان ڳنڍيل هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪمپيوٽر، ٽيليويزن وغيره). اهي رڳو AC کي DC ۾ تبديل نٿا ڪن، پر ضرورت مطابق وولٽيج جي سطح پڻ تبديل ڪري سگهن ٿا. * [[اي سي کان اي سي ڪنورٽر]] وولٽيج يا فريڪوئنسي تبديل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن (مثال طور بين الاقوامي پاور اڊاپٽر يا لائيٽ ڊمر). بجليءَ جي ورڇ وارن نيٽ ورڪن ۾ اهي [[يوٽيلٽي فريڪوئنسي]] 50 هرٽز ۽ 60 هرٽز وارن گرڊن جي وچ ۾ توانائي جي منتقلي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. * [[پاور انورٽر|ڊي سي/اي سي ڪنورٽر (انورٽر)]] بنيادي طور [[بي رڪاوٽ بجلي فراهمي]] (UPS)، قابل تجديد توانائي وارن نظامن ۽ [[هنگامي روشني]] جي نظامن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. عام حالت ۾ مکيه بجلي ڊي سي بيٽري کي چارج ڪندي آهي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مکيه فراهمي بند ٿي وڃي ته انورٽر بيٽري جي ڊي سي توانائي کي مکيه وولٽيج واري اي سي بجلي ۾ تبديل ڪري ڇڏيندو آهي. [[شمسي انورٽر]]، جن ۾ اسٽرنگ انورٽر، سينٽرل انورٽر ۽ [[شمسي مائڪرو انورٽر]] شامل آهن، [[فوٽووولٽائيڪ نظام]] جو اهم حصو آهن. موٽر ڊرائيو پمپن، بلورن، ۽ ڪپڙي، ڪاغذ، سيمينٽ سميت ٻين صنعتن جي ملن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن. اهي توانائي جي تبديلي سان گڏ حرڪت جي ڪنٽرول لاءِ به استعمال ٿيندا آهن.<ref name=Bose_Motion_Control>{{cite journal|last=Bose|first=Bimal K.|title=Power Electronics and Motion Control – Technology Status and Recent Trends|date=September–October 1993}}</ref> اي سي موٽرن لاءِ انهن ۾ [[ويريئيبل فريڪوئنسي ڊرائيو]]، [[موٽر سافٽ اسٽارٽر]] ۽ ايڪسائيٽيشن نظام شامل آهن.<ref name=Bose_Motor_Drives>{{cite journal|last=Bose|first=Bimal K.|title=Power Electronics and Motor Drives Recent Progress and Perspective|date=February 2009}}</ref> [[هائبرڊ برقي گاڏي]]ن (HEVs) ۾ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس ٻن قسمن سان استعمال ٿيندي آهي: سيريز هائبرڊ ۽ پيرالل هائبرڊ. ٻنهي جي وچ ۾ فرق برقي موٽر ۽ [[اندروني احتراقي انجڻ]] (ICE) جي لاڳاپي ۾ هوندو آهي. برقي گاڏين ۾ گهڻو ڪري بيٽري چارج ڪرڻ لاءِ ڊي سي/ڊي سي ڪنورٽر ۽ گاڏي هلائڻ واري موٽر لاءِ ڊي سي/اي سي ڪنورٽر استعمال ٿيندا آهن. [[برقي گهڻ-يونٽ ريل گاڏي]]ون (EMU) توانائي حاصل ڪرڻ ۽ [[پلس-ويڊٿ ماڊيوليشن]] (PWM) ريڪٽيفائرن ذريعي ویکٽر ڪنٽرول لاءِ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ اوزار استعمال ڪن ٿيون. اهي ريل گاڏيون بجلي پاور لائينن مان حاصل ڪن ٿيون. لفٽ نظامن ۾ پڻ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس جو استعمال وڌي رهيو آهي، جتي [[ٿائرسٽر]]، انورٽر، [[مستقل مقناطيسي موٽر]] يا PWM ۽ روايتي موٽرن تي ٻڌل گڏيل نظام استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.<ref name=Yano_Power_Electronics_Japan>{{cite journal|last=Yano|first=Masao|author2=Shigery Abe |author3=Eiichi Ohno |title=History of Power Electronics for Motor Drives in Japan|year=2004}}</ref> === انورٽر === عام طور تي انورٽر انهن استعمالن لاءِ ڪم ايندا آهن جتي برقي توانائي کي سڌي طرح ڊي سي مان اي سي يا اڻ سڌي طرح اي سي مان اي سي ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ ضروري هجي. ڊي سي کان اي سي ۾ تبديلي پاور ڪنڊيشننگ، هارمونڪ معاوضي، موٽر ڊرائيو، قابل تجديد توانائي کي گرڊ سان ڳنڍڻ ۽ [[خلائي جهازن تي شمسي پينل]]ن جي نظامن ۾ اهم آهي. برقي توانائي جي نظامن ۾ لائين ڪرنٽن ۾ موجود هارمونڪن کي ختم ڪرڻ گهڻو ڪري گهربل هوندو آهي. ان مقصد لاءِ VSI کي فعال پاور فلٽر طور استعمال ڪري هارمونڪ معاوضو مهيا ڪيو ويندو آهي. ماپيل لائين ڪرنٽن ۽ وولٽيجن جي بنياد تي ڪنٽرول نظام هر فيز لاءِ حوالياتي ڪرنٽ سگنل تيار ڪندو آهي، جيڪي فيڊ بيڪ ذريعي حقيقي ڪرنٽ سان ڀيٽيا ويندا آهن ۽ پوءِ انورٽر اهڙا آئوٽ پُٽ ڪرنٽ پيدا ڪندو آهي، جيڪي هارمونڪن جو ازالو ڪن. هن ترتيب ۾ حقيقي توانائي خرچ نٿي ٿئي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڊي سي لنڪ صرف هڪ ڪيپيسيٽر هوندو آهي، جنهن جو وولٽيج ڪنٽرول نظام مقرر سطح تي برقرار رکندو آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> ساڳئي ترتيب ۾ VAR معاوضو به ممڪن آهي، جنهن ۾ آئوٽ پُٽ ڪرنٽ لائين وولٽيج کان اڳ هوندو آهي، جنهن سان مجموعي [[پاور فيڪٽر]] بهتر ٿيندو آهي.<ref name=Trzynadlowski /> اسپتالن، هوائي اڏن ۽ ٻين اهڙين جڳهن تي، جتي بجليءَ جي فراهمي هر وقت ضروري هجي، [[بي رڪاوٽ بجلي فراهمي]] (UPS) استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. اسٽينڊ بائي UPS ۾، مکيه گرڊ بند ٿيندي ئي انورٽر فوري طور ڪم شروع ڪندو آهي، بيٽرين مان توانائي وٺي ان کي استعمال لائق AC ۾ تبديل ڪندو آهي، جيستائين گرڊ بحال نه ٿئي يا بيڪ اپ جنريٽر آن نه ٿين. آن لائين UPS ۾ ريڪٽيفائر–ڊي سي لنڪ–انورٽر ترتيب استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا لوڊ کي ٽرانزينٽن ۽ هارمونڪن کان بچائيندي آهي. ڊي سي لنڪ سان متوازي بيٽري هميشه چارج ٿيل رهندي آهي، ۽ انورٽر جو آئوٽ پُٽ لو-پاس فلٽر ذريعي لوڊ تائين پهچندو آهي، جنهن سان اعليٰ معيار جي بجلي ۽ خللن کان آزادي حاصل ٿيندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> اي سي موٽرن جي رفتار، ٽارڪ ۽ پوزيشن تي ڪنٽرول لاءِ مختلف قسم جا اي سي موٽر ڊرائيو تيار ڪيا ويا آهن. اهي يا ته [[اسڪيلر ڪنٽرول]] يا [[ويڪٽر ڪنٽرول]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. اسڪيلر ڪنٽرول ڊرائيو ۾ صرف اسٽيٽر ڪرنٽ يا وولٽيج جي فريڪوئنسي ۽ ايمپليٽيُوڊ تي ڪنٽرول هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري اهي پنکڙين ۽ ڪمپريسرن جهڙن استعمالن لاءِ مناسب آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، ويڪٽر ڪنٽرول ڊرائيو ۾ ڪرنٽ ۽ وولٽيج جي تڪڙي قدرن تي مسلسل ڪنٽرول ممڪن هوندو آهي، جيڪو لفٽن ۽ برقي گاڏين جهڙن اعليٰ ڪارڪردگي وارن استعمالن لاءِ ضروري آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> انورٽر ڪيترن ئي قابل تجديد توانائي وارن نظامن ۾ پڻ بنيادي حيثيت رکن ٿا. فوٽووولٽائيڪ نظامن ۾ PWM بنياد وارو VSI، فوٽووولٽائيڪ ماڊيول يا ايري مان پيدا ٿيندڙ ڊي سي توانائي حاصل ڪري ان کي اي سي وولٽيج ۾ تبديل ڪندو آهي، جيڪا لوڊ يا گرڊ سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿي. هوائي ٽربائنن ۾ به انورٽر استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جتي ٽربائن جي رفتار بدلجڻ سبب وولٽيج جي فريڪوئنسي ۽ ڪڏهن ان جي مقدار به تبديل ٿيندي آهي. اهڙي حالت ۾ پيدا ٿيل وولٽيج کي پهرين ريڪٽيفاءِ ۽ پوءِ ٻيهر انورٽ ڪري مستحڪم فريڪوئنسي ۽ وولٽيج حاصل ڪئي ويندي آهي.<ref name=Rashid3 /> === سمارٽ گرڊ === [[سمارٽ گرڊ]] جديد [[برقي گرڊ]] آهي، جيڪو [[معلومات ۽ مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي]] جي مدد سان فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ استعمال ڪندڙن بابت معلومات پاڻمرادو گڏ ڪري ۽ ان تي عمل ڪري بجليءَ جي پيداوار ۽ ورڇ جي ڪارڪردگي، اعتبار، معاشي افاديت ۽ پائيداري کي بهتر بڻائيندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-17167.pdf | title = Pacific Northwest GridWise™ Testbed Demonstration Projects, Part I. Olympic Peninsula Project | access-date = 2014-01-15 | author = D. J. Hammerstrom|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://energy.gov/oe/technology-development/smart-grid | title = Smart Grid / Department of Energy | access-date = 2012-06-18 | author = U.S. Department of Energy}}</ref> [[هوائي ٽربائن]]ن ۽ آبي ٽربائنن ۾ [[انڊڪشن جنريٽر]]ن ذريعي پيدا ٿيندڙ بجليءَ جي فريڪوئنسي ۾ تبديليون اچي سگهن ٿيون. اهڙين حالتن ۾ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ اوزار پيدا ٿيل AC کي [[هاءِ وولٽيج ڊائريڪٽ ڪرنٽ]] (HVDC) ۾ تبديل ڪندا آهن، جنهن کي پوءِ آساني سان ٽن-مرحلي واري اهڙي بجليءَ ۾ تبديل ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪا موجوده گرڊ سان هم آهنگ هجي. اهڙي طريقي سان گرڊ کي صاف بجلي ۽ وڌيڪ بهتر پاور فيڪٽر حاصل ٿيندو آهي. هوائي توانائي جي نظامن ۾ بهترين ٽارڪ گيئر باڪس يا سڌي ڊرائيو ٽيڪنالاجي سان حاصل ڪئي ويندي آهي، جيڪا طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ اوزارن جي سائيز به گهٽائي سگهي ٿي.<ref name=Carrasco_Smart_Grid>{{cite journal|last=Carrasco|first=Juan Manuel|author2=Leopoldo Garcia Franquelo |author3=Jan T. Bialasiewecz |author4=Eduardo Galvan |author5=Ramon C. Portillo Guisado |author6=Ma. Angeles Martin Prats |author7=Jose Ignacio Leon |author8=Narciso Moreno-Alfonso |title=Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of Renewable Sources: A Survey |journal=IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics|date=August 2006|volume=53|issue=4|page=1002|doi=10.1109/tie.2006.878356|citeseerx=10.1.1.116.5024|s2cid=12083425}}</ref> [[فوٽووولٽائيڪ سيل]]ن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ برقي توانائي به طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ اوزارن جي مدد سان استعمال لائق بڻائي ويندي آهي. اها توانائي عام طور [[شمسي انورٽر]] ذريعي تبديل ڪئي ويندي آهي. شمسي انورٽر ٽن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: مرڪزي، ماڊيول-ضم ٿيل (ماڊيول-انٽيگريٽيڊ) ۽ اسٽرنگ انورٽر. مرڪزي انورٽر سڄي فوٽووولٽائيڪ فارم لاءِ هڪ ئي هنڌ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته ماڊيول-ضم ٿيل ۽ اسٽرنگ انورٽر مختلف ترتيبن ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، خاص طور جڏهن شمسي پينل مختلف رخن ڏانهن لڳل هجن.<ref name=Carrasco_Smart_Grid /> طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس بجلي فراهم ڪندڙ ادارن کي رهائشي ۽ تجارتي [[شمسي توانائي]] جي تيزي سان وڌندڙ پيداوار سان مطابقت پيدا ڪرڻ ۾ به مدد ڏيندي آهي. جرمني، هوائي، ڪيليفورنيا ۽ نيو جرسي جهڙن علائقن ۾ نون شمسي نظامن جي منظوري کان اڳ تفصيلي مطالعي جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ننڍي پيماني تي لڳايل ذهين ڪنٽرول وارا اوزار بجليءَ جي وهڪري جي نگراني ۽ ڪنٽرول لاءِ ورهايل ڍانچو مهيا ڪن ٿا. روايتي برقي-ميخانياتي اوزار، جهڙوڪ [[ڪيپيسيٽر بئنڪ]] يا [[وولٽيج ريگيوليٽر]]، سب اسٽيشنن تي وولٽيج کي ترتيب ڏيڻ لاءِ گهڻو وقت وٺندا آهن، جڏهن ته سمارٽ گرڊ تي ٻڌل ريگيوليٽر وڌيڪ تيز ۽ اثرائتا هوندا آهن.<ref name=tr1401>{{cite web|first=Martin |last=LaMonica |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2014/01/21/174504/power-electronics-smooth-solar-transition/ |title=Power Electronics Could Help Grid and Solar Power Get Along &#124; MIT Technology Review |publisher=Technologyreview.com |date= 2014-01-21|access-date=2014-01-22}}</ref> هڪ ٻي طريقي ۾، اولهه آمريڪا جي 16 بجلي فراهم ڪندڙ ادارن جي گروهه ''ويسٽرن اليڪٽرڪ انڊسٽري ليڊرز'' گهرن ۾ "سمارٽ انورٽر" جي لازمي استعمال جي سفارش ڪئي. اهي اوزار ڊي سي کي گهريلو اي سي ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ سان گڏ بجليءَ جي معيار کي به بهتر بڻائين ٿا، ۽ گهڻي قيمت وارن يوٽيلٽي اپگريڊن جي ضرورت کي گهٽ خرچ تي ختم ڪري سگهن ٿا.<ref name=tr1401 /> == پڻ ڏسو == * [[گهڻ-پورٽ طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪ انٽرفيس]] * [[FET ايمپليفائر]] * [[طاقت انتظام گڏيل سرڪٽ]] * [[آر ايف طاقتي ايمپليفائر]] == نوٽس == {{reflist|33em}} == حوالا == * {{Cite book |last=Batarseh |first=Issa |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=TZZ9QgAACAAJ}}|title=Power Electronic Circuits |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-45228-7 |language=en|authorlink=Issa Batarseh}} * {{cite book|url= https://mazumder.lab.uic.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/504/2021/03/Ch29.pdf|access-date=2024-09-09 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-99216-9|first=S.K. |last=Mazumder|title=High-Frequency Inverters: From Photovoltaic, Wind, and Fuel-Cell based Renewable- and Alternative-Energy DER/DG Systems to Battery based Energy-Storage Applications|date=21 December 2023 }} * {{Cite book |last=Gurevich |first=Vladimir |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315218809 |title=Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Engineering |date=2018-10-08 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/9781315218809 |isbn=978-1-315-21880-9}} * {{Cite book |date=2009-09-27 |title=Application Manual IGBT- and MOSFET-power modules|url=http://www.sindopower.com/Application-Manual-oxid |access-date=2024-09-09 |editor= Semikron|first1= Ulrich |last1=Nicolai |first2=Tobias |last2=Reimann |first3=Jürgen |last3=Petzoldt |first4=Josef |last4=Lutz |edition=1 |publisher=ISLE Verlag|isbn=978-3-932633-24-9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927060227/http://www.sindopower.com/Application-Manual-oxid |archive-date=2009-09-27 }} * {{cite book |first1=R. W. |last1=Erickson |first2=D. |last2=Maksimovic |title=Fundamentals of Power Electronics |edition=2 |publisher=Springer |year=2001 |isbn=0-7923-7270-0 |url=http://ecee.colorado.edu/copec/book/SecEd.html |access-date=2026-07-01 |archive-date=2012-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218085956/http://ecee.colorado.edu/copec/book/SecEd.html |url-status=dead }} * {{citation|surname1=Arendt Wintrich|surname2=Ulrich Nicolai|surname3=Werner Tursky|surname4=Tobias Reimann|title=Applikationshandbuch 2010|edition=2.|publisher=ISLE Verlag|year=2010|isbn=978-3-938843-56-7|language=de|url=http://www.powerguru.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_Applikationshandbuch_Leistungshalbleiter.pdf|format=PDF-Version}}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{citation|surname1=Arendt Wintrich|surname2=Ulrich Nicolai|surname3=Werner Tursky|surname4=Tobias Reimann|title=Application Manual 2011|edition=2.|publisher=ISLE Verlag|year=2011|isbn=978-3-938843-66-6|language=de|url=http://www.powerguru.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_application_manual_power_semiconductors.pdf|format=PDF-Version|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903030232/http://www.powerguru.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_application_manual_power_semiconductors.pdf|archive-date=2013-09-03}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == {{portal bar|اليڪٽرانڪس|ٽيڪنالاجي}} {{Commons category|طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس}} {{Authority control}} {{Electronic systems}} [[زمرو:طاقتي اليڪٽرانڪس| ]] [[زمرو:اليڪٽرانڪس صنعت]] je4rdjjlnjsx6yeo787znvhfy1ijxlz بي معنائپ 0 99829 394739 391882 2026-07-16T03:02:37Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{مختصر وضاحت|انتهائي غير معقول يا بيوقوفاڻو}} '''بي معنائپ'''، [[عقل|غير معقول]]، [[معنيٰ (غير لساني)|بي معنيٰ]] يا ايترو بي بنياد هجڻ جي حالت يا ڪيفيت آهي، جو اها [[غير عقليت|غير عقلي]] هجي. ”بي معنيٰ“ اها صفت آهي، جيڪا بي معنائپ کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿئي ٿي؛ مثال طور، ”ڊيوڊ ۽ ڇوڪرا بي معنيٰ صورتحال تي کلڻ لڳا.“<ref name=WD>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/absurd?show=0&t=1296966875 Webster's Dictionary]</ref> هي لفظ لاطيني لفظ ''absurdum'' مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ ”سُر کان ٻاهر“ آهي.<ref>{{Citation |title=Wordreference.com |url=https://www.wordreference.com/definition/absurdities |access-date=2026-07-04 |archive-date=2025-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250106222542/https://www.wordreference.com/definition/absurdities |url-status=dead }}</ref> موسيقي يا [[صوتيات]] کان ٻاهر، هن اصطلاح جي معنيٰ ”عقل سان بي سُر“ ٿي وئي.<ref>{{cite book | title=Word Mysteries &amp; Histories: from Quiche to Humble Pie | editor1-first=Anne H. | editor1-last=Soukhanov | editor2-first=Kaethe | editor2-last=Ellis | display-editors=etal | publisher=Houghton Miffin Company | page=2 | year=1985 | isbn=0-395-40265-4 }}</ref> لاطيني لفظ ''surdus'' جي معنيٰ ”[[ٻوڙو]]“ آهي، جنهن مان [[بيوقوفي]] جو مفهوم نڪري ٿو.<ref name=WD/> بي معنائپ کي حقيقت پسند يا [[عقل|معقول]] هجڻ جي ابتڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.<ref>Synonyms on [https://thesaurus.com/browse/reasonable Thesaurus.com]</ref> عام استعمال ۾ بي معنائپ، [[بي سروپا ڳالهه]]، معنيٰ جي کوٽ، خيالي پڻي، بيوقوفي، عجيب پڻي ۽ بي قابو پڻي جي هم معنيٰ ٿي سگهي ٿي. مخصوص استعمال ۾، بي معنائپ جو واسطو خراب استدلال جي انتهائي صورتن يا استدلال جي بي مقصد هجڻ سان آهي؛ مضحڪائپ جو واسطو اڻ ٺهڪندڙ شين جي انتهائي ميلاپ، کل ۽ ٺٺولي سان آهي؛ جڏهن ته بي سروپا ڳالهه جو واسطو [[معنيٰ (لسانيات)|معنيٰ]] جي کوٽ سان آهي. [[بي معنائپ پسندي]] فلسفي ۾ هڪ اهڙو تصور آهي، جيڪو بي معنائپ جي تصور سان لاڳاپيل آهي. == فلسفو == === قديم يونان === [[قديم يوناني]] فيلسوف [[افلاطون]] اڪثر ”بي معنائپ“ جو اصطلاح انتهائي ناقص استدلال، يا ڪنهن غلط موقف کي اختيار ڪرڻ سان نڪرندڙ غلط نتيجي لاءِ استعمال ڪندو هو؛ اهڙي نتيجي کي ”بي معنائپ“ چيو ويندو آهي ([[رد بالخلف]] ذريعي دليل). افلاطون ''[[پارمينيدس (مڪالمو)|پارمينيدس]]'' ۾ پاڻ بابت بيان ڪري ٿو ته هو پنهنجي خلاف بي معنيٰ استدلال استعمال نٿو ڪري.<ref>''Parmenides'', Plato</ref> ''[[گورگياس (مڪالمو)|گورگياس]]'' ۾ افلاطون غلط مفروضي مان استدلال ڪرڻ جي نتيجي کي ”ناگزير بي معنائپ“ سڏي ٿو.<ref>''Gorgias'', Plato</ref> [[ارسطو]] استدلال ۾ غير عقلي بي معنائپ کي [[تجربي پسندي]] ۽ [[امڪان]] جي ذريعي درست ڪيو؛ سندس چوڻ هو ته ”هڪ ڀيرو غير عقلي ڳالهه متعارف ڪرائي وڃي ۽ ان کي امڪان جو رنگ ڏنو وڃي، ته پوءِ بي معنائپ باوجود اسان کي ان کي قبول ڪرڻ گهرجي.“<ref name=AP>Aristotle in Poetics, S.H. Butcher</ref> هن دعويٰ ڪئي ته شاعريءَ ۾ استدلال جي بي معنائپ دلڪش ٻوليءَ جي پردي هيٺ لڪي ويندي آهي: ”جيئن معاملو آهي، بي معنائپ ان شاعراڻي دلڪشيءَ سان ڍڪجي وڃي ٿي، جيڪا شاعر ان کي عطا ڪري ٿو... پر رزميه نظم ۾ بي معنائپ ڌيان ۾ ئي نٿي اچي.“<ref name=AP/> ارسطو پنهنجي ڪتاب ''[[خطابت (ارسطو)|خطابت]]'' ۾ انهن حالتن تي بحث ڪري ٿو، جن ۾ بي معنائپ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ ان ڳالهه تي پڻ ته اها قائل ڪرڻ جي عمل کي ڪيئن متاثر ڪري ٿي. ارسطو موجب، ڪنهن ماڻهوءَ جو پنهنجي لفظن سان ٻئي شخص کي قائل نه ڪري سگهڻ وارو تصور بي معنيٰ آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Honeycutt|first=Lee|title=Aristotle's Rhetoric|url=http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-1.html|publisher=Alpine Lakes Design|access-date=October 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008201141/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-1.html|archive-date=2014-10-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> ڪنهن معاملي سان لاڳاپيل هر غير ضروري ڄاڻ غير معقول هوندي آهي ۽ تقرير کي غير واضح بڻائيندي آهي. جيڪڏهن تقرير تمام گهڻي غير واضح ٿي وڃي، ته پيش ڪيل موقف جو جواز قائل ڪندڙ نه رهندو آهي ۽ دليل بي معنيٰ بڻجي ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web|last=Honeycutt|first=Lee|title=Aritotle's Rhetoric|url=http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet3-3.html|publisher=Alpine Lakes Design|access-date=October 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028140919/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet3-3.html|archive-date=October 28, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> بيوقوفي ۽ انتهائي ناقص استدلال ذريعي عقيدا جوڙڻ جي حوالي سان ”بي معنائپ“ جو اصطلاح سڄي تاريخ ۾ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي.<ref name=AWTD>Absurdities – Webster's Timeline Dictionary</ref> [[ارسطوفينس]] جي پنجين صدي ق.م. جي مزاحيه ناٽڪ ''[[ڀنڀوريون (ناٽڪ)|ڀنڀوريون]]'' ۾، سندس مک ڪردار [[فيلوڪليون]] [[ايسپ جون آکاڻيون|ايسپ جي آکاڻين]] جون ”بي معنائپون“ سکي ٿو، جن کي غير معقول خيال ۽ غير حقيقي سمجهيو ويندو هو.<ref>''The Wasps'', Parmenides</ref> === نشاة ثانيه ۽ اوائلي جديد دور === [[مائيڪل ڊي مونٽين]]، [[مضمون]] ۽ جديد [[شڪ پسندي]] جو باني، دليل ڏنو ته اختصار جو عمل بيوقوفاڻو آهي ۽ بي معنائپ پيدا ڪري ٿو: ”ڪنهن سٺي ڪتاب جو هر اختصار هڪ بيوقوفاڻو اختصار آهي... بي معنائپ <nowiki>[آهي]</nowiki> جنهن جو علاج نٿو ٿي سگهي... اها پاڻ مان ايتري مطمئن هوندي آهي، جيترو ڪو عقل معقول نموني ٿي سگهي ٿو.“<ref>''The Essays of Michel De Montaigne'', Michel de Montaigne name</ref> [[فرانسس بيڪن]]، [[تجربي پسندي]] ۽ سائنسي طريقي جي شروعاتي حامين مان هڪ، دليل ڏنو ته بي معنائپ سائنسي ترقيءَ جو هڪ ضروري جزو آهي ۽ ان تي هميشه کلڻ نه گهرجي. هن وڌيڪ چيو ته سوچ جا جرئت ڀريا نوان طريقا ۽ دليراڻا مفروضا اڪثر بي معنائپ ڏانهن وٺي ويندا آهن: ”ڇو ته جيڪڏهن بي معنائپ کل جو موضوع آهي، ته ان ۾ شڪ نه ڪريو ته وڏي [[WP:Bold|دليري]] ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ئي ڪنهن بي معنائپ کان خالي هوندي آهي.“<ref>Essays, Francis Bacon</ref> [[ٿامس هابز]] بي معنائپ کي غلطين کان الڳ ڪيو، جن ۾ بنيادي لساني غلطيون به شامل آهن، جيئن ڪنهن لفظ کي اهڙي شيءِ لاءِ استعمال ڪرڻ، جنهن جو اهو نالو ئي نه هجي. [[الوشيئس مارٽينچ]] موجب: ”هابز کي جنهن ڳالهه جي ڳڻتي آهي، اها بي معنائپ آهي. رڳو انسان ئي بي معنائپ کي قبول ڪري سگهن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رڳو انسانن وٽ ٻولي آهي، ۽ فيلسوف ٻين جي ڀيٽ ۾ ان جو وڌيڪ شڪار ٿين ٿا.“<ref name=HD>{{Citation|last=Martinich|first=Aloysius|year=1995|title=Hobbes Dictionary|publisher=Blackwell}} page 27, citing ''[[ليوائٿن (هابز جو ڪتاب)|ليوائٿن]]'' 5.7.</ref> هابز لکيو ته ”اهي لفظ، جن مان اسان آواز کان سواءِ ٻيو ڪجهه به تصور نٿا ڪريون، تن کي اسين بي معنيٰ، بي اهميت ۽ بي سروپا چئون ٿا. تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪو ماڻهو مون سان گول چوڪنڊي، يا پنير ۾ مانيءَ جي عرضن، يا غير مادي جوهرن، يا آزاد فاعل، آزاد ارادي، يا اهڙي ڪنهن آزاديءَ بابت ڳالهائي، جيڪا رڳو مخالفت جي رنڊڪ کان آزاد هجڻ کان سواءِ ٻي ڪا آزادي هجي، ته مان اهو نه چوندس ته هو غلطيءَ تي آهي، پر اهو ته سندس لفظ بي معنيٰ آهن، يعني بي سروپا آهن.“<ref name=L>''[[ليوائٿن (هابز جو ڪتاب)|ليوائٿن]]'', [http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=585&layout=html#chapter_89826 Chapter V] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223192758/https://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=585&layout=html#chapter_89826 |date=2022-02-23 }}.</ref> هن بي معنائپ جا ست قسم الڳ ڪيا. هيٺ مارٽينچ جو خلاصو ڏنو ويو آهي، جيڪو سندس بيان موجب هابز جي ''De Corpore'' 5 ۾ موجود ”پختي تشريح“ تي ٻڌل آهي. انهن سڀني ۾ اهڙا مثال استعمال ٿيل آهن، جيڪي ارسطوي يا مدرسي فلسفي ۾ ملي سگهن ٿا، ۽ اهي سڀ ”[[گليليو گليلي|گليليو]] ۽ [[وليم هاروي|هاروي]] جي نئين سائنس سان هابز جي وابستگي“ جي عڪاسي ڪن ٿا. هن کي ”هابز جي بي معنائپ جي جدول“ چيو ويندو آهي. # ”ڪنهن جسم جي نالي کي ڪنهن عرض جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”وجود هڪ هستي آهي“ يا ”هستي وجود آهي“. هابز موجب اهڙيون بي معنائپون [[مدرسي فلسفو|مدرسي فلسفي]] ۾ عام آهن. # ”ڪنهن جسم جي نالي کي ڪنهن خيالي صورت جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”ڀوت هڪ جسم آهي“. # ”ڪنهن جسم جي نالي کي ڪنهن نالي جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”ڪلي هڪ شيءِ آهي“. # ”ڪنهن عرض جي نالي کي ڪنهن خيالي صورت جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”رنگ ڏسندڙ کي نظر اچي ٿو“. # ”ڪنهن عرض جي نالي کي ڪنهن نالي جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”وصف ڪنهن شيءِ جي [[ماهیت]] آهي“. # ”ڪنهن خيالي صورت جي نالي کي ڪنهن نالي جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”انسان جو تصور هڪ ڪلي آهي“. # ”ڪنهن شيءِ جي نالي کي ڪنهن گفتاري عمل جي نالي سان ملائڻ.“ مثال طور، ”ڪجهه موجودات ''بذاتهٖ'' هستيون آهن“. مارٽينچ موجب، [[گلبرٽ رائل]] انهن مسئلن جي قسمن تي، جن کي هابز بي معنائپون سڏي ٿو، ”[[مقولاتي غلطي]]“ جي اصطلاح هيٺ بحث ڪيو. جيتوڻيڪ هاڻوڪي عام استعمال ۾ ”بي معنائپ“ کي ”[[مضحڪائپ]]“ جو هم معنيٰ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، هابز ٻنهي تصورن کي الڳ سمجهيو. سندس نظر ۾ بي معنائپ جو واسطو غلط استدلال سان آهي،<ref name=HD/><ref name=L/> جڏهن ته مضحڪائپ جو واسطو [[کل]]، [[برتري (درجابندي)|برتري]] ۽ [[بدصورتي]] سان آهي.<ref>The Perception of Humor, Willibald Ruch, Emotions, qualia, and consciousness, Biocybernetics, VOl. 10</ref><ref>How Many Feminists Does It Take To Make A Joke? Sexist Humor and What's Wrong With It, Memo Bergmann, Hypatia, Vol. 1, Issue 1, March 1986</ref><ref>Humor as a Double-Edged Sword: Four Functions of Humor in Communication, JC Meyer, Communication Theory, Volume 10, Issue 3, pages 310–331, August 2000</ref> === ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو === {{Further|مور جو تضاد}} انگريز [[تجزياتي فلسفو|تجزياتي فيلسوف]] [[جي. اي. مور]] ٻوليءَ جي تضاد طور اهڙن ظاهري طور بي معنيٰ بيانن جو حوالو ڏنو، جهڙوڪ: ”مان گذريل اڱاري تي فلم ڏسڻ ويس، پر مان ان ڳالهه تي يقين نٿو رکان.“<ref>Moore, George Edward (ed.) (1962). Commonplace Book, 1919-1953. New York: Routledge.</ref> اهڙا بيان سچا ۽ منطقي طور هم آهنگ ٿي سگهن ٿا ۽ ڳالهائيندڙ جي لساني ارادي تي وڌيڪ غور ڪرڻ سان تضاد نه رهندا آهن. [[لودوگ وِٽگنسٽائن|وِٽگنسٽائن]] مشاهدو ڪري ٿو ته ڪجهه غير معمولي حالتن ۾ اهڙن بيانن مان بي معنائپ پاڻ ئي ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙا موقعا به آهن، جن ۾ ”مينهن پيو وسي، پر مان ان تي يقين نٿو رکان“ معنيٰ رکي سگهي ٿو؛ يعني جيڪا ڳالهه ظاهري طور بي معنيٰ لڳي ٿي، اها لازمي طور بي سروپا ناهي.<ref>Wittgensteinian Accounts of Moorean Absurdity, Philosophical Studies, Volume 92, Number 3, John N. Williams, [https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004260008644]</ref> === بي معنائپ === {{Further|بي معنائپ پسندي}} 20هين صديءَ کان وٺي [[وجوديت]]، [[بي معنائپ پسندي]] ۽ لاڳاپيل فلسفن ۾ بي معنائپ کي وڌيڪ مخصوص معنيٰ ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جنهن کي اڪثر ''بي معنائپ'' چيو وڃي ٿو: انسان جي [[داخلي قدر (اخلاقيات)|ذاتي قدر]] ۽ [[زندگيءَ جي معنيٰ|زندگيءَ ۾ معنيٰ]] ڳولڻ واري لاڙي ۽ انهن کي يقيني طور ڳولي نه سگهڻ واري انساني نااهليءَ وچ ۾ ٽڪراءُ. ڪائنات ۽ انساني ذهن الڳ الڳ بي معنائپ جو سبب نٿا بڻجن؛ بلڪه بي معنائپ ٻنهي جي هڪ ئي وقت موجود هجڻ واري متضاد فطرت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿي.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[سدرن ڪراس يونيورسٽي]]|url=https://liveideasjournal.org/2019/03/11/an-argument-for-the-absurd/|title=An Argument for the Absurd|date=March 11, 2019|access-date=October 8, 2019|first=John|last=Dotterweich}}</ref><ref>Kearney, Peadar (2013). "Absurdism and Lyricism: Stylistic Extremes in Camus' Novels". ''Journal of Camus Studies''. Camus Society / Lulu.com: The absurd is "the dissonance that exists between man's hopes and what he achieves in reality. The absurd is neither man's hope or bleak reality but a confrontation of the two" (153); "Man's call is met by the world's unreasonable silence" (159).</ref> تنهن ڪري بي معنائپ پسندي، جيڪو سڀ کان وڌيڪ [[البرٽ ڪاميو]] سان ([[وڪي لغت:posthumous|وفات کان پوءِ]]) لاڳاپيل فلسفو آهي، اهو عقيدو آهي ته ڪائنات غير عقلي ۽ بي معنيٰ آهي؛ ان سان گڏ اهو انسان جي معنيٰ پيدا ڪرڻ واري جدوجهد بابت به نظريو پيش ڪري ٿو.<ref>Genovese, Maria K., "Meaningful Meaninglessness: Albert Camus' Presentation of Absurdism as a Foundation for Goodness" (2010). Pell Scholars and Senior Theses. 60. p. 1. https://digitalcommons.salve.edu/pell_theses/60</ref> بي معنائپ سبب، ڪنهن بي پرواهه، بي مقصد ۽ بي معنيٰ دنيا ۾ مقصد يا معنيٰ جي ڳولا کي يا ته بي مقصد سمجهي سگهجي ٿو يا اڃا به امڪاني طور قيمتي. يقيني موت جي سامهون حد کان وڌيڪ دولت گڏ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش يا ٻين وجودي مقصدن جي پيروي ڪرڻ پڻ اهي تصور آهن، جن تي بي معنائپ بابت غور ڪندڙ فيلسوف بحث ڪن ٿا. پنهنجي مقالي ''بي معنائپ'' ۾ [[ٿامس نيگل]] انساني زندگيءَ جي دائمي بي معنائپ جو تجزيو ڪيو. زندگيءَ ۾ بي معنائپ تڏهن ظاهر ٿئي ٿي، جڏهن اسين اهو محسوس ڪريون ٿا ته هڪ پاسي اسين پنهنجي زندگيءَ کي سنجيدگيءَ سان وٺون ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي ساڳئي وقت اهو به ڏسون ٿا ته اسان جي هر ڪم ۾ هڪ خاص قسم جي من ماني موجود آهي. هو صلاح ڏئي ٿو ته بي معنائپ جي ڳولا ڪڏهن به بند نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ان کان سواءِ، هو بي معنائپ جي وچ ۾ [[طنز]] ڳولڻ جي پڻ صلاح ڏئي ٿو.<ref>Nagel, T. (1971). The Absurd. The Journal of Philosophy, 68(20), 716–727. https://doi.org/10.2307/2024942</ref> == فن ۽ افسانو == بي معنائپ، خاص طور مٿي بيان ڪيل فلسفياڻي مفهوم ۾ ”بي معنائپ“، مختلف فني تحريڪن ۾ موضوع رهي آهي، جن ۾ [[ادبي بي سروپائي]] کان وٺي [[دادائيت]]، [[سريئلزم]] ۽ [[بي معنائپ پسند افسانو]] شامل آهن. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[بي معنائپ جو ٿيٽر]] ڊرامائي فنن ۾ بي معنائپ پسند افساني جي هڪ نمايان تحريڪ هئي، جنهن ۾ اهڙن ڪردارن کي پيش ڪيو ويندو هو، جيڪي زندگيءَ جي بي معنائپ سان جهيڙيندا هئا. {{Blockquote|"ٿيٽر هڪ رتورت ۽ غير انساني تماشو هجڻ گهرجي، جيڪو تماشائيءَ جي دٻايل ڏوهاري ۽ شهواني جنونن کي ڪڍي ٻاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ جوڙيو ويو هجي."|[[انتونين آرتو]]|''[[ٿيٽر ۽ ان جو ٻٽو روپ]]''}} == طب == طبي مبصرن [[متبادل ۽ تڪميلي طب]] ۽ [[مربوط طب]] ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ طريقن ۽ استدلال تي تنقيد ڪندي انهن کي يا ته بي معنائپون يا [[ثبوت]] ۽ بي معنائپ جي وچ واريون شيون قرار ڏنو آهي. سندن چوڻ آهي ته اهي طريقا اڪثر ”متبادل طب“ ۽ ”تڪميلي طب“ جهڙن نرم ۽ خوشنما اصطلاحن جي استعمال سان عوام کي گمراهه ڪن ٿا، ۽ هو صحيح [[سائنسي ثبوت]] ۽ [[سائنسي طريقيڪار]] کي بي معنائپ کان چٽيءَ طرح الڳ ڪرڻ جو مطالبو ڪن ٿا.<ref>"Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Between Evidence and Absurdity", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'', Volume 52, Number 2, Spring 2009, pp. 289–303, Edzard Ernst</ref><ref>"Propagation of the Absurd: demarcation of the Absurd revisited", Wallace Sampson, Kimball Atwood IV, ''The Medical Journal of Australia'', 183 (11/12)</ref> == علم الاهيات == {{Blockquote|"مان يقين رکان ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها بي معنيٰ آهي"|[[ٽرٽوليئن]]}} بي معنائپ کي عقيدي ۽ ايمان جي تشڪيل بابت ڪجهه الاهياتي استدلالن جي بنياد طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيئن [[ايمان پسندي]] ۾، جيڪا هڪ [[علمياتي]] نظريو آهي، جنهن موجب عقل ۽ ايمان هڪ ٻئي جا مخالف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بيان ''"[[ڪريڊو ڪويا ابسرڊم]]"'' (”مان يقين رکان ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها بي معنيٰ آهي“) کي ''[[دي ڪارني ڪرسٽي]]'' مان [[ٽرٽوليئن]] ڏانهن منسوب ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيئن فيلسوف [[والٽيئر]] ان جو ترجمو ڪيو.<ref>''A Philosophical Dictionary: From the French'', Voltaire</ref> [[نيو ايڊوينٽ چرچ]] موجب، ٽرٽوليئن ''دي ڪارني ڪرسٽي'' جي باب 5 ۾ چيو هو: ”[...] خدا جو پٽ مري ويو؛ ان تي هر طرح سان يقين ڪرڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها بي معنيٰ آهي.“<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0315.htm On the Flesh of Christ, Fathers of the Church, New Advent]</ref> بي معنائپ ڪنهن اهڙي سخت مذهبي عقيدي ڏانهن به اشارو ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪو ڪنهن ڳالهه کي ايتري حد تائين وٺي وڃي، جو اها عام فهم جي خلاف ٿي پوي. مثال طور، غير لچڪدار مذهبي حڪمن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[فريسي پسندي]] چيو ويندو آهي، جنهن مان مراد مقصد يا روح بدران لفظن يا قاعدن جي ٺيڪ ٺيڪ پيرويءَ تي غير معقول زور ڏيڻ آهي.<ref>[http://www.yourdictionary.com/pharisaic "Pharisaic", Your Diciontionary.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718143857/http://www.yourdictionary.com/pharisaic |date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref><ref>"It was Pharisaic in its ritualism and... asceticism... proclaiming a doctrine of absurdity to the enlightened pagan", ''The Churches of the New Testament'', George W. McDaniel, 1921</ref><ref>[http://www.yourdictionary.com/pharisaic Your Dictionary.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718143857/http://www.yourdictionary.com/pharisaic |date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref> [[اينڊريو وِلٽ]] بي معنائپن کي ”صحيفن سان سڌن تضادن“ ۽ ”بدعتن“ سان گڏ رکيو.<ref>The doctrines and practices of the Church of Rome truly represented, John Gother, 1593</ref> == نفسيات == [[نفسيات دان]] ان ڳالهه جو اڀياس ڪن ٿا ته انسان زندگيءَ ۾ لڳاتار پيش ايندڙ بي معنائپن سان ڪيئن مطابقت پيدا ڪن ٿا.<ref>''The psychology of adaptation to absurdity: tactics of make-believe'', by Seymour Fisher, Rhoda Lee Fisher, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kejcgoDXJDwC&dq=absurdity&pg=PR9]</ref> [[اشتهاربازي]] ۾، اهو معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ڪنهن بي معنيٰ تصوير جي موجودگي يا غير موجودگي شين ڏانهن منفي روين جي شدت کي گهٽائي سگهي ٿي ۽ شين جي سڃاڻپ وڌائي سگهي ٿي.<ref>"Effects of Absurdity in Advertising: The Moderating Role of Product Category Attitude and the Mediating Role of Cognitive Responses", ''Journal of Advertising'', 2000, Leopold Arias-Bolzmann, Goutam Chakraborty, John C. Mowen, [https://www.jstor.org/pss/4189133]</ref> == مزاح ۽ ڪاميڊي == {{Further|مزاح جو نظريو|بي معنائپ پسند مزاح}} {{Blockquote|"مون کي ڪجهه به نظر نٿو اچي" – ''[[ايلس ان ونڊرلينڊ]]'' ::"واهه، تنهنجون اکيون ته ضرور ڏاڍيون سٺيون هونديون" – [[چيشائر ٻلو]]}} بي معنائپ کي [[مزاح جو نظريو|مزاح]] ۾ ماڻهن کي کلائڻ يا ڪنهن ڳوڙهي نڪتي کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان جو هڪ مثال [[ليوس ڪيرول]] جو ”[[جيبرواڪي]]“ آهي، جيڪو بي سروپا شاعريءَ تي ٻڌل نظم آهي ۽ اصل ۾ سندس بي معنائپ پسند ناول ''[[ٿرو دي لڪنگ گلاس، اينڊ واٽ ايلس فائونڊ ديئر]]'' (1872ع) جي هڪ حصي طور شامل هو. ڪيرول هڪ منطق دان هو ۽ هن غير منطقي طريقي ۽ منطقي طريقن کي ابتو ڪري [[منطق]] جي پيروڊي ڪئي.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/pss/4334590 ''Wonderland Revisited'', Harry Levin]</ref> ارجنٽائن جي ناول نگار [[خورخي لوئس بورخيس]] پنهنجن مختصر افسانن ۾ نڪتا بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ بي معنائپن جو استعمال ڪيو.<ref>''"to justify this 'absurdity' is the primordial object of this note"'', Labyrinths, Jorge Luis Borges, p. 39, [https://archive.org/details/labyrinthsselect00borg_0/page/39 <!-- quote=Borges Absurdity. -->]</ref> [[فرانز ڪافڪا]] جي ''[[روپ مٽجڻ]]'' کي ڪجهه ماڻهو بي معنائپ پسند تخليق سمجهن ٿا.<ref>"On the Absurdity of Kafka's Works from Transformer", G Yan-li, ''Journal of Yunyang Teachers College'', 2008</ref> == منطق ۽ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس == === ''رد بالخلف'' === [[رد بالخلف]]، يعني ڪنهن ڳالهه کي بي معنائپ تائين پهچائڻ، مناظري، منطق ۽ [[رياضي]] ۾ ثبوت جو هڪ طريقو آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن قضيي کي سچو فرض ڪرڻ سان بي معنائپ پيدا ٿئي ٿي؛ ڪنهن قضيي کي سچو فرض ڪري ان مان اهڙو قضيو اخذ ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن جي غلط هجڻ جي اڳواٽ ڄاڻ هوندي آهي، تنهن ڪري اصل قضيو لازمي طور غلط هوندو آهي. اهو [[مناظرو|مناظري]] ۾ دليل ڏيڻ جو هڪ انداز پڻ آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪنهن موقف کي فرض ڪري، استدلال ذريعي اهڙي نتيجي تائين پهچايو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ڄاتل طور غلط هجي يا عام فهم جي خلاف هجي، ۽ اهڙيءَ طرح ان موقف کي غلط يا ”بي معنيٰ“ ثابت ڪيو ويندو آهي. [[افلاطون]] هن طريقي کي ٻين فلسفياڻن موقفن خلاف دليل ڏيڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو.<ref>The History of Reduction to Absurdity, Yao-yong, 2006</ref> [[ماڊل تبديلي|ماڊل تبديلين]] جي منطق ۾ '''بي معنائپ جي پابندي''' استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي.<ref>A Constructive Approach to Testing Model Transformations, Theory and Practice of Model Transformations, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2010, Volume 6142/2010, 77-92, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-642-13688-7_6}}, Camillo Fiorentini, Alberto Momigliano, Mario Ornaghi, Iman Poernomo, [https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-13688-7_6]</ref> === منطق ۾ مستقل === '''بي معنائپ جو مستقل'''، جنهن کي اڪثر ⊥ جي علامت سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي، صوري منطق ۾ استعمال ٿئي ٿو.<ref>''Classical harmony'', Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, Volume 27, Number 4 (1986), 459-482, Alan Weir</ref> اهو ''فالسُم'' جي تصور جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو، جيڪو هڪ بنيادي [[منطقي قضيو]] آهي ۽ ڪيترين ئي [[پروگرامنگ ٻولي|پروگرامنگ ٻولين]] ۾ مستقل "false" سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. === منطق ۾ قاعدو === '''بي معنائپ جو قاعدو''' منطق جو هڪ قاعدو آهي، جيئن [[پيٽرڪ سپيز]] پنهنجي ''Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science: Proceedings'' ۾ استعمال ڪيو آهي.<ref>''Logic, methodology and philosophy of science: Proceedings'', Patrick Suppes [https://books.google.com/books?id=QUgmsMm5LcAC&dq=Absurdity+constant+Suppes&pg=PA243]</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == * [[بي معنائپ جو نظريو]] * [[غير منطقي]] * [[بي سروپائي]] * [[غير منطقي نتيجو (ادبي اسلوب)]] * [[مضحڪائپ]] * [[بيوقوفاڻو پڻو]] * [[بيوقوفي]] * [[چنڊ سائي پنير مان ٺهيل آهي]] == حوالا == {{Reflist|30em}} == ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا == * {{Wikiquote-inline|absurdity}} * {{Wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[زمرو:ٻوليءَ جي فلسفي جا تصور]] [[زمرو:وجوديت پسند تصور]] [[زمرو:مقبول ثقافت]] p7hnca1y419bl32cpe4hvxtou2dzo6s ايس ايم ايس 0 100377 394564 2026-07-15T11:59:43Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|text messaging in general|Text messaging|other uses}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''Short Message Service''' ('''SMS''') is a [[text messaging]] service component of most [[telephone]], [[Internet]] and [[mobile device]] systems. It uses standardized [[communication protocols]] that let [[mobile phone]]s exchange short text messages, typically transmitted over c... 394564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|text messaging in general|Text messaging|other uses}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''Short Message Service''' ('''SMS''') is a [[text messaging]] service component of most [[telephone]], [[Internet]] and [[mobile device]] systems. It uses standardized [[communication protocols]] that let [[mobile phone]]s exchange short text messages, typically transmitted over [[cellular networks]]. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters,{{Efn|Specifically 140 [[bytes]], allowing 160 7-bit (i.e. entirely alpha-numeric) characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 2-byte characters in languages such as Chinese when encoded using [[UTF-16]] character encoding.}} originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] iz0thjs0ustn3v1wfmlqc2cdxkdy52m 394566 394564 2026-07-15T12:09:41Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] i47u9llosj88wq6uyrg3rhecidg2bg8 394571 394566 2026-07-15T12:12:08Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* حوالا ۽ نوٽ */ 394571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا ۽ نوٽ== ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ===نوٽ=== {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] fgz4w34v3iji0s3e12ec43loqr6s5y6 394572 394571 2026-07-15T12:12:34Z Ibne maryam 17680 394572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا ۽ نوٽ== ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} ===نوٽ=== {{notelist}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] hr7jgp1ad0lfkvy5z9h8iwtgywkr1nd 394574 394572 2026-07-15T12:13:04Z Ibne maryam 17680 394574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا ۽ نوٽ== ===حوالا=== {{حوالا}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] 281tc35isatytqgc38jwvhag5u1r2hb 394575 394574 2026-07-15T12:13:38Z Ibne maryam 17680 394575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} == External links == {{Commons category|SMS}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Mobile phones}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunication services]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] [[Category:Text messaging]] [[Category:Mobile phones]] [[Category:Communication]] q3ma1tpuzx9l8ja94ppgajqsulqvpxc 394578 394575 2026-07-15T12:18:12Z Ibne maryam 17680 394578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|An SMS message received on a [[Siemens SL55]]]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. Developed as part of the [[GSM]] standards, and based on the [[Signalling System No. 7|SS7]] signalling protocol, SMS rolled out on digital cellular networks starting in 1993<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> and was originally intended for customers to receive alerts from their [[Mobile network operator|carrier/operator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> The service allows users to send and receive text messages of up to 160 characters, originally to and from GSM phones and later also [[Code-division multiple access|CDMA]] and [[Digital AMPS]]; it has since been defined and supported on newer networks,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> including present-day [[5G]] ones. Using [[SMS gateway]]s, messages can be transmitted over the Internet through an [[Short Message service center|SMSC]], allowing communication to computers, fixed [[landline]]s, and [[Satellite phone|satellite]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] was later introduced as an upgrade to SMS with "picture messaging" capabilities. In addition to recreational texting between people, SMS is also used for [[mobile marketing]] (a type of [[direct marketing]]),<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> [[Multi-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] logging-in,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> [[televoting]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> mobile banking (see [[SMS banking]]), and for other commercial content.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The SMS standard has been hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication: by the end of 2010, it was the most widely used data application with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> More recently, SMS has become increasingly challenged by newer proprietary [[instant messaging]] services;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> [[Rich Communication Services]] (RCS) has been designated as the potential open standard successor to SMS.<ref name=":1" /> == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 6gdbu6c81cbnetkhndi4ilbzb5evj6k 394588 394578 2026-07-15T12:46:20Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == == Developmental history == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === Initial concept === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early development === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Early implementations === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Growth and adoption === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] d8jl0t9j9e6pyjzicewzjz69kp4vbj8 394589 394588 2026-07-15T12:49:02Z Ibne maryam 17680 394589 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == Contemporary usage == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] jsshe3m93rum0oqcellhnlvexienowo 394590 394589 2026-07-15T12:49:46Z Ibne maryam 17680 394590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Technical details == === GSM === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] re4r740yg5384zma3i434ex4dzj9pqu 394592 394590 2026-07-15T12:50:43Z Ibne maryam 17680 394592 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == Vulnerabilities == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 0ghgqo74xen4m9ibjjzo9l4tz3l1qew 394595 394592 2026-07-15T12:51:57Z Ibne maryam 17680 394595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == See also == {{div col |colwidth=27em}} * [[Process driven messaging service]] * [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]] * [[Instant messaging]] * [[Typing#Thumbing|Thumbing]] * [[Data Coding Scheme]] * [[Enhanced Messaging Service]] (EMS) * [[Short Message Service technical realisation (GSM)]] * [[SMS hubbing]] * [[SMS home routing]] * [[SMS language]] * [[BCODE]] * [[Unstructured Supplementary Service Data]] {{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 83uidi7mh5ilsbbewr7008ope040lph 394598 394595 2026-07-15T12:57:28Z Ibne maryam 17680 394598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == پڻ ڏسو: == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}* [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 3occsd65azxo7fhkpm8jsbsnecua21c 394599 394598 2026-07-15T12:58:39Z Ibne maryam 17680 394599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === SMS spoofing === {{main|SMS spoofing}} The [[GSM]] industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered via abuse of SMS messaging services. One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information in order to impersonate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently, these messages are addressed to destinations outside the home network—with the home SMSC essentially being "hijacked" to send messages into other networks.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed messages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that the message is coming from a valid and correct location. This can be implemented by adding an intelligent routing function to the network that can query originating subscriber details from the [[home location register]] (HLR) before the message is submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] jxki20qz1b7cfakly2hoje6w413if5l 394618 394599 2026-07-15T14:04:01Z Ibne maryam 17680 394618 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === Limitation === In an effort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bombarding users with hordes of unsolicited messages, India introduced new regulations in September 2011, including a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> Due to representations received from some of the service providers and consumers, [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|TRAI]] (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS messages per SIM per day in case of [[Prepaid mobile phone|prepaid]] services, and up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of [[postpaid]] services with effect from November 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high court, but there are some limitations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2025|reason=the source does not mention the Delhi high court; it is unclear what "it" in the sentence refers to; the source only says that TRAI lifted the 200-sms-per-day limit after 'representations from various service providers and corporates'}}{{fv|date=November 2025}} == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 7xa23ra7r564csq46ub4adl4jlnmtj4 394620 394618 2026-07-15T14:08:19Z Ibne maryam 17680 394620 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == SMS technology originated from [[radio telegraphy]] in radio memo [[pager]]s that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications ([[GSM]]) series of standards.<ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when [[Neil Papworth]], a test engineer for [[Sema Group]], sent "Merry Christmas" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis.<ref name="First SMS" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === حد === ٽيلي مارڪيٽنگ ڪندڙن کي محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾، جيڪي غير ضروري پيغامن جي هجوم سان استعمال ڪندڙن تي بمباري ڪرڻ لڳا هئا، ڀارت سيپٽمبر 2011ع ۾ نوان ضابطا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ هر سبسڪرائبر جي هر مهيني 3,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن جي حد، يا سراسري طور تي هر روز 100 في سبسڪرائبر جي حد شامل هئي. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> ڪجهه سروس فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ صارفين کان مليل نمائندگي جي ڪري، ٽرائي (ٽيليڪام ريگيوليٽري اٿارٽي آف انڊيا) هن حد کي پري پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في ڏينهن 200 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين ۽ پوسٽ پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في مهيني 6,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين وڌائي ڇڏيو آهي، جيڪو 1 نومبر 2011ع کان لاڳو ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> بهرحال، دهلي هاءِ ڪورٽ طرفان ان کي غير آئيني قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ڪجهه حدون اڃان تائين لاگو آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] juzdzfotoyz9iwj2x9tb12yk54gy30r 394622 394620 2026-07-15T14:16:14Z Ibne maryam 17680 394622 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == ايس ايم ايس ٽيڪنالاجي ريڊيو ميمو پيجرز ۾ ريڊيو ٽيلي گرافي مان پيدا ٿي جيڪي معياري فون پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندا هئا. انهن کي <small>1986</small>ع ۾ موبائل ڪميونيڪيشن جي گلوبل سسٽم (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي سيريز جي حصي طور بيان ڪيو ويو هو. <ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> پهريون ايس ايم ايس پيغام 3 ڊسمبر <small>1992</small>ع تي موڪليو ويو، جڏهن سيما گروپ جي ٽيسٽ انجنيئر نيل پيپ ورٿ، ساٿي رچرڊ جاروس جي اوربيٽل <small>901</small> فون تي "ميري ڪرسمس" موڪليو.<ref name="First SMS" /> <ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === موبائل ڊوائيسز ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ ڪارڪردگي شامل ڪرڻ سال 1980ع جي شروعات ۾ شروع ٿيو. CEPT گروپ GSM جو پهريون ايڪشن پلان ڊسمبر 1982ع ۾ منظور ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ درخواست ڪئي وئي ته "عوام ۾ پيش ڪيل خدمتون ۽ سهولتون ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ ۽ عوامي ڊيٽا نيٽ ورڪ ... موبائل سسٽم ۾ موجود هجڻ گهرجن." هن منصوبي ۾ ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن جي مٽاسٽا يا ته سڌو سنئون موبائل اسٽيشنن جي وچ ۾، يا ان وقت استعمال ٿيندڙ پيغام هينڊلنگ سسٽم ذريعي منتقل ڪيو ويو. ايس ايم ايس جو تصور 1984 ۾ فريڊ هيلم هيلبرانڊ ۽ برنارڊ گيلبارٽ پاران فرانڪو-جرمن GSM تعاون ۾ تيار ڪيو ويو. GSM کي ٽيليفوني لاءِ بهتر بڻايو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي ان جي مکيه ايپليڪيشن طور سڃاتو ويو هو. ايس ايم ايس جو اهم خيال هن ٽيليفون-بهتر ڪيل نظام کي استعمال ڪرڻ هو، ۽ سگنلنگ رستن تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ هو جيڪي ٽيليفون ٽرئفڪ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل هئا جڏهن ڪو سگنلنگ ٽرئفڪ موجود نه هو. هن طريقي سان، سسٽم ۾ غير استعمال ٿيل وسيلن کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ قيمت تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، پيغامن جي ڊيگهه کي 128 بائيٽ تائين محدود ڪرڻ ضروري هو (بعد ۾ 160 ست-بٽ اکرن تائين بهتر ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن پيغام موجوده سگنلنگ فارميٽ ۾ فٽ ٿي سگهن. پنهنجي ذاتي مشاهدي ۽ پوسٽ ڪارڊ ۽ ٽيليڪس پيغامن جي عام ڊيگهه جي تجزيي جي بنياد تي، هيلبرانڊ دليل ڏنو ته 160 اکر گهڻيون مختصر مواصلات لاءِ ڪافي آهن. هر موبائل اسٽيشن ۾ ايس ايم ايس کي ان جي سافٽ ويئر کي اپڊيٽ ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. تنهن ڪري، ايس ايم ايس جي قابل ٽرمينلز ۽ نيٽ ورڪن جو هڪ وڏو بنياد موجود هو جڏهن ماڻهن ايس ايم ايس استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. هڪ نئون نيٽ ورڪ عنصر گهربل هو هڪ خاص مختصر پيغام سروس سينٽر، ۽ وڌندڙ ايس ايم ايس ٽرئفڪ کي ترتيب ڏيڻ لاءِ ريڊيو جي گنجائش ۽ نيٽ ورڪ ٽرانسپورٽ انفراسٽرڪچر ۾ واڌ جي ضرورت هئي. text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === حد === ٽيلي مارڪيٽنگ ڪندڙن کي محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾، جيڪي غير ضروري پيغامن جي هجوم سان استعمال ڪندڙن تي بمباري ڪرڻ لڳا هئا، ڀارت سيپٽمبر 2011ع ۾ نوان ضابطا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ هر سبسڪرائبر جي هر مهيني 3,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن جي حد، يا سراسري طور تي هر روز 100 في سبسڪرائبر جي حد شامل هئي. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> ڪجهه سروس فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ صارفين کان مليل نمائندگي جي ڪري، ٽرائي (ٽيليڪام ريگيوليٽري اٿارٽي آف انڊيا) هن حد کي پري پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في ڏينهن 200 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين ۽ پوسٽ پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في مهيني 6,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين وڌائي ڇڏيو آهي، جيڪو 1 نومبر 2011ع کان لاڳو ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> بهرحال، دهلي هاءِ ڪورٽ طرفان ان کي غير آئيني قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ڪجهه حدون اڃان تائين لاگو آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] ipjsaalj9kblsaoo49qa2k55d4tmfj2 394734 394622 2026-07-16T02:06:06Z InternetArchiveBot 13773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 394734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == ايس ايم ايس ٽيڪنالاجي ريڊيو ميمو پيجرز ۾ ريڊيو ٽيلي گرافي مان پيدا ٿي جيڪي معياري فون پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندا هئا. انهن کي <small>1986</small>ع ۾ موبائل ڪميونيڪيشن جي گلوبل سسٽم (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي سيريز جي حصي طور بيان ڪيو ويو هو. <ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> پهريون ايس ايم ايس پيغام 3 ڊسمبر <small>1992</small>ع تي موڪليو ويو، جڏهن سيما گروپ جي ٽيسٽ انجنيئر نيل پيپ ورٿ، ساٿي رچرڊ جاروس جي اوربيٽل <small>901</small> فون تي "ميري ڪرسمس" موڪليو.<ref name="First SMS" /> <ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === موبائل ڊوائيسز ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ ڪارڪردگي شامل ڪرڻ سال 1980ع جي شروعات ۾ شروع ٿيو. CEPT گروپ GSM جو پهريون ايڪشن پلان ڊسمبر 1982ع ۾ منظور ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ درخواست ڪئي وئي ته "عوام ۾ پيش ڪيل خدمتون ۽ سهولتون ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ ۽ عوامي ڊيٽا نيٽ ورڪ ... موبائل سسٽم ۾ موجود هجڻ گهرجن." هن منصوبي ۾ ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن جي مٽاسٽا يا ته سڌو سنئون موبائل اسٽيشنن جي وچ ۾، يا ان وقت استعمال ٿيندڙ پيغام هينڊلنگ سسٽم ذريعي منتقل ڪيو ويو. ايس ايم ايس جو تصور 1984 ۾ فريڊ هيلم هيلبرانڊ ۽ برنارڊ گيلبارٽ پاران فرانڪو-جرمن GSM تعاون ۾ تيار ڪيو ويو. GSM کي ٽيليفوني لاءِ بهتر بڻايو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي ان جي مکيه ايپليڪيشن طور سڃاتو ويو هو. ايس ايم ايس جو اهم خيال هن ٽيليفون-بهتر ڪيل نظام کي استعمال ڪرڻ هو، ۽ سگنلنگ رستن تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ هو جيڪي ٽيليفون ٽرئفڪ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل هئا جڏهن ڪو سگنلنگ ٽرئفڪ موجود نه هو. هن طريقي سان، سسٽم ۾ غير استعمال ٿيل وسيلن کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ قيمت تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، پيغامن جي ڊيگهه کي 128 بائيٽ تائين محدود ڪرڻ ضروري هو (بعد ۾ 160 ست-بٽ اکرن تائين بهتر ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن پيغام موجوده سگنلنگ فارميٽ ۾ فٽ ٿي سگهن. پنهنجي ذاتي مشاهدي ۽ پوسٽ ڪارڊ ۽ ٽيليڪس پيغامن جي عام ڊيگهه جي تجزيي جي بنياد تي، هيلبرانڊ دليل ڏنو ته 160 اکر گهڻيون مختصر مواصلات لاءِ ڪافي آهن. هر موبائل اسٽيشن ۾ ايس ايم ايس کي ان جي سافٽ ويئر کي اپڊيٽ ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. تنهن ڪري، ايس ايم ايس جي قابل ٽرمينلز ۽ نيٽ ورڪن جو هڪ وڏو بنياد موجود هو جڏهن ماڻهن ايس ايم ايس استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. هڪ نئون نيٽ ورڪ عنصر گهربل هو هڪ خاص مختصر پيغام سروس سينٽر، ۽ وڌندڙ ايس ايم ايس ٽرئفڪ کي ترتيب ڏيڻ لاءِ ريڊيو جي گنجائش ۽ نيٽ ورڪ ٽرانسپورٽ انفراسٽرڪچر ۾ واڌ جي ضرورت هئي. text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808083159/http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |date=August 8, 2007 }}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === حد === ٽيلي مارڪيٽنگ ڪندڙن کي محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾، جيڪي غير ضروري پيغامن جي هجوم سان استعمال ڪندڙن تي بمباري ڪرڻ لڳا هئا، ڀارت سيپٽمبر 2011ع ۾ نوان ضابطا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ هر سبسڪرائبر جي هر مهيني 3,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن جي حد، يا سراسري طور تي هر روز 100 في سبسڪرائبر جي حد شامل هئي. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> ڪجهه سروس فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ صارفين کان مليل نمائندگي جي ڪري، ٽرائي (ٽيليڪام ريگيوليٽري اٿارٽي آف انڊيا) هن حد کي پري پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في ڏينهن 200 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين ۽ پوسٽ پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في مهيني 6,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين وڌائي ڇڏيو آهي، جيڪو 1 نومبر 2011ع کان لاڳو ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> بهرحال، دهلي هاءِ ڪورٽ طرفان ان کي غير آئيني قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ڪجهه حدون اڃان تائين لاگو آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] jj7q7ftplymftsu6gi2l40q6o4wbsi5 394769 394734 2026-07-16T09:02:41Z Memon2025 21315 394769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == ايس ايم ايس ٽيڪنالاجي ريڊيو ميمو پيجرز ۾ ريڊيو ٽيلي گرافي مان پيدا ٿي جيڪي معياري فون پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندا هئا. انهن کي <small>1986</small>ع ۾ موبائل ڪميونيڪيشن جي گلوبل سسٽم (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي سيريز جي حصي طور بيان ڪيو ويو هو. <ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> پهريون ايس ايم ايس پيغام 3 ڊسمبر <small>1992</small>ع تي موڪليو ويو، جڏهن سيما گروپ جي ٽيسٽ انجنيئر نيل پيپ ورٿ، ساٿي رچرڊ جاروس جي اوربيٽل <small>901</small> فون تي "ميري ڪرسمس" موڪليو.<ref name="First SMS" /> <ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === موبائل ڊوائيسز ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ ڪارڪردگي شامل ڪرڻ سال 1980ع جي شروعات ۾ شروع ٿيو. CEPT گروپ GSM جو پهريون ايڪشن پلان ڊسمبر 1982ع ۾ منظور ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ درخواست ڪئي وئي ته "عوام ۾ پيش ڪيل خدمتون ۽ سهولتون ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ ۽ عوامي ڊيٽا نيٽ ورڪ ... موبائل سسٽم ۾ موجود هجڻ گهرجن." هن منصوبي ۾ ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن جي مٽاسٽا يا ته سڌو سنئون موبائل اسٽيشنن جي وچ ۾، يا ان وقت استعمال ٿيندڙ پيغام هينڊلنگ سسٽم ذريعي منتقل ڪيو ويو. ايس ايم ايس جو تصور 1984 ۾ فريڊ هيلم هيلبرانڊ ۽ برنارڊ گيلبارٽ پاران فرانڪو-جرمن GSM تعاون ۾ تيار ڪيو ويو. GSM کي ٽيليفوني لاءِ بهتر بڻايو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي ان جي مکيه ايپليڪيشن طور سڃاتو ويو هو. ايس ايم ايس جو اهم خيال هن ٽيليفون-بهتر ڪيل نظام کي استعمال ڪرڻ هو، ۽ سگنلنگ رستن تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ هو جيڪي ٽيليفون ٽرئفڪ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل هئا جڏهن ڪو سگنلنگ ٽرئفڪ موجود نه هو. هن طريقي سان، سسٽم ۾ غير استعمال ٿيل وسيلن کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ قيمت تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، پيغامن جي ڊيگهه کي 128 بائيٽ تائين محدود ڪرڻ ضروري هو (بعد ۾ 160 ست-بٽ اکرن تائين بهتر ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن پيغام موجوده سگنلنگ فارميٽ ۾ فٽ ٿي سگهن. پنهنجي ذاتي مشاهدي ۽ پوسٽ ڪارڊ ۽ ٽيليڪس پيغامن جي عام ڊيگهه جي تجزيي جي بنياد تي، هيلبرانڊ دليل ڏنو ته 160 اکر گهڻيون مختصر مواصلات لاءِ ڪافي آهن. هر موبائل اسٽيشن ۾ ايس ايم ايس کي ان جي سافٽ ويئر کي اپڊيٽ ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. تنهن ڪري، ايس ايم ايس جي قابل ٽرمينلز ۽ نيٽ ورڪن جو هڪ وڏو بنياد موجود هو جڏهن ماڻهن ايس ايم ايس استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. هڪ نئون نيٽ ورڪ عنصر گهربل هو هڪ خاص مختصر پيغام سروس سينٽر، ۽ وڌندڙ ايس ايم ايس ٽرئفڪ کي ترتيب ڏيڻ لاءِ ريڊيو جي گنجائش ۽ نيٽ ورڪ ٽرانسپورٽ انفراسٽرڪچر ۾ واڌ جي ضرورت هئي. text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808083159/http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |date=August 8, 2007 }}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === حد === ٽيلي مارڪيٽنگ ڪندڙن کي محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾، جيڪي غير ضروري پيغامن جي هجوم سان استعمال ڪندڙن تي بمباري ڪرڻ لڳا هئا، ڀارت سيپٽمبر 2011ع ۾ نوان ضابطا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ هر سبسڪرائبر جي هر مهيني 3,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن جي حد، يا سراسري طور تي هر روز 100 في سبسڪرائبر جي حد شامل هئي. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> ڪجهه سروس فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ صارفين کان مليل نمائندگي جي ڪري، ٽرائي (ٽيليڪام ريگيوليٽري اٿارٽي آف انڊيا) هن حد کي پري پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في ڏينهن 200 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين ۽ پوسٽ پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في مهيني 6,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين وڌائي ڇڏيو آهي، جيڪو 1 نومبر 2011ع کان لاڳو ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> بهرحال، دهلي هاءِ ڪورٽ طرفان ان کي غير آئيني قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ڪجهه حدون اڃان تائين لاگو آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [زمرو:اطلاع]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]][ [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] 0605gfzsn7vf4zgiel7pyoisfxzvmj8 394770 394769 2026-07-16T09:03:18Z Memon2025 21315 394770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Text messaging service component}} {{for2|عام طور تي ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني|ٻيا استعمال}} [[File:Party SMS.jpg|thumb|سيمينس SL55 موبائل فون تي ايندڙ هڪ ايس ايم ايس پيغام]] '''ايس ايم ايس''' (<small>SMS</small>) يا <small>مختصر پيغام خدمت</small> (<small>Short</small> <small>Messaging</small> <small>service</small>) اڪثر [[ٽيليفون]]، [[انٽرنيٽ]] ۽ موبائل ڊوائيس نظام جي هڪ ٽيڪسٽ پيغام خدمت جو هڪ جزو آهي. اهو معياري مواصلاتي پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندو آهي جيڪو [[موبائل فون]] کي مختصر ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن، عام طور تي سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي، جي تبادلي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي. گلوبل موبائل فون (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي حصي طور تيار ڪيو ويو ۽ <small>SS7</small> سگنلنگ پروٽوڪول تي ٻڌل، ايس ايم ايس سال <small>1993</small>ع ۾ شروع ٿيندڙ ڊجيٽل سيلولر نيٽ ورڪن تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| first=Jennifer | last=O'Mahony| date=3 December 2012| title=How SMS Changed the World| website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]| access-date=10 May 2020| archive-date=18 November 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118084159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9718336/Text-messaging-at-20-how-SMS-changed-the-world.html| url-status=live }}</ref> ۽ اهو اصل ۾ گراهڪن لاءِ هو ته هو پنهنجي ڪيريئر/آپريٽر کان الرٽ وصول ڪن.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of SMS for anyone working in Telecommunications |url=https://www.dynamicmobilebilling.com/dynamic-mobile-billings-blog/a-short-history-of-sms-for-anyone-working-in-telecommunications |access-date=2024-08-04 |publisher=Dynamic Mobile Billing, Ltd.|language=en-gb}}</ref> اصل ۾ جي ايس ايم فون ڏانهن ۽ بعد ۾ <small>CDMA</small> ۽ ڊجيٽل <small>AMPS</small> پڻ تي، سروس صارفين کي <small>160</small> اکرن تائين ٽيڪسٽ پيغام موڪلڻ ۽ وصول ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ان کان پوءِ نئين نيٽ ورڪن، 5G وارن سميت، تي وضاحت ۽ سپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghribi |first1=Brahim |last2=Logrippo |first2=Luigi |date=November 2000 |title=Understanding GPRS: The GSM Packet Radio Service |journal=[[Computer Networks (journal)|Computer Networks]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=763–779 |doi=10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00127-4 |via=[[University of Ottawa]] |url=https://cserg0.site.uottawa.ca/ftp/pub/Lotos/Papers/GPRS_Tutorial.pdf }}{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس گيٽ وي استعمال ڪندي، پيغام انٽرنيٽ تي ايس ايم ايس سي ذريعي منتقل ڪري سگهجن ٿا، ڪمپيوٽرن، فڪسڊ لينڊ لائنن ۽ سيٽلائيٽ تائين رابطي جي اجازت ڏين ٿا.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How SMS gateway works |url=https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Ozeki SMS Gateway |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804165250/https://ozeki-sms-gateway.com/p_1071-how-sms-gateway-works.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ايم ايم ايس کي بعد ۾ "تصوير پيغام رسائيندڙ" صلاحيتن سان ايس ايم ايس ۾ اپ گريڊ طور متعارف ڪرايو ويو. ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ تفريحي ٽيڪسٽنگ کان سواء، ايس ايم ايس موبائل مارڪيٽنگ (هڪ قسم جي سڌي مارڪيٽنگ)، ٻه عنصر جي تصديق لاگنگ ان، ٽيلي ووٽنگ، موبائل بينڪنگ (ايس ايم ايس بينڪنگ ڏسو) ۽ ٻين تجارتي مواد لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |last=Black |first=Ken |date=September 13, 2016 |title=What is SMS Marketing? |url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826192200/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sms-marketing.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=September 28, 2016 |work=wiseGEEK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is SMS 2FA? {{!}} Security Encyclopedia |url=https://www.hypr.com/security-encyclopedia/sms-2fa |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.hypr.com |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurovision facts and figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/eurovision/facts |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 2004 |title=Short Message Service (SMS) in Fixed and Mobile Networks |website=[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]] |url=https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |access-date=2024-08-04 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180227/https://docdb.cept.org/download/333 |url-status=live }}</ref> ايس ايم ايس معيار ٽيڪسٽ ڪميونيڪيشن جي طريقي جي طور تي دنيا ۾ تمام گهڻو مشهور رهيو آهي. سال 2010ع جي آخر تائين، اهو اندازاً 3.5 ارب فعال استعمال ڪندڙن سان سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڊيٽا ايپليڪيشن هئي يا سڀني موبائل فون سبسڪرائبرز جو تقريباً %80 حصو ھئي.<ref name="itu">{{cite web |title=The World Today – The rise of 3G |url=https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214355/https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> ايس ايم ايس کي نئين خاصيتن واري فوري پيغام رسائيندڙ خدمتن پاران وڌندڙ چئلينج بڻايو ويو آهي.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gayomali |first=Chris |date=2012-12-03 |title=The text message turns 20: A brief history of SMS |url=https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511204057/https://theweek.com/articles/469869/text-message-turns-20-brief-history-sms |archive-date=2025-05-11 |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=theweek |language=en}}</ref> رچ ڪميونيڪيشن سروسز (آر سي ايس) کي ايس ايم ايس جي امڪاني اوپن اسٽينڊرڊ جانشين طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي.<ref name=":1" /> == ترقياتي تاريخ == ايس ايم ايس ٽيڪنالاجي ريڊيو ميمو پيجرز ۾ ريڊيو ٽيلي گرافي مان پيدا ٿي جيڪي معياري فون پروٽوڪول استعمال ڪندا هئا. انهن کي <small>1986</small>ع ۾ موبائل ڪميونيڪيشن جي گلوبل سسٽم (<small>GSM</small>) معيارن جي سيريز جي حصي طور بيان ڪيو ويو هو. <ref name="GSM 28/85">GSM Doc 28/85 "Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System" rev2, June 1985</ref> پهريون ايس ايم ايس پيغام 3 ڊسمبر <small>1992</small>ع تي موڪليو ويو، جڏهن سيما گروپ جي ٽيسٽ انجنيئر نيل پيپ ورٿ، ساٿي رچرڊ جاروس جي اوربيٽل <small>901</small> فون تي "ميري ڪرسمس" موڪليو.<ref name="First SMS" /> <ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |title='Merry Christmas': 30 years of the text message |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203112737/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63825894 |archive-date=2022-12-03 |access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vintage Mobiles |url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051916/http://www.gsmhistory.com/vintage-mobiles/#orbitel_901_1992 |archive-date=2016-01-26 |access-date=2022-12-03 |work=History of GSM |at=Orbitel 901 – the first GSM mobile and the first to receive a commercial SMS text message (1992)}}</ref> === بنيادي تصور === موبائل ڊوائيسز ۾ ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ ڪارڪردگي شامل ڪرڻ سال 1980ع جي شروعات ۾ شروع ٿيو. CEPT گروپ GSM جو پهريون ايڪشن پلان ڊسمبر 1982ع ۾ منظور ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ درخواست ڪئي وئي ته "عوام ۾ پيش ڪيل خدمتون ۽ سهولتون ٽيليفون نيٽ ورڪ ۽ عوامي ڊيٽا نيٽ ورڪ ... موبائل سسٽم ۾ موجود هجڻ گهرجن." هن منصوبي ۾ ٽيڪسٽ پيغامن جي مٽاسٽا يا ته سڌو سنئون موبائل اسٽيشنن جي وچ ۾، يا ان وقت استعمال ٿيندڙ پيغام هينڊلنگ سسٽم ذريعي منتقل ڪيو ويو. ايس ايم ايس جو تصور 1984 ۾ فريڊ هيلم هيلبرانڊ ۽ برنارڊ گيلبارٽ پاران فرانڪو-جرمن GSM تعاون ۾ تيار ڪيو ويو. GSM کي ٽيليفوني لاءِ بهتر بڻايو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي ان جي مکيه ايپليڪيشن طور سڃاتو ويو هو. ايس ايم ايس جو اهم خيال هن ٽيليفون-بهتر ڪيل نظام کي استعمال ڪرڻ هو، ۽ سگنلنگ رستن تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ هو جيڪي ٽيليفون ٽرئفڪ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ گهربل هئا جڏهن ڪو سگنلنگ ٽرئفڪ موجود نه هو. هن طريقي سان، سسٽم ۾ غير استعمال ٿيل وسيلن کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ قيمت تي پيغامن کي منتقل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، پيغامن جي ڊيگهه کي 128 بائيٽ تائين محدود ڪرڻ ضروري هو (بعد ۾ 160 ست-بٽ اکرن تائين بهتر ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن پيغام موجوده سگنلنگ فارميٽ ۾ فٽ ٿي سگهن. پنهنجي ذاتي مشاهدي ۽ پوسٽ ڪارڊ ۽ ٽيليڪس پيغامن جي عام ڊيگهه جي تجزيي جي بنياد تي، هيلبرانڊ دليل ڏنو ته 160 اکر گهڻيون مختصر مواصلات لاءِ ڪافي آهن. هر موبائل اسٽيشن ۾ ايس ايم ايس کي ان جي سافٽ ويئر کي اپڊيٽ ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. تنهن ڪري، ايس ايم ايس جي قابل ٽرمينلز ۽ نيٽ ورڪن جو هڪ وڏو بنياد موجود هو جڏهن ماڻهن ايس ايم ايس استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. هڪ نئون نيٽ ورڪ عنصر گهربل هو هڪ خاص مختصر پيغام سروس سينٽر، ۽ وڌندڙ ايس ايم ايس ٽرئفڪ کي ترتيب ڏيڻ لاءِ ريڊيو جي گنجائش ۽ نيٽ ورڪ ٽرانسپورٽ انفراسٽرڪچر ۾ واڌ جي ضرورت هئي. text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s. The first action plan of the CEPT Group [[GSM]] was approved in December 1982, requesting that "The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks&nbsp;... should be available in the mobile system."<ref>see GSM document 02/82, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time.<ref>These Message Handling Systems had been standardized in the ITU, see specifications X.400 series</ref> The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] and [[Bernard Ghillebaert]].<ref>See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010</ref> The GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized system, and to transport messages on the [[Signalling System No. 7|signalling paths]] needed to control the telephone traffic during periods when no signalling traffic existed. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his personal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of [[postcard]] and [[Telex]] messages, Hillebrand argued that 160 characters was sufficient for most brief communications.<ref name="latimesblogs.latimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|title=Technology|access-date=June 14, 2015|date=May 3, 2009|archive-date=September 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930082324/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS.<ref>See GSM document 28/85rev.June 2, 85 and GSM WP1 document 66/86, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> A new network element required was a specialized short message service centre, and enhancements were required to the radio capacity and network transport infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ETSI |first=TC-SMG |title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |website=etsi.org |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212070051/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0340/05.02.00_60/gsmts_0340v050200p.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === ابتدائي ترقي === The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies. Through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world.<ref>See also [[Friedhelm Hillebrand]] "GSM and UMTS, the creation of Global Mobile Communication", Wiley 2002, chapters 10 and 16, {{ISBN|0-470-84322-5}}</ref> The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and France in the GSM group meeting in February 1985 in Oslo.<ref>GSM document 19/85, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> This proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe, France Telecom) based on a contribution from Germany. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor). The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 1985 document which was distributed to industry.<ref>GSM document 28/85r2, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> The input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand of [[Deutsche Telekom]], with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert of [[France Télécom]]. The definition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghillebaert brought into GSM called for the provision of a message transmission service of alphanumeric messages to mobile users "with acknowledgement capabilities". The last three words transformed SMS into something much more useful than the electronic paging services used at the time that some in GSM might have had in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=So who really did create SMS?|url=http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|publisher=Stephen Temple|access-date=April 6, 2013|date=February 24, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181922/http://www.gsmhistory.com/sms/|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a possible service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document "''Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System,''"<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> both mobile-originated and mobile-terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM teleservices.<ref name="GSM 28/85"/> The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM 02.03 "''TeleServices supported by a GSM [[Public land mobile network|PLMN]].''"<ref name="GSM 02.03">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |title=Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) |id=GSM TS 02.03 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130140326/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=29 |url-status=live }}</ref> Here a rudimentary description of the three services was given: # Short message mobile-terminated (SMS-MT)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can be sent by phone or by a software application. # Short message mobile-originated (SMS-MO)/ Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message can be sent to a phone or to a software application. # Short message [[Cell Broadcast|cell broadcast]].<ref name="GSM 02.03"/> WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling (DGMH), which was responsible for the specification of SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group through its first three years, in which the design of SMS was established. DGMH had five to eight participants, and Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Holley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The first action plan<ref>Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> mentions for the first time the Technical Specification 03.40 "Technical Realisation of the Short Message Service". Responsible editor was Finn Trosby. The first and very rudimentary draft of the technical specification was completed in November 1987.<ref>GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available on the GSM-SMG Archive DVD-ROM</ref> However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description of the work in this period is given in.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn Trosby |url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |title=SMS the strange duckling of GSM |journal=Telektronikk |volume=3 |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925185855/http://,www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808083159/http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_187-194.pdf |date=August 8, 2007 }}</ref> === شروعاتي استعمال === The first SMS message<ref name="First SMS">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2538083.stm |title=Hppy bthdy txt! |date=3 December 2002 |website=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120045138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2538083.stm |archive-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> was sent over the [[Vodafone]] GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from [[Neil Papworth]] of [[Sema Group]] (now [[Airwide Solutions|Mavenir Systems]]) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the message was "Merry Christmas."<ref name="Neil Papworth">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |title=UK hails 10th birthday of SMS |date=4 December 2002 |website=The Times of India |access-date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008203753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/uk-hails-10th-birthday-of-sms/articleshow/30216466.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercial deployment of a [[short message service center]] (SMSC) was by [[Aldiscon]] part of [[Logica]] (now part of [[CGI Inc.|CGI]]) with Telia (now [[TeliaSonera]]) in Sweden in 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |title=First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS) |access-date=May 24, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316145401/http://www.logica.com/history%2Band%2Bkey%2Bmilestones/350233679 |archive-date=March 16, 2008 }}</ref> followed by Fleet Call (now [[Nextel]])<ref>{{cite web |author=US Department of Homeland Security |title=Cellular Technologies |url=https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524003007/https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/3260%20TOD%20CELLULAR%20PHONE%20TECHNOLOGIES.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2012 }}</ref> in the US, Telenor in Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history in Norway|at=1993|url=https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|quote=Telenor leads in establishing GSM (2G) – the SMS service was a part of this platform|access-date=3 December 2022|website=Telenor Group|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203214126/https://www.telenor.com/about/who-we-are/history/our-history-in-norway/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK).<ref>{{cite news |title=BT unveils new mobile brand |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1522609.stm |newspaper=BBC News Online |date=September 3, 2001 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409180842/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1522609.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first commercially sold SMS service was offered to consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support the ability to send SMS text messages, and [[Nokia]] was the only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. According to [[Matti Makkonen]], an engineer at Nokia at the time, the [[Nokia 2010]],<!--Not 2110--> which was released in January 1994, was the first mobile phone to support composing SMSes easily.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nael |first=Merili |title=Suri tekstisõnumite looja Matti Makkonen |language=et |trans-title=Creator of text messages Matti Makkonen died |work=Err.ee |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=June 30, 2015 |url=https://www.err.ee/537689/suri-tekstisonumite-looja-matti-makkonen |access-date=July 27, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055510/http://uudised.err.ee/v/majandus/7155b340-33ce-40d3-8a26-0f8644be4a24 |url-status=live }}</ref> === واڌ ۽ اڊاپشن === Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per month.<ref name="gsmworld">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |title=More Than 200 Billion GSM Text Messages Forecast for Full Year 2001 |publisher=GSM Association |date=12 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215194430/http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2001/press_releases_4.shtml |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initially, networks in the UK only allowed customers to send messages to other users on the same [[Mobile network operator|network]], limiting the usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in 1999.<ref name="First SMS" /> Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average number of messages reached 35 per user per month,<ref name="gsmworld" /> and on Christmas Day 2006, over 205 million messages were sent in the UK alone.<ref name="2b">{{Cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=2b or not 2b? |work=Guardian Unlimited |access-date=July 8, 2008 |date=July 5, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/05/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview |location=London, UK |archive-date=July 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708044626/http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/referenceandlanguages/story/0,,2289259,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS had become a social phenomenon in Finland among teens and youngsters by 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Silberman |first=Steve |title=Just Say Nokia |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=2024-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712014705/https://www.wired.com/1999/09/nokia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS traffic across Europe reached 4 billion messages as of January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 June 2002 |title=Towards the Full Roll-Out of Third Generation Mobile Communications |website=[[European Union]] Law |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2002:0301:FIN:EN:PDF }}</ref> SMS became extremely popular in the [[Philippines]] by 2001 and the country was dubbed the "texting capital of the world",<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philippine text messaging phenomenon {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.philstar.com |archive-date=2025-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219100205/https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/business-life/2001/05/15/85823/philippine-text-messaging-phenomenon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Celdran |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=The Philippines: SMS and Citizenship |journal=Development Dialogue |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233756388 }}</ref> partly helped by large numbers of free text messages offered by the mobile operators in monthly subscriptions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Je ne texte rien |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2004/07/08/je-ne-texte-rien |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> SMS adoption was limited to parts of Europe and Asia during these earlier years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-04-23 |title=Europe, Asia embrace GR8 way to stay in touch |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224183134/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4787668 |url-status=live }}</ref> with U.S. adoption being low partly due to incompatible networks and cheap voice calls relative to other countries.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[The Economist]]'' wrote in 2003, as noted by an analyst:<ref>{{Cite news |title=No text please, we're American |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804180226/https://www.economist.com/business/2003/04/03/no-text-please-were-american |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = The short answer is that, in America, talk is cheap. Because local calls on [[landline|land lines]] are usually free, [[mobile network operator|wireless operators]] have to offer big “bundles” of minutes—up to 5,000 minutes per month—as part of their monthly pricing plans to persuade subscribers to use mobile phones instead. [[Text messaging|Texting]] first took off in other parts of the world among cost-conscious teenagers who found that it was cheaper to text than to call [..] Free local calls also make [[Dial-up Internet access|logging on]] to the internet, for hours at a time, and using PC-to-PC “[[instant messaging]]” (IM) the preferred mode of electronic chat among American teenagers.}} This is also backed by the fact that as of 2003, American internet users were spending on average five times more time online than Europeans,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-06-30 |title=Will instant messaging be the new texting? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |access-date=2024-08-05 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3031796.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and many poorer countries in Europe and other regions around the world had significantly lower rates of internet access compared to the United States at the time (see [[digital divide]]), hence making SMS more accessible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapitsa |first=L. |date=12 December 2007 |title=Member-countries of the UNECE region are among the forerunners and today's leaders in the level of Internet development... |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |format=DOC |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/electronictools/Mini-conference%20presentations/PRESENTATION%20-%20mini-conference2.doc }}</ref> == موجوده استعمال == [[File:SMS messages sent monthly in USA (in billions).svg|thumb|SMS messages sent monthly in the U.S. from 2001 to 2008 (in billions)]]{{See also|Text messaging}}{{Bar chart|title=|label_type=<small>Country</small>|data_type=<small>Monthly messages sent per mobile subscriber (2003)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818061154/http://mashable.com/2010/08/17/text-messaging-infographic/ | archive-date=2010-08-18 | title=The Rise of Text Messaging &#91;INFOGRAPHIC&#93; | website=[[Mashable]] | date=17 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /></small>|bar_width=10|width_units=em|data_max=200|label1=<small>Philippines</small>|data1=195|label2=<small>South Korea</small>|data2=120|label3=<small>Ireland</small>|data3=79|label4=<small>Croatia</small>|data4=72|label5=<small>Indonesia</small>|data5=68|label6=<small>France</small>|data6=19|float=right|data7=13|label7=<small>United States</small>}} SMS has become a large commercial industry, earning $114.6&nbsp;billion globally in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Charles H. |title=Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Competency Framework |last2=Brueggemann |first2=Ralph |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74252-8 |edition=First |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |oclc=893453493 }}</ref> In the year 2002, 366 billion SMS text messages were sent globally,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-07-16 |title=Etisalat launches MMS service |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/etisalat-launches-mms-service |access-date=2024-08-04 |newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en }}</ref> a number that rose to 6.1 trillion in 2010.<ref name="itu" /> In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Han |first=Esther |date=May 6, 2015 |title=Cheaper mobile calls and text as ACCC moves to slash wholesale fees |url=http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508193055/http://www.theage.com.au/digital-life/mobiles/cheaper-mobile-calls-and-text-as-accc-moves-to-slash-wholesale-fees-20150506-ggv540.html |archive-date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=May 6, 2015 |via=The Age}}</ref> The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over [[US$]]240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging.<ref>{{cite web |author=Portio Research |title=Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-20148 |url=http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180248/http://www.portioresearch.com/en/messaging-reports/mobile-messaging-research/mobile-messaging-futures-2014-2018.aspx |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=September 28, 2016}}</ref> The popularity of SMS also led to the spontaneous creation of the so-called '[[SMS language]]' phenomenon, where words are shortened in order to deal with the 160 character limit of SMS messages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} E-CYCLOPEDIA {{!}} Txt msging: Th shp of thngs 2 cm? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/444089.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Usage of SMS for mobile data services became increasingly prominent in the early 2000s due to its ubiquity, reliability, and cold reception of the newer [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=SMS: Mobile data's dark horse hits its stride |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413115619/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/02/SMSMobileDatasDarkHorseHits.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (see ''Premium-rated services'' below). In the early and mid 2000s, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] (MMS) was developed as an improved version of SMS that supports sending of pictures and video.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-05-13 |title=It's a hamster on your mobile. Or possibly Kylie |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/dot_life/1984162.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> SMS has been increasingly challenged by [[Internet Protocol]]-based messaging services with additional features for modern mobile devices, such as [[Facebook Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2011 |title=The death of SMS is exaggerated |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109033416/http://www.phonearena.com/news/The-death-of-SMS-has-been-greatly-exaggerated_id19493 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> These services run independently from [[mobile network operator]]s and typically don't provide cross-platform messaging capabilities like SMS or [[email]] does.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Junge |first=Jack |date=2017-02-27 |title=RCS: Next Generation SMS |url=https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=GatewayAPI |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701171054/https://gatewayapi.com/blog/rcs-next-generation-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, between 2010 and 2022, SMS telecom revenue in India dropped 94 percent, while "revenue share per user from data usage...grew over 10 times.",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-09 |title=Online apps slash telecoms revenue: 80% decline in voice calls, 94% drop in SMS in 10 years |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191508/https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/trai-paper-says-online-apps-slash-telecoms-revenue-80-decline-in-voice-calls-94-drop-in-sms-in-10-years-101688893671538.html |archive-date=2023-11-11 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> although in some regions such as North America SMS continues to be used by over 80 percent of the population as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brouwers |first=Christel |title=SMS: Popularity, Statistics, and Use Cases |url=https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CM.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165549/https://www.cm.com/blog/how-popular-is-sms/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to create a modern successor to SMS that isn't run by a single company and is fully interoperable between devices, industry figures have created the [[Rich Communication Services|RCS]] 'Universal Profile' initiative.<ref name=":1" /> It was supported by Apple when [[iOS]] 18 came out in 2024, which will mean that virtually all new mobile phones (iOS and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms) will have RCS texting capabilities, though this may also depend on if the network operator supports it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RCS Messaging Finally Lands on Your iPhone With the iOS 18 Public Betas |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802165548/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/rcs-messaging-finally-lands-on-your-iphone-with-the-ios-18-public-betas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated services ===<!-- linked from redirect [[Mobile purchasing]] --> {{See also|Reverse SMS billing|Short code}} SMS may be used to provide [[premium rate telephone number|premium rate services]] to subscribers of a network.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rossignuolo |first=Vincenza |date=2021 |title=SMS codes [Explained] |url=https://www.smsglobal.com/blog/sms-codes-explained/ |website=SMSglobal}}</ref> Today, they are also used to pay smaller payments online—for example, for file-sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP section entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus ticket or beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} UK {{!}} Text messaging grows up |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328110433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/916337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other uses === [[File:Landline text messaging.JPG|thumb|A [[Siemens]] [[landline]] [[DECT]] telephone that is capable of SMS]]Additionally, an intermediary service can facilitate a [[text-to-voice]] conversion to be sent to [[landline]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Heather |date=December 3, 2012 |title=OMG, The Text Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015927/https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/03/tech/mobile/sms-text-message-20/index.html |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In 2014, Caktus Group<ref>{{cite web |title=Caktus Group |url=https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110329/https://www.caktusgroup.com/case-study/worlds-first-sms-voter-registration-system/ |archive-date=2017-02-22 |access-date=2017-02-21}}</ref> developed the world's first SMS-based voter registration system in Libya. As of February 2015 more than 1.5 million people have registered using that system, providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the democratic process.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya's Election Ushers in New Voter Tech |url=https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707133610/https://worldpolicy.org/blog/2014/06/25/libyas-election-ushers-new-voter-tech |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |access-date=June 14, 2015 |publisher=World Policy Institute}}</ref> ==== Flash SMS ==== A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox.<ref>{{cite web |title=SMS types on routomessaging.com |url=http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115257/http://www.routomessaging.com/message-sms-types.pmx |archive-date=May 5, 2013 |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> It can be useful in [[emergency|emergencies]], such as a [[Fire alarm system|fire alarm]] or cases of [[confidentiality]], as in delivering [[one-time password]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flash SMS |url=http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818052517/http://www.sms-wiki.org/p_28-flash-sms.html |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> ==== Silent SMS ==== In 2010, almost half a million silent SMS messages were sent by the German federal police, customs and the federal domestic intelligence service [[Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution|Verfassungsschutz]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reitman |first1=Rainey |date=10 January 2012 |title=Privacy Roundup: Mandatory Data Retention, Smart Meter Hacks, and Law Enforcement Usage of Silent SMS |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071621/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/privacy-roundup-mandatory-data-retention-smart-meter-hacks-and-law-enforcement |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010 über 440.000 "stille SMS" &#124; heise online |date=13 December 2011 |url=http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053002/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Zoll-BKA-und-Verfassungsschutz-verschickten-2010-ueber-440-000-stille-SMS-1394593.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |publisher=Heise.de}}</ref> These silent messages, also known as silent TMS, stealth SMS, stealth ping or Short Message Type 0,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2015 |title=3GPP TS 51.010-1 version 12.5.0 Release 12 |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424000419/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/151000_151099/15101001/12.05.00_60/ts_15101001v120500p.pdf#page=3419 |archive-date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2017 |publisher=[[ETSI]] |pages=3418–3423}}</ref> are used to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement profile. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose was to deliver special services of the network operator to any cell phone. ==== SMS bombs ==== In March 2001, Dutch police in [[Amsterdam]] attempted to fight increasing cell phone theft by sending an SMS every three minutes to a phone that has been reported stolen, with the message "This handset was nicked, buying or selling is a crime. The police."<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN.com - SMS bombs nominated for crime-fighting prize - August 30, 2001 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/industry/08/30/sms.crime.fighter.idg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=edition.cnn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-04-13 |title=Dutch police fight cell phone theft with SMS bombs |url=https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |access-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413120547/https://www.idg.net/idgns/2001/03/27/DutchPoliceFightsCellPhoneTheft.shtml |archive-date=2001-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == تيڪنيڪي تفصيل == === جي ايس ايم === {{Main|Short message service technical realisation (GSM)}} The ''Short Message Service—Point to Point (SMS-PP)''—was originally defined in GSM recommendation 03.40, which is now maintained in [[3GPP]] as TS 23.040.<ref name="GSM 03.40">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=GSM TS 03.40|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215922/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|title=Technical realization of the Short Message Service (SMS)|id=3GPP TS 23.040|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207054608/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=747|url-status=live}}</ref> GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) defines the ''Short Message Service—Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB)'', which allows messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be broadcast to all mobile users in a specified geographical area.<ref name="GSM 03.41">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|title=Technical Realization of Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)|id=GSM TS 03.41|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=142|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|title=Technical realization of Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|id=3GPP TS 23.041|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203215908/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=748|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cell broadcast]] is the technology behind [[Wireless Emergency Alerts]] in the US which is used for public safety messages and AMBER alerts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcc.gov/guides/wireless-emergency-alerts-wea |title=Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) |date=6 May 2014 |publisher=FCC.gov |access-date=2015-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |title=Cell Broadcast ; One2many |publisher=Eena.org |access-date=2015-07-15 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234130/http://www.eena.org/ressource/static/files/2011_11_17_one2many.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and similar public safety messages in [[Cell broadcast#Public warning implementations|other countries]]. These messages are similar to SMS messages. Messages are sent to a [[short message service center]] (SMSC), which provides a "[[store and forward]]" mechanism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSC's recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues the message for later retry.<ref>Gil Held: "Data over Wireless Networks." pages 105–11, 137–38. Wiley, 2001.</ref> Some SMSCs also provide a "forward and forget" option where transmission is tried only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages sent ''to'' a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO, for those sent ''from'' the mobile handset) operations are supported. Message delivery is "[[best effort]]", so there are no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message is uncommon, typically affecting less than 5 percent of messages.<ref>{{citation |url=https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |title=Design and Implementation of a Short Message Service Data Channel for Mobile Systems |last=Oliver |first=Earl |access-date=March 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126180516/https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some providers allow users to request delivery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern phones, or by prefixing each message with *0#.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2018|title=Text Message Tips (not sent or received)|url=https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|access-date=September 28, 2021|website=community.o2.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=September 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928142837/https://community.o2.co.uk/t5/How-to-Guides/Text-Message-Tips-not-sent-or-received/ba-p/1179723|url-status=live}}</ref> === Message size === Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and the handset is done whenever using the [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public_html/ra/sms/|access-date=October 5, 2013 |last=Amri |first=Kuross |title=Communication Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511143408/http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/userpages/kumbes/public%5Fhtml/ra/sms/|archive-date=May 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Messages are sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the signaling protocol to precisely 140 [[byte]]s (140 bytes × 8 bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded using a variety of alphabets: the default [[GSM 03.38|GSM 7-bit alphabet]], [[GSM 03.38#GSM 8 bit data encoding|the 8-bit data alphabet]], and the 16-bit [[UCS-2]] or [[UTF-16]] alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|title=Adventures in Unicode SMS|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Twilio|author=Chad Selph|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908104520/https://www.twilio.com/engineering/2012/11/08/adventures-in-unicode-sms|archive-date=2015-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="3GPP 23.038">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=745 |title=Alphabets and language-specific information |id=3GPP TS 23.038}}</ref> Depending on which alphabet the subscriber has configured in the handset, this leads to the maximum individual short message sizes of 160 7-[[bit]] characters, 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and network elements.<ref name="3GPP 23.038"/> Larger content ([[concatenated SMS]], multipart or segmented SMS, or "long SMS") can be sent using multiple messages, in which case each message will start with a [[User Data Header]] (UDH) containing segmentation information. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for reassembling the message and presenting it to the user as one long message. While the standard theoretically permits up to 255 segments,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Groves|first=Ian|title=Mobile systems|date=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4615-6377-8|edition=1st|location=London|pages=70, 79, 163–66|oclc=847640648}}</ref> 10 segments is the practical maximum with some carriers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://help.twilio.com/articles/223181508-Does-Twilio-support-concatenated-SMS-messages-or-messages-over-160-characters|title=Does Twilio support concatenated SMS messages or messages over 160 characters?|website=Twilio Help Center|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2024|quote=when sending very long SMS messages (longer than 10 segments with Unicode characters) some mobile carriers may have trouble handling these messages.}}</ref> and long messages are often billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. In some cases 127 segments are supported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Simplifying Unicode punctuation for SMS|url=https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|access-date=July 15, 2021|website=ssb22.user.srcf.net|archive-date=July 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715062556/https://ssb22.user.srcf.net/adjuster/sms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === Interconnectivity with other networks === On some carriers non-subscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an [[SMS gateway|Email-to-SMS gateway]]. Additionally, many carriers, including [[AT&T Mobility]], [[T-Mobile USA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |title=t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with mobile text messaging |publisher=T-mobile.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917095859/http://www.t-mobile.com/shop/addons/services/TzonesDetail.aspx?tp=Svc_Tab_TZones&tsp=Svc_Sub_Messaging&tssp=Svc_Sub_TextMessaging&oscid=4CD51BA7-B5AF-4AB2-85E0-50EC0AF141F9 |archive-date=September 17, 2008 }}</ref> [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |title=Support – How do I compose and send a text message to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email? |publisher=Support.sprintpcs.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092825/http://support.sprintpcs.com/doc/sp7648.xml?selectedDeviceId=5707&related=y&Referring%20Related%20DocID%20List%20Index=5&docid=7434&navtypeid=10&pagetypeid=7&prevPageIndex=10 |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Verizon Wireless]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |title=Answers to FAQs – Verizon Wireless Support |publisher=Support.vzw.com |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-date=September 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909053230/http://support.vzw.com/faqs/Picture%20Messaging/faq_pixmessaging.html#item3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> offer the ability to do this through their respective websites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alguliev |first1=Rasim Magamed ogly |last2=Nazirova |first2=S. A. |date=2008 |title=Multilayer and Multiagent Automated Email Filtration System |url=https://doi.org/10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |journal=Telecommunications and Radio Engineering |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1095 |doi=10.1615/telecomradeng.v67.i12.60 |issn=0040-2508|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone number was 555-555-5555 would receive emails addressed to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS reply is sent back to the original email address. Sending email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the first 160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. However, longer messages may be broken up into multiple texts, depending upon the telephone service provider.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is there a maximum SMS message length? |url=http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |publisher=TextAnywhere |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508152305/http://www.textanywhere.net/faq/is-there-a-maximum-sms-message-length |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Simon |last1=Hill |first2=Andre |last2=Revilla |date=28 April 2022 |title=How to send a text message from your email account |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |publisher=Digital Trends |quote=Keep in mind that if you’re trying to send a message that’s more than 160 characters long, it will often be sent through the Multimedia Message Service (MMS). |access-date=3 December 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203221043/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-to-send-a-text-from-your-email-account/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Text-enabled fixed-line handsets are required to receive messages in text format. However, messages can be delivered to non enabled phones using [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech conversion]].<ref name="Voice SMS">{{Cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |date=January 2004 |title=BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |work=[[The Register]] |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629212915/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/08/bt_trials_mobile_sms |url-status=live }}</ref> Short messages can send binary content such as [[ringtone]]s or logos, as well as [[Over-the-air programming]] (OTA) or configuration data. Such uses are a vendor-specific extension of the GSM specification and there are multiple competing standards, although [[Nokia]]'s Smart Messaging is common. GPRS is offered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.<ref name="GPRS SMS">{{Cite web |author=Ewan |date=September 1, 2006 |title=10pText.co.uk help you text internationally for 10p/text |url=http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034156/http://www.smstextnews.com/2006/09/10ptextcouk_hel.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=SMStextnews |access-date=May 8, 2017}}</ref> === Support in other architectures === The [[Mobile Application Part]] (MAP) of the [[Signaling System 7|SS7]] protocol included support for the transport of Short Messages through the Core Network from its inception.<ref name="MAP">{{cite web|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|title=Mobile Application Part (MAP) Specification|id=GSM TS 09.02|access-date=2024-09-28|archive-date=2024-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805025052/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=359|url-status=live}}</ref> MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short Message transport.<ref name="MAP" /> From [[3GPP]] Releases 99 and 4 onwards, [[Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic|CAMEL]] Phase 3 introduced the ability for the [[Intelligent Network|Intelligent Network (IN)]] to control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message Service,<ref name="CAMEL">{{cite web |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |title=Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) |id=3GPP TS 23.078 |access-date=2024-09-28 |archive-date=2024-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111231535/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=766 |url-status=live }}</ref> while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Release 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to control the Mobile Terminated service.<ref name="CAMEL" /> === AT commands === Many mobile and satellite [[transceiver]] units support the sending and receiving of SMS using an extended version of the [[Hayes command set]]. The extensions were standardised as part of the GSM Standards and extended as part of the 3GPP standards process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Use of Data Terminal Equipment – Data Circuit terminating Equipment (DTE – DCE) interface for Short Message Service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS)|url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|access-date=July 1, 2019|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216153418/https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1514|url-status=live}}</ref> The connection between the terminal equipment and the transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., [[USB]]), a [[Bluetooth]] link, an [[infrared]] link, etc. Common AT commands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS (send message from storage), AT+CMGL (list messages) and AT+CMGR (read message).<ref name="SMS AT extensions">{{cite web|url=http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|title=SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic Commands and Extended Commands|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=May 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072532/http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all modern devices support receiving of messages if the message storage (for instance the device's internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agarwal |first=Tarun |date=2019-09-18 |title=What are AT Commands : Different Types, and Their List |url=https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=ElProCus – Electronic Projects for Engineering Students |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516113156/https://www.elprocus.com/at-commands-tutorial/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Premium-rated short messages === An alternative to inbound SMS is based on [[long numbers]] (international number format, such as "+44 762 480 5000"), which can be used in place of short codes for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work internationally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across many brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium inbound numbers.<ref name=":0" /> === Threaded SMS === Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS message history that arranges messages to and from a contact in chronological order on a single screen. It was first invented by a developer working to implement the SMS client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of the blank screen left below the message on a device with a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply conversations in email.<ref>{{US patent|7028263}}</ref> Visually, this style of representation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for each individual contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |title=Threaded Messaging |website=Phone Scoop |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030024510/https://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=455 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hierarchical-threading at the [[Conversation threading#Advantages|conversation-level]] (as typical in blogs and online messaging boards) is not widely supported by SMS messaging clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there is no [[session identifier]] or subject-line passed back and forth between sent and received messages in the [[Header (computing)|header]] data (as specified by SMS protocol) from which the client device can properly thread an incoming message to a specific dialogue, or even to a specific message within a dialogue. [[Session (computer science)#Session management over SMS|Session-tracking]] is used to extend the functionality of many Instant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much larger SMS user-base.<ref>"Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS Messaging" ABI Research, 2011</ref> === Application-to-person (A2P) SMS === While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-person messaging, another type of SMS became popular by 2017: application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used by businesses, such as banks, e-gaming, logistic companies, e-commerce, to send SMS messages from their systems to their customers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|title=What is A2P (Application-to-person) SMS Messaging? {{!}} Glossary|website=www.infobip.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=January 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125115455/http://www.infobip.com/en/glossary/a2p-application-to-person-sms-messaging|url-status=live}}</ref> In the US, carriers have traditionally preferred that A2P messages be sent using a short code rather than a standard [[long code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|title=What is a Short Code?|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307140121/https://www.sinch.com/learn/what-is-a-short-code/|url-status=deviated}}</ref> In 2021, US carriers introduced a new service called A2P 10DLC, supporting the used of 10-digit long codes for A2P messages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartercontact.com/what-is-10dlc/|title=What is A2P 10DLC and How It Impacts Your Business|date=29 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|title=What you should know about Verizon's A2P 10DLC Service|website=Twilio|access-date=2024-09-29|archive-date=2024-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208163738/https://www.twilio.com/en-us/blog/what-you-should-know-about-verizons-a2p-10dlc-service|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10DLC Registration: SMS Campaign Approval and Compliance Guide |url=https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=Sent.dm |archive-date=2024-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130133950/https://www.sent.dm/resources/10dlc-sms-registration |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United Kingdom A2P messages can be sent with a dynamic 11 character sender ID; however, short codes are used for OPTOUT commands. === Satellite phone networks === While early [[Iridium Satellite LLC|Iridium]] handsets only support incoming SMS, later models can also send messages. The price per message varies for different networks. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one to a different satellite phone network. SMS can sometimes be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to make a voice call. Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS to phones on that particular network. === Unreliability === Unlike dedicated texting systems like the [[Simple Network Paging Protocol]] and Motorola's ReFLEX protocol,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |title=Motorola's ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage |date=July 17, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717132058/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Dec_20/ai_68271859/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref> SMS message delivery is not guaranteed, and many implementations provide no mechanism through which a sender can determine whether an SMS message has been delivered in a timely manner.<ref name="cellular-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php|title=Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Communications|work=cellular-news|access-date=June 14, 2015|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125055849/http://www.cellular-news.com/story/33684.php?|url-status=live}}</ref> SMS messages are generally treated as lower-priority traffic than voice, and various studies have shown that around 1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during normal operation conditions, and others may not be delivered until long after their relevance has passed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |title=SMS Testing: Text Message Delivery Time and Reliability in Tanzania |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112828/https://www.ictworks.org/sms-testing-text-message-delivery-time-and-reliability-tanzania/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The use of SMS as an emergency notification service in particular has been questioned.<ref name="cellular-news"/> == غلط استعمال جا امڪان == [[File:SMS Phishing Attack Example.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[phishing]] attack through SMS, showing a fake message and URL claiming to be from [[Apple, Inc.|Apple]]]] {{see also|Mobile security#Attacks based on SMS and MMS}} The Global Service for Mobile communications ([[GSM]]), with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only the airway traffic between the [[Mobile Station]] (MS) and the [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) is optionally encrypted with a weak and broken [[stream cipher]] ([[A5/1]] or [[A5/2]]). The [[authentication]] is unilateral and also vulnerable. There are also many other security vulnerabilities and shortcomings.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses |book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies (NGMAST2008) |pages=576–581 |location=Cardiff, UK |date=September 2008 |arxiv=1002.3175 |doi=10.1109/NGMAST.2008.88}}</ref> Such vulnerabilities are inherent to SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with a global availability in the [[GSM]] networks. SMS messaging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is roaming, SMS content passes through different networks, perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous unprotected messages.<ref>{{cite conference |title=SSMS – A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-Payment Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08) |pages=700–705 |date=July 2008 |arxiv=1002.3171 |doi=10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610}}</ref> In October 2005, researchers from the [[Pennsylvania State University]] published an analysis of vulnerabilities in SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers speculated that attackers might exploit the open functionality of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail, possibly on a nationwide scale.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |title=Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-Capable Cellular Networks |book-title=Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |pages=393–404 |date=7–11 November 2005 |location=Alexandria, Virginia, USA |doi=10.1145/1102120.1102171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530001643/http://www.smsanalysis.org/smsanalysis.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ === {{main|ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ}} جي ايس ايم انڊسٽري موبائل آپريٽرز تي ڪيترن ئي امڪاني فراڊ حملن جي نشاندهي ڪئي آهي جيڪي ايس ايم ايس ميسيجنگ سروسز جي غلط استعمال ذريعي پهچائي سگهجن ٿا. هڪ خطرو ايس ايم ايس اسپوفنگ آهي، جيڪو تڏهن ٿيندو آهي جڏهن ڪو فراڊ ڪندڙ ايڊريس جي معلومات کي هٿي وٺرائي ٿو ته جيئن هڪ صارف جي نقالي ڪري سگهجي جيڪو هڪ غير ملڪي نيٽ ورڪ تي رهيو آهي ۽ گهرو نيٽ ورڪ تي پيغام موڪلي رهيو آهي. اڪثر ڪري، اهي پيغام گهر نيٽ ورڪ کان ٻاهر منزلن ڏانهن موڪليا ويندا آهن. گهرو ايس ايم ايس سي کي بنيادي طور تي ٻين نيٽ ورڪن ۾ پيغام موڪلڻ لاءِ "هائيجيڪ" ڪيو ويندو آهي.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Threat of SMS Spoofing: Prevent Revenue Loss by Securing The Network Against Fraudulent Attack |url=https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |access-date=March 23, 2026 |publisher=AdaptiveMobile |quote=The GSM industry has identified a number of potential fraud attacks... One threat is SMS spoofing, which occurs when a fraudster manipulates address information... |archive-date=April 12, 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260412054348/https://www.mforum.ru/arc/080915_SMS_Soofing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> جعلي پيغامن کي ڳولڻ ۽ بلاڪ ڪرڻ جو واحد يقيني طريقو ايندڙ موبائل-پيدا ٿيل پيغامن جي اسڪريننگ ڪرڻ آهي ته جيئن تصديق ڪري سگهجي ته موڪليندڙ هڪ صحيح سبسڪرائبر آهي ۽ پيغام هڪ صحيح ۽ صحيح جڳهه کان اچي رهيو آهي. اهو نيٽ ورڪ ۾ هڪ ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن شامل ڪندي لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو جيڪو پيغام پهچائڻ لاءِ جمع ڪرائڻ کان اڳ گهر جي جڳهه رجسٽر (HLR) مان اصل سبسڪرائبر جي تفصيلن کان پڇي سگهي ٿو. هن قسم جو ذهين روٽنگ فنڪشن ليگيسي ميسيجنگ انفراسٽرڪچر جي صلاحيتن کان ٻاهر آهي.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |title=An overview on how to stop SMS Spoofing in mobile operator networks (September 9, 2008) |access-date=September 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926182131/http://www.openmindnetworks.com/SMSSpoofing.asp |archive-date=September 26, 2008 }}</ref> === حد === ٽيلي مارڪيٽنگ ڪندڙن کي محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾، جيڪي غير ضروري پيغامن جي هجوم سان استعمال ڪندڙن تي بمباري ڪرڻ لڳا هئا، ڀارت سيپٽمبر 2011ع ۾ نوان ضابطا متعارف ڪرايا، جن ۾ هر سبسڪرائبر جي هر مهيني 3,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن جي حد، يا سراسري طور تي هر روز 100 في سبسڪرائبر جي حد شامل هئي. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204011520/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/asia/3000-sms-a-month-limit-in-india-from-today/467985 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2013 |title=3,000 SMS a Month Limit in India From Today |date=September 27, 2011 |author=Nirmala Ganapathy |newspaper=Straits Times Indonesia |access-date=November 10, 2011 }}</ref> ڪجهه سروس فراهم ڪندڙن ۽ صارفين کان مليل نمائندگي جي ڪري، ٽرائي (ٽيليڪام ريگيوليٽري اٿارٽي آف انڊيا) هن حد کي پري پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في ڏينهن 200 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين ۽ پوسٽ پيڊ سروسز جي صورت ۾ في سم في مهيني 6,000 ايس ايم ايس پيغامن تائين وڌائي ڇڏيو آهي، جيڪو 1 نومبر 2011ع کان لاڳو ٿيندو.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |title=TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200 SMS per day per SIM |access-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111163646/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/843/press_release_for_8th_amendmenet.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 }}</ref> بهرحال، دهلي هاءِ ڪورٽ طرفان ان کي غير آئيني قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ڪجهه حدون اڃان تائين لاگو آهن.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |title=TRAI cap on SMS goes |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=January 26, 2012 |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212073602/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2832402.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref> == پڻ ڏسو == {{div col |colwidth=27em}}• [[انٽرنيٽ]] * [[واٽس اپ]] * [[موبائل فون]] * [[ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] * [[اي ايم ايس]] * [[ايم ايم ايس]] * [[جي ايس ايم]] * [[ايس ايم ايس ٻولي]]{{div col end}} ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا== {{Commons category|ايس ايم ايس}} <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> * [https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP] – the organization that maintains the SMS specification * [https://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/c036050_ISO_IEC_21989_2002(E).zip ISO Standards (In Zip file format)] * [https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ETSI/GSM0338.TXT GSM 03.38 to Unicode] – how the GSM 7-bit default alphabet characters map into Unicode <!-- Do NOT add your SMS service, gateway or blog here. Really, because it will be immediately reverted. --> {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sms}} [[زمرو:ايس ايم ايس]] [[زمرو:اطلاع]] [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪسٽ پيغام رساني]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] [[Category:3GPP standards]] [[Category:Mobile telecommunications standards]] qoq2qjeufzqj79of5a7tm80josv4q3n چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ 0 100378 394649 2026-07-15T17:43:18Z Memon2025 21315 صفحي "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359401786|China Railway Guangzhou Group]]" جي شروعاتي ڀاڱي جو ترجمو ڪندي سرجيو ويو 394649 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. satrlasokdlwb5m65ze2n8065jkngx0 394650 394649 2026-07-15T17:54:38Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394650 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== roxllebmrc4rns5073khv01ppnwgjc2 394652 394650 2026-07-15T17:56:34Z Memon2025 21315 394652 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{Bureaus of China Railway}} {{authority control}} tbuado3c89i2pmmvwdljbel2rc5iovh 394653 394652 2026-07-15T18:00:47Z Memon2025 21315 394653 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چيني حڪومت]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چين جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] 4okdmdzy4d9t3r2zmy7qpcux7wwi258 394654 394653 2026-07-15T18:03:13Z Memon2025 21315 394654 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چين]] [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چيني حڪومت]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چين جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] j4u2c17u75cq4lfgo3t0ya4sok3wrb3 394655 394654 2026-07-15T18:06:19Z Memon2025 21315 394655 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چين]] [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چيني حڪومت]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:ريل ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:چين ۾ سرڪاري ادارا]] qsetxcyxeekugyew7gxw1ah1agtm9m8 394656 394655 2026-07-15T18:08:23Z Memon2025 21315 /* خارجي لنڪس */ 394656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چين]] [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي حڪومت]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريلوي ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:ريل ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:چين ۾ سرڪاري ادارا]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] tq0g52zarjeb5d6jd0vfzk8td8cwuec 394749 394656 2026-07-16T05:54:54Z Memon2025 21315 394749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] 88nbx2vbou66bfqjv5smluenwghy41k 394750 394749 2026-07-16T05:58:44Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو ** گوانگزو، گوانگزو ڏکڻ، گوانگزو اوڀر، گوانگزو بايون، چنگ شينگ، نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين. شينزين اتر. فوٽان. شينزين اوڀر. * فوشان ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا ** چانگشا، چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو ** زوزو ، زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ ** هنگيانگ، هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائي. ها: ** هوائي ، هوائي ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو. ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] etqx72up2d1pb6xwr47xe0frrigqlrr 394751 394750 2026-07-16T06:05:01Z Memon2025 21315 394751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== * ايس ٽرين خدمتون: هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي. سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو ** زوجي ** گوانگ فوزائو ** گوانُوئي ** گوانگشين ** سُوشين ** شيشين * هونان صوبو: ** چانگيچانگ ** چانگزوتان. ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] grkdob51qajd1rzwwktinookeo04h6j 394752 394751 2026-07-16T06:09:04Z Memon2025 21315 394752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== ايس ٽرين خدمتون: * هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: * پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو * زوجي * گوانگ فوزائو * گوانُوئي * گوانگشين * سُوشين * شيشين هونان صوبو: * چانگيچانگ * چانگزوتان ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] p0ma7r49ohpcerb9ns4m4704019ppwr 394753 394752 2026-07-16T06:11:50Z Memon2025 21315 394753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[State-owned enterprise]] | industry = [[Railway operations]] | genre = | predecessor = Guangzhou Railway Administration (1953-1993)<br>Guangzhou Railway Group (1993-2017) | founded = 19 November 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 Zhongshan 1st Road, [[Yuexiu District|Yuexiu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]] | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = China | area_served = [[Guangdong]]<br>[[Hunan]]<br>[[Hainan]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[China Railway]] | num_employees = | parent = [[China Railway]] | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== ايس ٽرين خدمتون: * هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: * پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو * زوجي * گوانگ فوزائو * گوانُوئي * گوانگشين * سُوشين * شيشين هونان صوبو: * چانگيچانگ * چانگزوتان ==See Also== * [[شنڪانشين]] * [[هانڪيو]] * [[پاڪستان ريلويز]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] afmnvonn4yup6unm1jmwzr6062ie7ia 394755 394753 2026-07-16T06:27:38Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[رياستي ملڪيت وارو ادارو|رياستي ملڪيت وارو]] | industry = ريلوي آپريشن | genre = | predecessor = گوانگزو ريلوي انتظاميه (1953-1993)<br>گوانگزو ريلوي گروپ (1993-2017) | founded = 19 نومبر 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 ژونگشان پهريون روڊ، يوڪسيو، گوانگزو، گوانگزو، چين | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = [[چين]] | area_served = [[گوانگزونگ]]<br>[[هونان]]<br>[[هينان]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = چائنا ريلوي | num_employees = | parent = چائنا ريلوي | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== ايس ٽرين خدمتون: * هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: * پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو * زوجي * گوانگ فوزائو * گوانُوئي * گوانگشين * سُوشين * شيشين هونان صوبو: * چانگيچانگ * چانگزوتان ==See Also== * [[شنڪانشين]] * [[هانڪيو]] * [[پاڪستان ريلويز]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] 6x2v8haqnjxs4onc6hkszfl0xrkvkgm 394756 394755 2026-07-16T06:30:22Z Memon2025 21315 /* See Also */ 394756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[رياستي ملڪيت وارو ادارو|رياستي ملڪيت وارو]] | industry = ريلوي آپريشن | genre = | predecessor = گوانگزو ريلوي انتظاميه (1953-1993)<br>گوانگزو ريلوي گروپ (1993-2017) | founded = 19 نومبر 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 ژونگشان پهريون روڊ، يوڪسيو، گوانگزو، گوانگزو، چين | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = [[چين]] | area_served = [[گوانگزونگ]]<br>[[هونان]]<br>[[هينان]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = چائنا ريلوي | num_employees = | parent = چائنا ريلوي | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=Headquarter of CR Guangzhou |title=چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== ايس ٽرين خدمتون: * هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: * پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو * زوجي * گوانگ فوزائو * گوانُوئي * گوانگشين * سُوشين * شيشين هونان صوبو: * چانگيچانگ * چانگزوتان == پڻ ڏسو == * [[شنڪانشين]] * [[هانڪيو]] * [[پاڪستان ريلويز]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] jxh0gskqk3ctblm0ueozbuy6e25gd9v 394757 394756 2026-07-16T06:31:42Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company | name = چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> <br> <small> China Railway Guangzhou Group Co., Ltd.</small> | logo = | type = [[رياستي ملڪيت وارو ادارو|رياستي ملڪيت وارو]] | industry = ريلوي آپريشن | genre = | predecessor = گوانگزو ريلوي انتظاميه (1953-1993)<br>گوانگزو ريلوي گروپ (1993-2017) | founded = 19 نومبر 2017 | founder = | hq_location = 151 ژونگشان پهريون روڊ، يوڪسيو، گوانگزو، گوانگزو، چين | hq_location_city = | hq_location_country = [[چين]] | area_served = [[گوانگزونگ]]<br>[[هونان]]<br>[[هينان]] | key_people = | products = | services = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = چائنا ريلوي | num_employees = | parent = چائنا ريلوي | divisions = | subsid = | website = [http://www.gzrailway.com.cn Official Website] | footnotes = }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic=Aerial View, Headquarter of China Railway Guangzhou Group 20240331.jpg |piccap=چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو جو هيڊ ڪوارٽر |title=چائنا ريلوي گوانگزو گروپ<br> China Railway Guangzhou Group |s=中国铁路广州局集团 |t=中國鐵路廣州局集團 |p=Zhōngguó Tiělù Guǎngzhōu Jú Jítuán |l= |altname=Guangzhou Railway Group |s2=广铁集团 |t2=廣鐵集團 |p2=Guǎngtiě Jítuán |altname3=Guangzhou Railway Administration |s3=广州铁路局 |t3=廣州鐵路局 |p3=Guǎngzhōu Tiělù Jú |altname4=CR Guangzhou |s4=广铁 |t4=廣鐵 |p4=Guǎngtiě |order=st}} '''چائنا ريلوي گوانگ زو گروپ''' (China Railway Guangzhou Group)، سرڪاري طور تي مختصر طور تي '''سي آر گوانگ زو''' يا '''سي آر-گوانگ زو'''، اڳ ۾، '''گوانگ زو ريلوي (گروپ) ڪارپوريشن''' 1993 کان 2017 تائين ۽ '''گوانگ زو ريلوي ايڊمنسٽريشن''' 1953 کان 1993 تائين، هڪ ماتحت ڪمپني آهي جيڪا چائنا ريلوي گروپ (اڳوڻي وزارت ريلوي) جي ڇت هيٺ ڪم ڪري رهي آهي. اهو [[گوئينگڊانگ صوبو|گوانگ ڊونگ]]، [[ھونان صوبو|هونان]] ۽ [[ھائنان صوبو|هائنان]] صوبن اندر ريلوي نيٽ ورڪ جي ذميوار آهي. <ref>{{حوالو ويب|quote=31 October 2016|archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> گوانگزو ريلوي گوانگ شين ريلوي جي سڀ کان وڏو شيئر هولڊر (%37.12) آهي، جيڪي گوانگزو-شينزين ريلوي جي آپريٽر آهي. گوانگزو ريلوي چائنا ريلوي جي ماتحت ڪمپني آهي. ٻنهي ڪمپنين کي چين جي نئين ڪمپني قانون جي بدران صنعتي ادارن جي قانون تحت شامل ڪيو ويو آهي. ==ايڪوٽي سيڙپڪاري== 31 ڊسمبر 2015 تائين گوانگڊونگ پرل درياء ڊيلٽا انٽر سٽي ريلوي (%34.62). ==حب اسٽيشنون== * گوانگزو: ** گوانگزو • گوانگزو ڏکڻ • گوانگزو اوڀر • گوانگزو بايون • چنگ شينگ • نانشا (U/C) * شينزين: ** شينزين • شينزين اتر • فوٽان • شينزين اوڀر * فوشان: ** فوشان ويسٽ * چانگشا: ** چانگشا • چانگشا ڏکڻ * زوزو: ** زوزو • زوزو اولهه * هنگيانگ: ** هنگيانگ • هنگيانگ اوڀر * هوائيها: ** هوائيها • هوائيها ڏکڻ * يونگزو: ** يونگزو ==علائقائي خدمتون== ايس ٽرين خدمتون: * هائيڪو مضافاتي ريلوي سي ٽرين جون خدمتون: * پرل درياهه ڊيلٽا ميٽروپوليٽن ريجن انٽر سٽي ريلوي * گوانگزو * زوجي * گوانگ فوزائو * گوانُوئي * گوانگشين * سُوشين * شيشين هونان صوبو: * چانگيچانگ * چانگزوتان == پڻ ڏسو == * [[شنڪانشين]] * [[هانڪيو]] * [[پاڪستان ريلويز]] ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} ==خارجي لنڪس== * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] bspv3lkwx8erfltxmi1j7u88ocgoam2 زمرو:موبائل فون 14 100379 394660 2026-07-15T20:07:48Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394660 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] pjd2ph1ycwrkz11obohfe5t85m14jxl 394676 394660 2026-07-15T20:25:14Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394676 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ايمبيڊڊ سسٽم]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] cj058rsmp37kjnse3sg96t144h77549 نيو ڪالونيلزم 0 100380 394666 2026-07-15T20:12:17Z Intisar Ali 8681 Intisar Ali صفحي [[نيو ڪالونيلزم]] کي [[نئين نوآباديت]] ڏانھن چوريو: مناسب عنوان ڏنو ويو 394666 wikitext text/x-wiki #چوريو [[نئين نوآباديت]] h2vzwfhveakvn16y9129pbtvky0ydve زمرو:ٽيليفون 14 100381 394669 2026-07-15T20:17:12Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394669 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] pjd2ph1ycwrkz11obohfe5t85m14jxl زمرو:ريڊيو ٽيڪنالاجي 14 100382 394677 2026-07-15T20:26:31Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ريڊيو]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] 394677 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ريڊيو]] [[زمرو:ٽيڪنالاجي]] grukqzzbb0f3mfzxhk774od5tm4dod6 زمرو:وڊيو ٽيليفون 14 100383 394679 2026-07-15T20:28:48Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] 394679 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ٽيليفون]] dnjk07r23r74qvy25ot9tzbqxtbzx3m زمرو:1983ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف 14 100384 394680 2026-07-15T20:30:10Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1983ع]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394680 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1983ع]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 9a9molmz9crddv33lqp1kn3dmk87z5d 394685 394680 2026-07-15T20:34:36Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394685 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1983ع]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن بلحاظ سال]] p1q6afmis5mnu12g1p9ivwa97u4r87z زمرو:1973ع ۾ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن سان لاڳاپيل تعارف 14 100385 394682 2026-07-15T20:33:19Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1973ع]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن بلحاظ سال]] 394682 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1973ع]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن بلحاظ سال]] tp3hgsw0p2sscn2r8rtzw319rhujrio زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن بلحاظ سال 14 100386 394683 2026-07-15T20:33:43Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:زمرا بلحاظ سال]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394683 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:زمرا بلحاظ سال]] [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] ttffn95im62lodk6z7mdbcvnai90c6c زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن خدمتون 14 100387 394687 2026-07-15T20:36:14Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:خدمتون]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394687 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:خدمتون]] [[زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] spgo3jhn9u2xsgcpb1j7ls378vkvi9o زمرو:موبائل ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن 14 100388 394688 2026-07-15T20:36:38Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 394688 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن]] 1yuyb0vs9ad2kmbt360uxptv6qsgv6z زمرو:چائنا ريلوي ڪارپوريشن 14 100389 394742 2026-07-16T05:43:19Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] 394742 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون]] 4wooqkr0wwa1iz7xn5rm9oueluwmry3 زمرو:چين جون ريلوي ڪمپنيون 14 100390 394743 2026-07-16T05:45:35Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] 394743 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] er7skhjtcnqrbzzt7aszunycopjcbux زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت جي ملڪيت واريون ڪمپنيون 14 100391 394744 2026-07-16T05:47:04Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:چين ۾ سرڪاري ادارا]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت]] 394744 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:چين ۾ سرڪاري ادارا]] [[زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت]] 516p3p52g1fkin6lp30h1s5ihnxjqgc زمرو:چين جي مرڪزي حڪومت 14 100392 394745 2026-07-16T05:47:59Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:چين جي حڪومت]] 394745 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:چين جي حڪومت]] mohdxgwqe2tp3qn99p4jvzifzg0zd3j زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل ريلوي ڪمپنيون 14 100393 394746 2026-07-16T05:49:06Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:ريل ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] 394746 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:ريل ٽرانسپورٽ]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] 56lb6cmp0hnhcumba1jhf2gr918v5o5 394747 394746 2026-07-16T05:49:58Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394747 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:ريل جون ڪمپنيون]] 1de2plo0vl1vytw297nyetelvq5iynx زمرو:1993 ۾ قائم ٿيل چيني ڪمپنيون 14 100394 394748 2026-07-16T05:50:53Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] 394748 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:1993]] [[زمرو:چيني ڪمپنيون]] ibscttcg3mm3xem39mcquiy31sr1sr6 اسمارٽ فون 0 100395 394761 2026-07-16T07:07:41Z Ibne maryam 17680 نئون صفحو: {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{About}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|A [[Nexus 6]], an [[Android (operating system)|Android]] smartphone, displaying the [[Main Page]] of the [[English Wikipedia]]]] A '''smartphone''' is a [[mobile device]] that combines the functionality of a traditional [[mobile phone]] ([[feature phone]]) with advanced [[computing]] capabiliti... 394761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{About}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|A [[Nexus 6]], an [[Android (operating system)|Android]] smartphone, displaying the [[Main Page]] of the [[English Wikipedia]]]] A '''smartphone''' is a [[mobile device]] that combines the functionality of a traditional [[mobile phone]] ([[feature phone]]) with advanced [[computing]] capabilities. It typically has a [[touchscreen]] interface, allowing users to access a wide range of applications and services, such as [[web browsing]], [[email]], and [[social media]], as well as [[multimedia]] playback and [[Streaming media|streaming]]. Smartphones have built-in [[camera]]s, [[GPS navigation]], and support for various communication methods, including voice calls, [[text messaging]], and internet-based messaging apps. Smartphones are distinguished from older-design [[feature phone]]s by their more advanced hardware capabilities and extensive [[mobile operating system]]s, access to the [[internet]], business applications, [[mobile payment]]s, and multimedia functionality, including music, video, [[mobile gaming|gaming]], [[Internet radio|radio]], and [[Mobile television|television]]. Smartphones typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] 6iueuly35ee3u99xhnvtgungk6ywfv3 394762 394761 2026-07-16T07:11:59Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|A [[Nexus 6]], an [[Android (operating system)|Android]] smartphone, displaying the [[Main Page]] of the [[English Wikipedia]]]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. Smartphones typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] eh6xszc6kpym229f83k6p9uyicefqkn 394763 394762 2026-07-16T07:26:40Z Ibne maryam 17680 /* */ 394763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Handheld mobile device}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Wikipedia homepage on a large Android phone, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|نيڪسس 6 (Nexus 6)، جيڪو هڪ [[اينڊروئيڊ|اينڊرائيڊ]] اسمارٽ فون آهي، [[انگريزي وڪيپيڊيا]] جو مکيه صفحو ڏيکاري رهيو آهي. ]] '''اسمارٽ فون''' (smartphones) هڪ موبائل ڊيوائس آهي جيڪو روايتي [[موبائل فون]] (فيچر فون) جي ڪارڪردگي کي جديد ڪمپيوٽنگ صلاحيتن سان گڏ ڪري ٿو. ان ۾ عام طور تي هڪ ٽچ اسڪرين انٽرفيس هوندو آهي، جيڪو صارفين کي ايپليڪيشنن ۽ خدمتن جي وسيع رينج تائين رسائي جي اجازت ڏيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ويب برائوزنگ، اي ميل، ۽ سوشل ميڊيا، انهي سان گڏ ملٽي ميڊيا پلے بیک ۽ اسٽريمنگ. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ بلٽ ان ڪيمرا، GPS نيويگيشن ۽ مختلف مواصلاتي طريقن لاءِ سپورٽ هوندي آهي، جنهن ۾ وائس ڪالز، ٽيڪسٽ ميسيجنگ، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي ٻڌل ميسيجنگ ايپس شامل آهن. اسمارٽ فونز کي پراڻين ڊيزائن جي فيچر فونز کان انهن جي وڌيڪ جديد هارڊويئر صلاحيتن ۽ وسيع موبائل آپريٽنگ سسٽم، انٽرنيٽ تائين رسائي، ڪاروباري ايپليڪيشنون، موبائل ادائيگيون، ۽ ملٽي ميڊيا ڪارڪردگي، جنهن ۾ موسيقي، وڊيو، گيمنگ، ريڊيو ۽ ٽيليويزن شامل آهن، جي ڪري مختلف آهن. اسمارٽ فونز ۾ عام طور تي ميٽل-آڪسائيڊ-سيمي ڪنڊڪٽر (MOS) انٽيگريٽيڊ سرڪٽ (IC) چپس، مختلف سينسرز ۽ ڪيترن ئي وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن پروٽوڪولز جي سهولت موجود هوندي آهي. اسمارٽ فون سينسرز جي مثالن ۾ ايڪسلروميٽر، بيروميٽر، گائرو اسڪوپ ۽ ميگنيٽوميٽرز شامل آهن. انهن کي اڳواٽ انسٽال ٿيل ۽ ٿرڊ پارٽي سافٽ ويئر ذريعي استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو ته جيئن ڪارڪردگي کي بهتر بڻائي سگهجي. اسمارٽ فونز پاران سپورٽ ڪيل وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن جي معيارن ۾ LTE، 5G NR، وائي فائي، بلوٽوٿ ۽ سيٽلائيٽ نيويگيشن شامل آهن. سال 2020ع واري ڏهاڪي جي وچ ڌاري، ٺاهيندڙن سيٽلائيٽ ميسيجنگ ۽ ايمرجنسي سروسز کي شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جنهن سان انهن جي افاديت انهن ڏورانهن علائقن تائين وڌي وئي جتي قابل اعتماد سيلولر ڪوريج موجود نه هئي. اسمارٽ فونز گهڻي حد تائين پرسنل ڊجيٽل اسسٽنٽ (PDA) ڊوائيسز، هٿ ۾ رکڻ جهڙن ننڍن پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر، پورٽيبل ميڊيا پليئرز (PMP)، پوائنٽ-اينڊ-شوٽ ڪئميرا، ڪيمڪارڊر ۽ ڪجهه حد تائين هٿ ۾ رکڻ وارن وڊيو گيم ڪنسول، اي-ريڊر ڊوائيس، پاڪيٽ ڪيلڪيوليٽرز ۽ GPS ٽريڪنگ يونٽن جي جاءِ ورتي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي جي آخر ۾ آئي فون (iPhone) جي وڌندڙ مقبوليت کانپوءِ، اڪثر اسمارٽ فونز پتلي، سليٽ جهڙي شڪل ۽ وڏين ڪيپيسيٽو ٽچ اسڪرينن سان ٺاهيا ويا آهن، جن ۾ فزيڪل ڪيبورڊ جي بدران ملٽي ٽچ اشارن جي سهولت موجود آهي. اڪثر جديد اسمارٽ فونز ۾ اها صلاحيت هوندي آهي ته صارف هڪ مرڪزي ايپ اسٽور تان اضافي ايپليڪيشنون ڊائون لوڊ يا خريد ڪري سگهن. انهن ۾ اڪثر ڪري ڪلائوڊ اسٽوريج، ڪلائوڊ سنڪرونائيزيشن ۽ ورچوئل اسسٽنٽس جي سهولت هوندي آهي. 2010ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات کان وٺي، بهتر هارڊويئر ۽ تيز رفتار وائرليس ڪميونيڪيشن اسمارٽ فون انڊسٽري جي ترقي کي هٿي ڏني آهي. 2014ع تائين، سڄي دنيا ۾ هر سال هڪ ارب کان وڌيڪ اسمارٽ فونز وڪرو ٿيندا هئا. صرف 2019ع ۾، سڄي دنيا ۾ 1.54 ارب اسمارٽ فون يونٽس موڪليا ويا؛ سال 2020ع تائين، دنيا جي آبادي جو 75.05 سيڪڙو ماڻهو اسمارٽ فون استعمال ڪندڙ هئا. جيتوڻيڪ اسمارٽ فون جو استعمال ڪجهه حد تائين سهولت ۽ زندگي جي اطمينان سان لاڳاپيل رهيو آهي، پر ان سان جسماني، ذهني ۽ ادراڪي (cognitive) صحت تي مختلف منفي اثر پڻ سڃاتا ويا آهن. typically feature [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple [[wireless]] communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include [[accelerometer]]s, [[barometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]], [[5G NR]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], and [[satellite navigation]]. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating [[Satellite phone#Integration into conventional mobile phones|satellite messaging]] and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable [[cellular coverage]]. Smartphones have largely replaced [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) devices, [[handheld PC|handheld/palm-sized PCs]], [[portable media player]]s (PMP),<ref name="Tom's Hardware">{{cite web |last=Islam |first=Zak |date=30 December 2012 |title=Smartphones Heavily Decrease Sales of iPod, MP3 Players |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Smartphones-iPod-MP3-Players-Sales,20062.html |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> [[point-and-shoot camera]]s, [[camcorder]]s, and, to a lesser extent, [[handheld game console|handheld video game consoles]], [[e-reader]] devices, [[pocket calculator]]s, and [[GPS tracking unit]]s. Following the rising popularity of the [[iPhone]] in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like [[Form factor (mobile phones)|form factors]] with large, [[capacitive sensing|capacitive]] touch screens with support for [[multi-touch]] gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional [[mobile app|applications]] from a centralized [[app store]]. They often have support for [[Mobile cloud storage|cloud storage]] and cloud synchronization, and [[virtual assistant]]s. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have [[Post-PC era|bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry]]. {{As of|2014}}, over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smartphone sales worldwide 2007-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/topics/840/smartphones/#topicOverview | title=Topic: Smartphones }}</ref> Although smartphone use has been associated to some extent with convenience and [[life satisfaction]],<ref name="Sagong2022">{{cite journal| last1 = Sagong | first1 = H.| last2 = Yoon | first2 = J. Y.| title = The effects of smartphone use on life satisfaction in older adults: The mediating role of depressive symptoms| journal = CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing| volume = 40| issue = 8| pages = 523-530| date = 2022}}</ref> a variety of [[#Health effects|negative effects on physical, mental, and cognitive health]] have also been identified. ==History== {{main|History of smartphones}}{{Empty section|date=June 2026}} ==Hardware== [[File:Samsung Galaxy S6 edge (17448278539).jpg|thumb|Smartphone with infrared transmitter on top for use as remote control]]<!--Please replace with more close-up picture when found.--> {{Further|Mobile phone feature}} A typical smartphone contains a number of [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips,<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Woonyun |chapter=CMOS power amplifier design for cellular applications: an EDGE/GSM dual-mode quad-band PA in 0.18 μm CMOS |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Hua |editor-last2=Sengupta |editor-first2=Kaushik |title=RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon |date=2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409522-9 |pages=89–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzzLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89}}</ref> which in turn contain billions of tiny [[MOSFET|MOS field-effect transistors]] (MOSFETs).<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |date=June 10, 2019 |title=Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference |url=https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217200937/https://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intellectual-property-conference |url-status=dead }}</ref> A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:<ref name="Kim"/> * [[Microprocessor|Application processor]] ([[CMOS]] [[system-on-a-chip]]) * [[Flash memory]] ([[floating-gate]] [[MOS memory]]) * [[Cellular modem]] ([[baseband]] [[RF CMOS]]) * [[RF transceiver]] ([[RF CMOS]]) * [[Phone camera]] [[image sensor]] ([[CMOS image sensor]]) * [[Power management integrated circuit]] ([[power MOSFET]]s) * [[Display driver]] ([[LCD]] or [[LED driver]]) * [[Wireless communication]] chips ([[Wi-Fi]], [[Bluetooth]], [[GPS receiver]]) * [[Sound chip]] ([[audio codec]] and [[power amplifier]]) * [[Gyroscope]] * [[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[touchscreen]] controller ([[ASIC]] and [[Digital signal processor|DSP]])<ref name="Kim"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Joel |chapter=Touchscreen technology basics & a new development |title=2010 CMOS Emerging Technologies Conference Presentation Slides |date=May 2010 |volume=6 |publisher=CMOS Emerging Technologies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekdkWGqw29EC&pg=PA34 |isbn=9781927500057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ganapati |first1=Priya |title=Finger Fail: Why Most Touchscreens Miss the Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |access-date=9 November 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511114207/http://www.wired.com/2010/03/touchscreens-smartphones/ |archive-date=2014-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[RF power amplifier]] ([[LDMOS]])<ref name="Baliga2005">{{cite book |last1=Baliga |first1=B. Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpDQAAQBAJ |title=Silicon RF Power MOSFETS |date=2005 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812561213 |author1-link=B. Jayant Baliga}}</ref><ref name="Asif">{{cite book |last1=Asif |first1=Saad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg1mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |title=5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780429881343 |pages=128–134}}</ref><ref name="NXP-LDMOS">{{cite web |title=LDMOS Products and Solutions |url=https://www.nxp.com/products/rf/rf-power/ldmos-products-and-solutions:RF-LDMOS-Products-Sol |website=[[NXP Semiconductors]] |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Some are also equipped with an [[FM radio]] receiver, a hardware [[notification LED]], and an infrared transmitter for use as [[remote control]]. A few models have additional [[#Sensors|sensors]] such as [[thermometer]] for measuring ambient temperature, [[hygrometer]] for humidity, and a sensor for [[ultraviolet ray]] measurement. A few smartphones designed around specific purposes are equipped with uncommon hardware such as a projector ([[Samsung Beam i8520]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Beam i8530]]), [[optical zoom lenses]] ([[Samsung Galaxy S4 Zoom]] and [[Samsung Galaxy K Zoom]]), [[thermal camera]], and even [[PMR446]] ([[walkie-talkie]] radio) [[transceiver]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Camera and thermal imaging Review |url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/cat-s60-camera-and-thermal-imaging-page-3 |website=Trusted Reviews |language=en |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chopra |first1=Purvi |title=Ulefone Armor 3T Review: A Digital Walkie-Talkie Smartphone |url=https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |website=Veditto |access-date=19 April 2021 |date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419231512/https://veditto.com/ulefone-armor-3t-review |archive-date=2021-04-19}}</ref> ===Central processing unit=== Smartphones have [[central processing unit]]s (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments. In smartphones, the CPU is typically integrated in a [[CMOS]] (complementary [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]]) [[system-on-a-chip]] (SoC) [[microprocessor|application processor]].<ref name="Kim"/> The performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of [[hertz]])<ref>{{cite web | title = CPU Frequency | work = CPU World Glossary | publisher = CPU World | date = 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.cpu-world.com/Glossary/C/CPU_Frequency.html | access-date =1 January 2010 }}</ref> but also on the [[memory hierarchy]]. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. ===Buttons=== [[File:TouchWiz 2013 device options.png|thumb|upright|"Device options" menu of Samsung Mobile's [[TouchWiz]] user interface as of 2013, accessed by holding the power button for a second]] [[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|The [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with [[optical trackpad]] and search button]] Smartphones are typically equipped with a power button and volume buttons. Some pairs of volume buttons are unified. Some are equipped with a dedicated camera shutter button. Units for outdoor use may be equipped with an "SOS" emergency call and "PTT" ([[push-to-talk]] button). The presence of physical front-side buttons such as the [[home button|home]] and navigation buttons has decreased throughout the 2010s, increasingly becoming replaced by capacitive touch sensors and simulated (on-screen) buttons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Athow |first1=Desire |title=Best rugged smartphones of 2021: waterproof, shockproof and IP68 mobiles |url=https://www.techradar.com/best/best-rugged-smartphones |website=TechRadar |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-09}}</ref> As with classic mobile phones, early smartphones such as the [[Samsung Omnia II]] were equipped with buttons for accepting and declining phone calls. Due to the advancements of functionality besides phone calls, these have increasingly been replaced by navigation buttons such as "menu" (also known as "options"), "back", and "tasks". Some early 2010s smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire]] were additionally equipped with a "Search" button (🔍) for quick access to a web search engine or apps' internal search feature.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-13 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref> Since 2013, smartphones' home buttons started integrating [[fingerprint scanner]]s, starting with the [[iPhone 5s]] and [[Samsung Galaxy S5]]. Functions may be assigned to button combinations. For example, [[screenshot]]s can usually be taken using the home and power buttons, with a short press on iOS and one-second holding Android OS, the two most popular mobile operating systems. On smartphones with no physical home button, usually the volume-down button is instead pressed with the power button. Some smartphones have a screenshot and possibly [[screencast]] shortcuts in the navigation button bar or the power button menu.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasnoff |first1=Barbara |title=How to take screenshots on your iPhone |url=https://www.theverge.com/21340137/apple-iphone-screenshots-ios-how-to-take |website=The Verge |access-date=21 June 2021 |language=en |date=2020-07-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Take Screenshot on LG G3 (3 Methods) |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-take-screenshot-on-lg-g3/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4 Ways To Take a Screenshot on the Samsung Galaxy Note 20 and Note 20 Ultra - NaldoTech |url=https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |access-date=21 June 2021 |date=2020-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204222/https://www.naldotech.com/screenshot-samsung-galaxy-note-20-ultra/ |archive-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> ===Display=== {{main|Display device}} [[File:Livraria do Senado (22622160063).jpg|thumb|A smartphone touchscreen]] One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the [[Display device|screen]]. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an [[Display aspect ratio|aspect ratio]] of [[16:9]], but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017, as well as the aim to eliminate bezels by extending the display surface to as close to the edges as possible. ====Screen sizes==== [[File:Blackview A60 Smartphone Android mobile phone front face logged in screen.jpg|thumb|Blackview A60 Andoid Go mobile phone smartphone cell phone showing the front-facing camera is put in notch display]] Screen sizes are measured in diagonal [[inch]]es. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "[[phablet]]s". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.<ref name="phonearena-s7edgenotphablet">{{cite web|title=Don't call it a phablet: the 5.5" Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge is narrower than many 5.2" devices|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Dont-call-it-a-phablet-the-5.5-Samsung-Galaxy-S7-Edge-is-narrower-than-many-5.2-devices_id79482|website=PhoneArena|date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-phabletpytha">{{cite web|title=We're gonna need Pythagoras' help to compare screen sizes in 2017|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/3/30/15120824/screen-aspect-ratio-mathematics-galaxy-s8-lg-g6|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="verge-s8aspectratio">{{cite web|title=The Samsung Galaxy S8 will change the way we think about display sizes|url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|website=The Verge|date=March 30, 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=3 April 2017|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725110244/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/30/15121526/samsung-galaxy-s8-vs-google-pixel-iphone-7-screen-size-comparison|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Panel types==== [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs) and [[organic light-emitting diode]] (OLED) displays are the most common. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by [[Wacom (company)|Wacom]] and [[Samsung]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. R.|last2=Phillips|first2=M. J.|date=1987-04-01|title=Digitizer Technology: Performance Characteristics and the Effects on the User Interface|journal=IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications|volume=7|issue=4|pages=31–44|doi=10.1109/MCG.1987.276869|bibcode=1987ICGA....7d..31W |s2cid=16707568|issn=0272-1716}}</ref> and Apple's [[Force Touch]] system. A few phones, such as the [[YotaPhone]] prototype, are equipped with a low-power [[electronic paper]] rear display, as used in [[e-book reader]]s. ====Alternative input methods==== [[File:Mobile_URL_tooltip.png|thumb|Tooltip in Kiwi Browser, a [[Google Chromium]] derivative, reveals the full URL by hovering over the [[tabbed browsing|tab]] list using the stylus on a [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4]].]] [[File:HTC Legend - optic sensor.jpeg|thumb|Optical track pad sensor of an [[HTC Legend]], 2010]] Some devices are equipped with additional input methods such as a [[stylus]] for higher precision input and hovering detection or a [[Touchscreen#Self-capacitance|self-capacitive touch screen]]s layer for floating finger detection. The latter has been implemented on few phones such as the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]], [[Samsung Galaxy S5|S5]], [[Samsung Galaxy Alpha|Alpha]], and [[Sony Xperia Sola]], making the Galaxy Note 3 the only smartphone with both so far. Hovering can enable preview [[tooltip]]s such as on the [[video player]]'s seek bar, in text messages, and quick contacts on the [[dial pad]], as well as [[lock screen]] animations, and the simulation of a [[mouseover|hover]]ing [[mouse cursor]] on web sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=How does Air view work? |url=https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |website=Samsung Galaxy site |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028203958/https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is/air-view/ |archive-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Floating touch™ – Developer World |url=http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917003815/http://developer.sonymobile.com/knowledge-base/technologies/floating-touch |archive-date=September 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Change Unlock Effect on Galaxy S4 Lock Screen |url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |website=Android Widget Center |language=en |date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609051907/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/how-to-change-unlock-effect-on-galaxy-s4-lock-screen/ |archive-date=2013-06-09}}</ref> Some styluses support hovering as well and are equipped with a button for quick access to relevant tools such as digital [[post-it note]]s and highlighting of text and elements when dragging while pressed, resembling drag selection using a [[computer mouse]]. Some series such as the [[Samsung Galaxy Note series]] and [[LG G Stylus]] series have an integrated tray to store the stylus in.<ref>{{cite web |title=S Pen on the Note 4 is better than ever: Feature Focus |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |website=Android Authority |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119012837/https://www.androidauthority.com/note-4-s-pen-feature-532978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Few devices such as the [[iPhone 6s]] until [[iPhone Xs]] and [[Huawei Mate S]] are equipped with a [[Force Touch|pressure-sensitive touch screen]], where the pressure may be used to simulate a gas pedal in video games, access to preview windows and shortcut menus, controlling the typing cursor, and a weight scale, the latest of which has been rejected by Apple from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Lance |last=Whitney |date=2019-07-08|title=How to Use and Control 3D Touch on Your iPhone|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/gallery/121589/how-to-use-and-control-3d-touch-on-your-iphone|access-date=2021-04-02|website=PCMag UK|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zibreg|first=Christian|date=2015-10-28|title=Apple rejects Gravity, a 3D Touch-based iPhone 6s digital scale app|url=https://www.idownloadblog.com/2015/10/28/apple-pulls-gravity-app/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=iDownloadBlog.com|language=en-US}}</ref> Some early 2010s HTC smartphones such as the [[HTC Desire|HTC Desire (Bravo)]] and [[HTC Legend]] are equipped with an optical track pad for scrolling and selection.<ref>{{cite web |title=HTC Bravo: TMO UK Nexus One Plus Optical Trackpad – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2010/01/21/htc-bravo-tmo-uk-nexus-one-plus-optical-trackpad/ |website=phandroid.com |access-date=20 July 2021 |date=21 January 2010}}</ref> ====Notification light==== [[File:Notification_LED.webm|thumb|right]] {{Main article|Notification LED}} Many smartphones except Apple iPhones are equipped with low-power [[light-emitting diode]]s besides the screen that are able to notify the user about incoming messages, missed calls, low battery levels, and facilitate locating the mobile phone in darkness, with marginial power consumption. To distinguish between the sources of notifications, the colour combination and blinking pattern can vary. Usually three diodes in red, green, and blue ([[RGB]]) are able to create a multitude of colour combinations. ===Sensors=== Smartphones are equipped with a multitude of sensors to enable system features and third-party applications. ====Common sensors==== [[Accelerometer]]s and [[gyroscope]]s enable automatic control of screen rotation. Uses by third-party software include [[bubble level]] simulation. An [[ambient light sensor]] allows for automatic screen brightness and contrast adjustment, and an [[RGB sensor]] enables the adaption of screen colour. Many mobile phones are also equipped with a [[barometer]] sensor to measure air pressure, such as Samsung since 2012 with the [[Galaxy S3]], and Apple since 2014 with the [[iPhone 6]]. It allows estimating and detecting changes in altitude. A [[magnetometer]] can act as a [[digital magnetic compass|digital compass]] by measuring [[Earth's magnetic field]]. ====Rare sensors==== Samsung equips their flagship smartphones since the 2014 [[Galaxy S5]] and [[Galaxy Note 4]] with a [[heart rate]] sensor to assist in fitness-related uses and act as a shutter key for the front-facing camera.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-25|title=How to Use Heart Rate Sensor on Note 4 as a Shutter Button|url=https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Android Widget Center|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615163525/https://androidwidgetcenter.com/android-tips/use-heart-rate-sensor-note-4-shutter-button/ |archive-date=2021-06-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> So far, only the 2013 [[Samsung Galaxy S4]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note 3|Note 3]] are equipped with an [[thermometer|ambient temperature sensor]] and a [[hygrometer|humidity sensor]], and only the [[Samsung Galaxy Note 4|Note 4]] with an [[ultraviolet]] radiation sensor which could warn the user about excessive exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2013-04-10|title=Hidden innovation in the Galaxy S4|url=https://www.sammobile.com/2013/04/10/hidden-innovation-in-the-galaxy-s4/|access-date=|website=SamMobile|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=S|first=Ray|title=Playing with the Note 4's UV and SpO2 sensors|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Playing-with-the-Note-4s-UV-and-SpO2-sensors_id60358|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Phone Arena|date=September 6, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> A rear infrared [[laser]] beam for distance measurement can enable [[time-of-flight camera]] functionality with accelerated [[autofocus]], as implemented on select LG mobile phones starting with [[LG G3]] and [[LG V10]]. Due to their currently rare occurrence among smartphones, not much software to utilize these sensors has been developed yet. ===Storage=== While [[eMMC]] (''embedded multi media card'') [[flash storage]] was most commonly used in mobile phones, its successor, [[Universal Flash Storage|UFS]] (''Universal Flash Storage'') with higher transfer rates emerged throughout the 2010s for upper-class devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Odunayo |title=eMMC or UFS: Understanding new generation of mobile phone storage |url=https://www.dignited.com/23879/emmc-or-ufs-mobile-phone-storage/ |website=Dignited |date=18 November 2019}}</ref> ;Capacity While the internal storage capacity of mobile phones has been near-stagnant during the first half of the 2010s, it has increased steeper during its second half, with [[Samsung Telecommunications|Samsung]] for example increasing the available internal storage options of their flagship class units from 32 GB to 512 GB within only 2{{1/2}} years between 2016 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ware |first1=Russell |title=Understanding Smartphone Storage – How much storage does your phone need? |url=https://www.lifewire.com/smartphone-buying-guides-577502 |website=Lifewire |date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Starts Producing First 512-Gigabyte Universal Flash Storage for Next-Generation Mobile Devices |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171204006182/en/Samsung-Starts-Producing-512-Gigabyte-Universal-Flash-Storage |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en |date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gottsegen |first1=Gordon |title=Samsung is bringing a huge 512GB memory chip to its phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-512gb-memory-chip-announcement/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US will only receive 32GB Galaxy S7 and Galaxy S7 edge |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/us-getting-32gb-galaxy-s7-s7-edge-675313/ |website=Android Authority |date=21 February 2016}}</ref> ====Memory cards==== [[File:Huawei_U8950D_no_cover.JPG|thumb|Inserted memory and SIM cards]] {{main article|MicroSD#Mobile phones}} The space for data storage of some mobile phones can be expanded using [[MicroSD#Mobile phones|MicroSD]] [[memory card]]s, whose capacity has multiplied throughout the 2010s (→ {{section link|SD_card|2009–2019: SDXC}}). Benefits over [[USB on the go]] storage and [[cloud storage]] include [[offline]] availability and [[privacy]], not reserving and protruding from the [[charging port]], no connection instability or [[latency (engineering)|latency]], no dependence on voluminous [[data plan]]s, and preservation of the limited rewriting cycles of the device's permanent internal storage. Large amounts of data can be moved immediately between devices by changing memory cards, large-scale [[data backup]]s can be created offline, and data can be read externally should the smartphone be inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |language=en-us |title=MicroSD vs. cloud storage: Which do you prefer? |url=https://news.wirefly.com/2013/05/31/microsd-vs-cloud-storage-which-do-you-prefer |website=phonedog.com |date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en-nz |title=Understanding Life Expectancy of Flash Storage |url=https://www.ni.com/en-nz/support/documentation/supplemental/12/understanding-life-expectancy-of-flash-storage.html |website=www.ni.com |date=2020-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How to back up your Android phone |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/backup-android-phone-708622/ |access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Android Authority |language=en}}</ref> In case of technical [[brick (electronics)|defects]] which make the device unusable or [[boot (computing)|unbootable]] as a result of liquid damage, fall damage, screen damage, [[bendgate|bending damage]], [[malware]], or bogus [[software update|system update]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Popa |first1=Bogdan |title=Xiaomi Ships Android 11 Update, Completely Bricks Devices |url=https://news.softpedia.com/news/xiaomi-ships-android-11-update-completely-bricks-devices-531859.shtml |website=softpedia |language=english |date=2019-12-31}}</ref> etc., data stored on the memory card is likely [[data recovery|rescueable]] externally, while data on the inaccessible internal storage would be [[data loss|lost]]. A memory card can usually{{efn|Presuming common [[file system]] support, which is usually given. Some software-specific data left over from a previous device might not be relevant on the new device.}} immediately be re-used in a different memory-card-enabled device with no necessity for prior [[file transfer]]s. Some [[dual-SIM]] mobile phones are equipped with a hybrid slot, where one of the two slots can be occupied by either a [[SIM card]] or a memory card. Some models, typically of higher end, are equipped with three slots including one dedicated memory card slot, for simultaneous dual-SIM and memory card usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaufberatung: Smartphones mit Dual-SIM und Micro-SD |url=https://www.techstage.de/ratgeber/kaufberatung-smartphones-mit-dual-sim-und-micro-sd/3t4xzm3 |website=TechStage |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=de |date=2019-01-29}}</ref> ;Physical location The location of both SIM and memory card slots vary among devices, where they might be located accessibly behind the back cover or else behind the battery, the latter of which denies [[hot swapping]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How to increase internal memory on the Galaxy Note 4 |url=https://www.nextpit.com/how-to-increase-internal-memory-on-galaxy-note-4 |website=NextPit |date=July 5, 2015 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thorn |first1=Thomas |title=Samsung Galaxy S4 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/phones/mobile-phones/samsung-galaxy-s4-mini-1137603/review |website=TechRadar |language=en |date=2013-08-09}}</ref> Mobile phones with non-removable rear cover typically house SIM and memory cards in a small tray on the handset's frame, ejected by inserting a needle tool into a pinhole.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Jason |title=Replace the SIM & Memory Card in a Samsung Galaxy S7 or S7 Edge |url=https://www.lifewire.com/install-sim-memory-galaxy-s7-4023729 |website=Lifewire |language=en}}</ref> Some earlier mid-range phones such as the 2011 [[Samsung Galaxy Fit (smartphone)|Samsung Galaxy Fit]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Ace|Ace]] have a sideways memory card slot on the frame covered by a cap that can be opened without tool.<ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung Galaxy Ace S5830 review: Ace in the hole |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_ace_s5830-review-573.php |website=GSMArena.com |page=1 |date=2011-02-23}}</ref> ====File transfer==== Originally, [[mass storage]] access was commonly enabled to computers through USB. Over time, mass storage access was removed, leaving the [[Media Transfer Protocol]] as protocol for USB file transfer, due to its non-exclusive access ability where the computer is able to access the storage without it being locked away from the mobile phone's software for the duration of the connection, and no necessity for common [[file system]] support, as communication is done through an [[abstraction layer]]. However, unlike mass storage, Media Transfer Protocol lacks parallelism, meaning that only a single transfer can run at a time, for which other transfer requests need to wait to finish. This, for example, denies browsing photos and playing back videos from the device during an active file transfer. Some programs and devices lack support for MTP. In addition, the direct access and [[random access]] of files through MTP is not supported. Any file is wholly downloaded from the device before opened.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened To Mass Storage & File Management? [Updated] - Mobility Arena - Mobile Phone, Smartphone, Cell Phone Reviews |url=https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |website=mobilityarena.com |date=2011-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128100252/https://mobilityarena.com/what-happened-to-mass-storage-and-file-management/ |archive-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> ===Sound=== Some audio quality enhancing features, such as [[Voice over LTE]] and [[HD Voice]] have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in [[long-distance call]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-mobile-voice-quality-still-stinksand-how-to-fix-it|title=Why Mobile Voice Quality Still Stinks—and How to Fix It|first=Jeff|last=Hecht|work=[[IEEE]]|date=September 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-cell-phone-call-quality-so-terrible|title=Why Is Cell Phone Call Quality So Terrible?|first=Elena|last=Malykhina|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Audio quality can be improved using a [[VoIP]] application over [[Wi-Fi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifehacker.com/whats-the-best-mobile-voip-app-1579791681|title=What's the Best Mobile VoIP App?|first=Alan|last=Henry|publisher=Gawker Media|work=Lifehacker|date=May 22, 2014 }}</ref> Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a [[speakerphone]] feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space. Some mobile phones such as the [[HTC One M8]] and the [[Sony Xperia Z2]] are equipped with [[stereophonic sound|stereophonic]] speakers to create spacial sound when in horizontal orientation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoyle |first1=Andrew |title=HTC One M8 BoomSound speakers are loud and proud |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/htc-one-m8-speaker-comparison/ |website=CNET |language=en |date=2014-03-25}}</ref> ====Audio connector==== The [[Phone connector (audio)#Miniature size|3.5mm headphone receptible]] ([[colloquialism|coll.]] "''headphone jack''") allows the immediate operation of passive [[headphone]]s, as well as connection to other external auxiliary audio appliances. Among devices equipped with the connector, it is more commonly located at the bottom (charging port side) than on the top of the device. The decline of the connector's availability among newly released mobile phones among all major vendors commenced in 2016 with its lack on the Apple [[iPhone 7]]. An [[adapter]] reserving the charging port can retrofit the plug. Battery-powered, wireless Bluetooth headphones are an alternative. Those tend to be costlier however due to their need for internal hardware such as a Bluetooth [[transceiver]] and a battery with a charging controller, and a Bluetooth coupling is required ahead of each operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Was ditching the headphone jack a good idea? |url=https://www.soundguys.com/was-ditching-the-headphone-jack-a-good-idea-13825/ |website=SoundGuys |date=9 August 2019}}</ref> ===Battery=== Smartphones typically feature [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] or [[lithium-polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] due to their high [[energy density|energy densities]]. Batteries chemically wear down as a result of repeated charging and discharging throughout ordinary usage, losing both energy capacity and output power, which results in loss of processing speeds followed by system outages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Causes and Fixes of Unexpected Phone Shutoffs - RTCL ... rtcl.eecs.umich.edu › assets › 2020 |url=https://rtcl.eecs.umich.edu/rtclweb/assets/publications/2020/youngmoon-mobisys20.pdf |date=2020-06-15}}</ref> Battery capacity may be reduced to 80% after few hundred recharges, and the drop in performance accelerates with time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jasieniak |first1=Jacek |title=Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life |url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958 |website=The Conversation |date=July 31, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ukm.my/jqma/v10_1/jqma-10-1-paper4.pdf |title=Modelling of Charge/Discharge Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery System |first1=Ho Kar |last1=Yee |first2=Sivakumar |last2=Ramakrishnan |first3=Ahmad Azmin |last3=Mohamad |journal=Journal of Quality Measurement and Analysis |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=2014 |pages=39–47}}</ref> Some mobile phones are designed with batteries that can be interchanged upon expiration by the end user, usually by opening the back cover. While such a design had initially been used in most mobile phones, including those with touch screen that were not Apple iPhones, it has largely been usurped throughout the 2010s by permanently built-in, non-replaceable batteries; a design practice criticized for [[Planned obsolescence#Batteries|planned obsolescence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Planned obsolescence: the outrage of our electronic waste mountain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/15/the-right-to-repair-planned-obsolescence-electronic-waste-mountain |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=15 April 2020}}</ref> ====Charging==== [[File:Cheero powerbank & Samsung Galaxy S4 20140910.jpg|thumb|A high-capacity portable [[battery charger]] ([[Battery charger#Power bank|''power bank'']])]] Due to limitations of [[electrical current]]s that existing USB cables' copper wires could handle, charging protocols which make use of elevated [[voltages]] such as [[Qualcomm Quick Charge]] and [[MediaTek Pump Express]] have been developed to increase the power throughput for faster charging, to maximize the usage time without restricted ergonomy and to minimize the time a device needs to be attached to a power source. The smartphone's integrated [[charge controller]] (IC) requests the elevated voltage from a supported [[mobile phone charger|charger]]. "[[VOOC]]" by Oppo, also marketed as "dash charge", took the counter approach and increased current to cut out some heat produced from internally regulating the arriving voltage in the end device down to the battery's charging terminal voltage, but is incompatible with existing USB cables, as it requires the thicker copper wires of high-current USB cables. Later, [[USB Power Delivery]] (''USB-PD'') was developed with the aim to standardize the negotiation of charging parameters across devices of up to 100 Watts, but is only supported on cables with USB-C on both endings due to the connector's dedicated PD channels.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Sumukh |title=Qualcomm Quick Charge vs OnePlus Warp Charge vs Oppo VOOC vs USB-PD - TechPP |url=https://techpp.com/2020/04/09/qualcomm-quick-charge-vs-oneplus-warp-charge-vs-oppo-vooc-vs-usb-pd/ |website=techpp.com |access-date=9 December 2021 |date=2020-04-09}}</ref> While charging rates have been increasing, with 15 [[watt]]s in 2014,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 Review |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017222405/http://www.anandtech.com/show/8613/the-samsung-galaxy-note-4-review/3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |date=2014}}</ref> 20 Watts in 2016,<ref>{{cite web |last1=T |first1=Nick |title=How it works: Dash Charge fast charging on the OnePlus 3 |url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/How-it-works-Dash-Charge-fast-charging-on-the-OnePlus-3_id82646 |website=Phone Arena |date=2016-06-30}}</ref> and 45 watts in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=Oppo has the fastest fast charging we've ever seen |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2018/10/10/17958648/oppo-super-vooc-fast-charging-find-x-lamborghini-edition |website=The Verge |language=en |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> the power throughput may be throttled down significantly during operation of the device.<ref>{{cite web |title=PSA: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ doesn't actually Fast Charge while you're using it – Phandroid |url=https://phandroid.com/2017/05/11/samsung-galaxy-s8-plus-wont-fast-charge-problems/ |website=phandroid.com |date=11 May 2017}}</ref>{{efn|I.e. while the device is not in stand-by mode or charging while the main operating system is powered off}} [[Wireless charging]] has been widely adapted, allowing for intermittent recharging without wearing down the charging port through frequent reconnection, with [[Qi (standard)|''Qi'']] being the most common standard, followed by [[Powermat]]. Due to the lower efficiency of wireless power transmission, charging rates are below that of wired charging, and more heat is produced at similar charging rates. By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate;<ref>{{cite web|title=6 phones with the best battery life|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/smartphones-best-long-battery-life/|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.<ref>{{cite press release|title=J.D. Power and Associates Reports: Smartphone Battery Life has Become a Significant Drain on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/jd-power-and-associates-reports-smartphone-battery-life-has-become-a-significant-drain-on-customer-satisfaction-and-loyalty-142765065.html|access-date=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-secret-behind-poor-smartphone-battery-life/ |title=The secret behind poor smartphone battery life|work=ZDNet |date=August 4, 2014 |access-date=November 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://techland.time.com/2013/04/01/peak-battery-why-smartphone-battery-life-still-stinks-and-will-for-years/ |title=Peak Battery: Why Smartphone Battery Life Still Stinks, and Will for Years|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=April 1, 2013}}</ref> Smartphone users purchase additional chargers for use outside the home, at work, and in cars and by buying portable external "battery packs". External battery packs include generic models which are connected to the smartphone with a cable, and custom-made models that "piggyback" onto a smartphone's case. In 2016, Samsung had to recall millions of the [[Galaxy Note 7]] smartphones due to an explosive battery issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/samsung-halts-galaxy-note-7-shipments-phones-catching-fire/|title=Refurbished version of ill-fated Galaxy Note 7 will soon be available overseas|date=May 5, 2017}}</ref> For consumer convenience, [[inductive charging|wireless charging]] stations have been introduced in some hotels, bars, and other public spaces.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iphone-wireless-charging-qi/|title=The Most Impactful New iPhone Feature May Be the Most Boring|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2017-09-22|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Power management==== A technique to minimize power consumption is the panel self-refresh, whereby the image to be shown on the display is not sent at all times from the processor to the integrated controller (IC) of the display component, but only if the information on screen is changed. The display's integrated controller instead memorizes the last screen contents and refreshes the screen by itself. This technology was introduced around 2014 and has reduced power consumption by a few hundred milliwatts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frumusanu |first1=Andrei |title=Analysing AMOLED Power Efficiency Improvements |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623204043/http://anandtech.com/show/9394/analysing-amoled-power-efficiency |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=14 September 2023 |date=2015-06-23}}</ref> ===Cameras=== {{main|Camera phone|Digital camera|Videophone}} Cameras have become standard features of smartphones. {{As of|2019}} phone cameras are now a highly competitive area of differentiation between models, with advertising campaigns commonly based on a focus on the quality or capabilities of a device's main cameras. Images are usually saved in the [[JPEG]] file format; some high-end phones since the mid-2010s also have [[Raw image format|RAW]] imaging capability.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Shoot Photos in DNG/RAW on Samsung Galaxy S7 |url=https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |website=Android Beat {{!}} Android News, Hacks, Apps, Tips & Reviews Blog |access-date=19 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=24 April 2016 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819213752/https://www.androidbeat.com/2016/04/how-to-shoot-photos-dng-raw-galaxy-s7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nikam |first1=Sohil |title=Samsung Dropping RAW Image Support Into Galaxy S6 And S6 Edge Via Android 5.1.1 Update - TechShout |url=https://www.techshout.com/samsung-to-bless-galaxy-s6-and-s6-edge-with-raw-photo-support-via-android-5-1-1-update/ |website=www.techshout.com |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=2015-05-08}}</ref> ====Space constraints==== Typically smartphones have at least one main rear-facing camera and a lower-resolution front-facing camera for "[[selfie]]s" and [[video chat]]. Owing to the limited depth available in smartphones for [[image sensor]]s and [[Lens|optics]], rear-facing cameras are often housed in a "bump" that is thicker than the rest of the phone. Since increasingly thin mobile phones have more abundant horizontal space than the depth that is necessary and used in dedicated cameras for better lenses, there is additionally a trend for phone manufacturers to include multiple cameras, with each optimized for a different purpose ([[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], etc.). Viewed from back, rear cameras are commonly located at the top center or top left corner. A cornered location benefits by not requiring other hardware to be packed around the camera module while increasing [[ergonomy]], as the lens is less likely to be covered when held horizontally. Modern advanced smartphones have cameras with [[Image stabilization#Optical image stabilization|optical image stabilisation]] (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus [[Raw image format|RAW]] images. [[High-dynamic-range imaging|HDR]], "[[Bokeh]] mode" with multi lenses and multi-shot [[Night mode camera|night mode]]s are now also familiar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 16 Best Camera Phones For Photography 2019 |url=https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512034618/https://www.ephotozine.com/article/top-16-best-camera-phones-for-photography-2019-23050 |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> Many new smartphone camera features are being enabled via [[computational photography]] [[Digital image processing|image processing]] and multiple specialized lenses rather than larger sensors and lenses, due to the constrained space available inside phones that are being made as slim as possible. ====Dedicated camera button==== Some mobile phones such as the [[Samsung i8000 Omnia 2]], some [[Nokia Lumia]]s and some [[Sony Xperia]]s are equipped with a physical camera shutter button. Those with two pressure levels resemble the [[point-and-shoot]] intuition of dedicated [[compact camera]]s. The camera button may be used as a [[shortcut (computing)|shortcut]] to quickly and [[ergonomy|ergonomically]] launch the camera software, as it is located more accessibly inside a pocket than the power button. ===Back cover materials=== Back covers of smartphones are typically made of [[polycarbonate]], aluminium, or glass. Polycarbonate back covers may be glossy or matte, and possibly textured, like dotted on the [[Galaxy S5]] or leathered on the [[Galaxy Note 3]] and [[Note 4]]. While polycarbonate back covers may be perceived as less "premium" among [[fashion]]- and [[fad|trend]]-oriented users, its utilitarian strengths and technical benefits include durability and shock absorption, greater [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] against permanent bending like metal, inability to shatter like glass, which facilitates designing it removable; better manufacturing cost efficiency, and no blockage of radio signals or wireless power like metal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Joshua |title=A Discussion on Material Choices in Mobile |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509031624/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7984/discussion-on-material-choices-in-mobile |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 9, 2014 |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |date=2014-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bring back plastic phones. |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/bring-back-plastic-phones-1004824/ |website=Android Authority |date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benefits And Applications Of Polycarbonates |url=https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |website=Tuflite |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411235448/https://www.tuflite.com/blog/benefits-applications-polycarbonates |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Build materials: metal vs glass vs plastic |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/build-materials-metal-vs-glass-vs-plastic-617553/ |website=Android Authority |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> ===Accessories=== A wide range of accessories are sold for smartphones, including [[Mobile phone accessories#Cases|cases]], [[#Memory_cards|memory card]]s, [[screen protector]]s, [[Battery charger#Mobile phone charger|chargers]], [[wireless charging|wireless power]] stations, [[USB On-The-Go]] adapters (for connecting USB drives and or, in some cases, a HDMI cable to an external monitor), [[Mobile High-Definition Link|MHL]] adapters, add-on batteries, [[power bank]]s, [[headphones]], combined headphone-microphones (which, for example, allow a person to privately conduct [[Telephone call|call]]s on the device without holding it to the ear), and [[Bluetooth]]-enabled [[powered speaker]]s that enable users to listen to media from their smartphones wirelessly. Cases range from relatively inexpensive rubber or soft plastic cases which provide moderate protection from bumps and good protection from scratches to more expensive, heavy-duty cases that combine a rubber padding with a hard outer shell. Some cases have a "book"-like form, with a cover that the user opens to use the device; when the cover is closed, it protects the screen. Some "book"-like cases have additional pockets for credit cards, thus enabling people to use them as [[wallet]]s. Accessories include products sold by the manufacturer of the smartphone and compatible products made by other manufacturers. However, some companies, like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], stopped including chargers with smartphones in order to "reduce [[carbon footprint]]", etc., causing many customers to pay extra for charging adapters. ==Software== ===Mobile operating systems=== {{Main|Mobile operating system}} A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an [[operating system]] for phones, [[tablet computer|tablet]]s, [[smartwatch]]es, or other [[mobile device]]s. Globally, Android and [[IOS]] are the two most used mobile operating systems based on [[Usage share of operating systems|usage share]], with the former having been the best selling OS globally on all devices since 2013. Mobile operating systems combine features of a [[personal computer]] operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a [[touchscreen]], [[Cellular network|cellular]], Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) mobile navigation, [[video camera|video-]] and [[digital camera|single-frame picture cameras]], [[speech recognition]], [[Sound recording and reproduction|voice recorder]], [[portable media player|music player]], [[near-field communication]], and [[infrared blaster]]. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 85.9 percent running Android, 14.1 percent running iOS and a negligible number of smartphones running other OSes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613220451/https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3876865 |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Sales of Smartphones Returned to Growth in First Quarter of 2018 |date=May 29, 2018 |website=Gartner, Inc. |publisher=Gartner |access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general, smartphone use (even without tablets) exceeds desktop use. Other well-known mobile operating systems are [[Flyme OS]] and [[Harmony OS]]. [[File:20240419 삼성 갤럭시 S24 울트라.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Samsung Galaxy S24 Ultra]] has an [[artificial intelligence]]-powered feature.]] Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems{{Em dash}}the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary [[real-time operating system]] which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious [[base station]]s to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thom Holwerda |website=[[OSNews]] |date=November 12, 2013 |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/27416/the-second-operating-system-hiding-in-every-mobile-phone/ |title=The second operating system hiding in every mobile phone}}</ref> <!-- The below list and subsequent details in it are unwarranted for the scope of this article. It is better replaced by a link to corresponding main article (see above). Even if any reason the below needs to be retained, a single paragraph summarising entire contents, should be enough. ====Android==== {{Main article|Android (operating system)}} [[File:Android OS.jpg|thumb|Several smartphones running Google's Android OS]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (based on the modified [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system developed by [[Google Inc.]]<ref name="OS MS 3Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Phone Sales Grew 35 Percent in Third Quarter 2010; Smartphone Sales Increased 96 Percent |date=November 10, 2010 |publisher=Gartner, Inc |at=Table 2 |access-date=February 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113073826/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1466313 |archive-date=January 13, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for [[Turing machine|general purpose computers]] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) [[personal computer]]s (PCs). Although the Android operating system is [[free and open-source software]],<ref name="ICS is coming to AOSP">{{cite web |url=http://groups.google.com/group/android-building/msg/c0e01b4619a1455a |title=ICS is coming to AOSP}}</ref> in devices sold, much of the software [[Product bundling|bundled]] with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is [[proprietary software]] and closed source.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=December 24, 2013}}</ref> Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged since Android 4.0. The current Android version is [[Android Pie|9.0 Pie]]. Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases. Development groups have used the Android source code to develop and distribute their own [[List_of_custom_Android_distributions|modified versions]] of the operating system.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> ====iOS==== {{Main article|iOS}} [[iOS]] (formerly named iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system from [[Apple Inc.]] It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|title=Apple Took 89% Of Q4 Smartphone Profits With Android OEMs In A Race To The Bottom|first=Ingrid|last=Lunden|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715110736/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/26/apple-eating-all-the-profits/|archive-date=July 15, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system. The [[iPhone]], [[iPod Touch]], [[iPad]] and second or third-generation [[Apple TV]] all use [[iOS]], which is derived from [[macOS]]. Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" allowed third party applications to be installed, and this method is still available. Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by [[Foxconn]] or another of Apple's partners. ====Sailfish OS==== {{main article|Sailfish OS}} [[Sailfish OS]] is from [[Jolla]]. It is open source with [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is [[proprietary software]] (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source. After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the [[MeeGo]] project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and [[Mer (software distribution)|Mer]] business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the [[Jolla (mobile phone)|Jolla smartphone]], was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, [[Jolla Tablet]] was launched and the [[BRICS]] countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits. Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake. ====Tizen==== {{main article|Tizen}} [[Tizen]] (based on the [[Linux kernel]]) is a mobile operating system hosted by [[Linux Foundation]], together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of [[Intel]] and [[Samsung]]. Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, [[In-car entertainment|In-Vehicle Infotainment]] (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the [[WebKit]] runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." [[HTML5]] apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |title=Welcome to Tizen! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013071516/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/dawnfoster/2011/welcome-tizen |archive-date=October 13, 2011 |website=Tizen.org |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ricker |first=Thomas |date=September 28, 2011 |url=http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |title=MeeGo is dead: Meet Tizen, another new open source OS based on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930051802/http://thisismynext.com/2011/09/28/meego-dead-meet-tizen-open-source-os-based-linux/ |archive-date=September 30, 2011 |website=Thisismynext.com |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.<ref name="tizen2_1">{{cite web|url=https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|title=Tizen 2.1 SDK and Source Code Release|publisher=Tizen.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730123852/https://www.tizen.org/blogs/tsg/2013/tizen-2.1-sdk-and-source-code-release|archive-date=July 30, 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone. ====Ubuntu Touch==== {{main article|Ubuntu Touch}} [[Ubuntu Touch]] is from [[Canonical Ltd.]] It is open source and uses the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license.<ref name="tizen2_1"/> The OS is built on the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an [[LXC]] container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|title=ContainerArchitecture|access-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024511/https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Touch/ContainerArchitecture|archive-date=October 31, 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component [[Unity (user interface)|Unity]]8<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.ubuntu.com/2017/04/05/growing-ubuntu-for-cloud-and-iot-rather-than-phone-and-convergence|title=Growing Ubuntu for cloud and IoT, rather than phone and convergence|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 April 2017}}</ref>, the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/("Foundation" paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/blog/ubports-blog-1/post/is-ubuntu-touch-dead-56|title=Is Ubuntu Touch Dead?|access-date=27 September 2018|date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ubports.com/foundation/ubports-foundation|title=The UBports Foundation *: Details about the foundation|access-date=27 September 2018|date=19 June 2018}}</ref> Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on [[Ubuntu]] [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_15.04_(Vivid_Vervet)|15.04 (Vivid Vervet)]] and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu [[Ubuntu_version_history#Ubuntu_16.04_LTS_(Xenial_Xerus)|16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus)]]. ====Discontinued operating systems==== =====Bada===== {{main article|Bada}} [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to [[Tizen]] instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228062542/http://www.fiercemobilecontent.com/story/samsung-scraps-bada-os-folds-it-tizen/2013-02-25 |archive-date=2013-02-28 |title=Samsung scraps Bada OS, folds it into Tizen – FierceMobileIT |website=Fiercemobilecontent.com |date=February 25, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-09}}</ref> =====BlackBerry 10===== [[BlackBerry 10]] (based on the [[QNX]] OS) is from [[BlackBerry Limited|BlackBerry]]. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and runs only on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|title=BlackBerry has no plans to release new BB10 devices [Update]|first=Patrick |last=O'Rourke |date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105175452/http://mobilesyrup.com/2017/01/04/blackberry-has-no-plans-to-release-new-bb10-devices/|archive-date=January 5, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IDC.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|title=Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC|date=February 24, 2015|work=IDC.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225074430/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615|archive-date=February 25, 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. =====Firefox OS===== {{main article|Firefox OS}} [[Firefox OS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |title=B2G – MozillaWiki |publisher=mozilla.org |date=August 24, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807222134/https://wiki.mozilla.org/B2G |archive-date=August 7, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from [[Mozilla]]. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android. According to [[Ars Technica]], "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Ryan |url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |title=Mozilla eyes mobile OS landscape with new Boot to Gecko project |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=July 25, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912005225/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2011/07/mozilla-eyes-mobile-os-landscape-with-new-boot-to-gecko-project.ars |archive-date=September 12, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.<ref>{{Cite web |title= B2G OS and Gecko Announcement from Ari Jaaksi & David Bryant |url= https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |access-date= September 27, 2016 |date= September 27, 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mozilla.dev.fxos/FoAwifahNPY/Lppm0VHVBAAJ |archive-date= January 22, 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> =====MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin===== {{main article|MeeGo|Maemo|Moblin}} [[MeeGo (operating system)|MeeGo]] was from non-profit organization [[The Linux Foundation]]. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona, [[Nokia]] and [[Intel]] both unveiled ''MeeGo'', a mobile operating system that combined [[Moblin]] and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the [[Nokia N9]] on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversations.nokia.com/2011/06/21/introducing-the-nokia-n9-all-it-takes-is-a-swipe/ |title=Introducing the Nokia N9: all it takes is a swipe! &#124; Nokia Conversations – The official Nokia Blog |publisher=Nokia |date=June 21, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref> in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |title=MeeGo Not Dead Yet as LG Continues the Charge — Mobile Technology News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829160853/http://gigaom.com/mobile/meego-not-dead-yet-as-lg-continues-the-charge/ |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Maemo]] was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and [[Internet tablet]]s. It is open source and GPL, based on [[Debian GNU/Linux]] and draws much of its [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), [[Software framework|frameworks]], and [[Library (computing)|libraries]] from the GNOME project. It uses the [[Matchbox (window manager)|Matchbox]] window manager and the [[GTK]]-based [[Hildon]] as its GUI and [[application framework]]. =====Palm OS===== {{main article|Palm OS}} [[File:Treo 300.jpg|thumb|A [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]] Treo 300 smartphone (2002)]] [[Palm OS]]/Garnet OS was from [[Access Co.]] It is closed source and proprietary. [[webOS]] was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, [[open architecture]] and multitasking abilities. =====Symbian===== {{Main article|Symbian}} [[File:Nokia N70 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Nokia N70]] smartphone (2005) running [[Symbian]] OS, which was highly popular in Europe and Asia in the 2000s]] The [[Symbian]] platform was developed by [[Nokia]] for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|title=Microsoft is killing off Nokia's feature phones in favor of Windows Phone|date=July 17, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154613/https://www.theverge.com/2014/7/17/5912289/microsoft-kills-feature-phones-in-favor-of-windows-phone|archive-date=August 8, 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> =====webOS===== {{main article|webOS}} [[webOS]] was developed by [[Palm, Inc.|Palm]]. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the [[Palm Pre]]. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the [[HP Veer|Veer]] and the [[HP Pre 3|Pre 3]]) and a tablet (the [[HP TouchPad|TouchPad]]) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |title=HP Confirms Discussions with Autonomy Corporation plc Regarding Possible Business Combination; Makes Other Announcements |publisher=HP |date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006182519/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2011/110818b.html?mtxs=rss-corp-news |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |title=The next chapter for webOS |publisher=HP webOS Developer Blog |date=August 19, 2010 |access-date=September 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924172749/http://developer.palm.com/blog/2011/08/the-next-chapter-for-webos/ |archive-date=September 24, 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap/#.UIgNYMXA-So |title=Open webOS::Roadmap |publisher=Open webOS Project |date=September 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029145336/http://www.openwebosproject.org/discover/roadmap#.UIgNYMXA-So |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to [[LG Electronics]], who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog. =====Windows 10 Mobile===== [[Windows 10 Mobile]] (formerly called [[Windows Phone]]) rom [[Microsoft]], now discontinued. It is closed source and proprietary. Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's [[Metro Design Language]]. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as [[OneDrive]] and Office, [[Xbox Music]], [[Xbox Video]], [[Xbox Live]] games and [[Microsoft Bing|Bing]], but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as [[Facebook]] and [[Google Account|Google accounts]]. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by [[Microsoft Mobile]]/[[Nokia]], and also by [[HTC]] and [[Samsung]]. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with [[Windows 10 Mobile]], bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart [[Windows 10]], and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches. In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/257174-microsoft-admits-windows-10-mobile-finally-mercifully-dead|title=Microsoft Admits Windows 10 Mobile Is Finally, Mercifully Dead|first=Joel|last=Hruska|website=www.extremetech.com|date=9 October 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> --> ===Mobile apps=== {{Main|Mobile app}} A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a short-form of the term "software application".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/what-the-heck-is-an-app-2011-3|title=What The Heck Is An "App"?|website=Business Insider}}</ref> ===Application stores=== {{Main|List of mobile app distribution platforms}} The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted [[list of mobile app distribution platforms|online distribution]] for third-party applications ([[software]] and [[computer programs]]) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including [[video game]]s, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on [[List of mobile app distribution platforms#Third-party platforms|third-party sources]] providing applications for multiple platforms, such as [[GetJar]], [[Handango]], [[Handmark]], and [[PocketGear]]. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store) and RIM's [[BlackBerry App World]], Android-related app stores like [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[F-Droid]], [[GetJar]], and [[Opera Mobile Store]]. In February 2014, 93% of [[mobile developers]] were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |title=W3C Interview: Vision Mobile on the App Developer Economy with Matos Kapetanakis and Dimitris Michalakos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629101713/http://www.w3.org/blog/2014/02/w3c-interview-vision-mobile-on-the-app-developer-economy-with-matos-kapetanakis-and-dimitris-michalakos/ |archive-date=June 29, 2016 |date=February 18, 2014 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ==List of current smartphone brands== {{Dynamic list}} <div style="column-width:100px"> *[[Asus]] *[[Google Pixel]] *[[Hisense]] *[[Honor (brand)|Honor]] *[[HTC]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Infinix]] *[[iPhone]] *[[iQOO]] *[[Itel Mobile|Itel]] *[[Lava International|Lava]] *[[Lenovo]] *[[LG]] *[[Meizu]] *[[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nothing (technology company)|Nothing]] *[[Nubia Technology|Nubia]] *[[OnePlus]] *[[Oppo]] *[[POCO (company)|POCO]] *[[Realme]] *[[Redmi]] *[[Samsung Galaxy]] *[[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] *[[Sony Xperia]] *[[TCL Technology|TCL]] *[[Tecno Mobile|Tecno]] *[[Umidigi]] *[[vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] *[[Xiaomi]] *[[ZTE]] </div> ==Sales== <div class="floatright"> <timeline> ImageSize=width:270 height:400 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:45 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:1700 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) BarData= bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:2007 from:start till:122 text:122 bar:2008 from:start till:139 text:139 bar:2009 from:start till:172 text:172 bar:2010 from:start till:296 text:296 bar:2011 from:start till:472 text:472 bar:2012 from:start till:680 text:680 bar:2013 from:start till:969 text:969 bar:2014 from:start till:1244 text:1,244 bar:2015 from:start till:1423 text:1,423 bar:2016 from:start till:1495 text:1,495 bar:2017 from:start till:1536 text:1,536 bar:2018 from:start till:1556 text:1,556 bar:2019 from:start till:1540 text:1,540 bar:2020 from:start till:1351 text:1,351 bar:2021 from:start till:1433 text:1,433 bar:2022 from:start till:1395 text:1,395 TextData= pos:(40,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text: Worldwide smartphone sales (million) TextData= pos:(40,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:M text:Source: gartner.com </timeline></div> Since 1996, smartphone shipments have had positive growth. In November 2011, 27% of all photographs created were taken with camera-equipped smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos|url=http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|work=GIGAOM|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Erica|last=Ogg|date=December 22, 2011|archive-date=July 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723153620/http://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2012, a study concluded that 4 out of 5 smartphone owners use the device to shop online.<ref>{{cite web|title=comScore: 4 Out Of 5 Smartphone Owners Use Device To Shop; Amazon Is The Most Popular Mobile Retailer|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/19/comscore-4-out-of-5-smartphone-owners-use-device-to-shop-amazon-most-popular-mobile-retailer/|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=June 27, 2013|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for feature phones in early 2013.<ref name="news1">{{cite news |url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | work= 3 News NZ | title= Smartphones now outsell 'dumb' phones | date= April 29, 2013 | access-date= April 29, 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130801114353/http://www.3news.co.nz/Smartphones-now-outsell-dumb-phones/tabid/412/articleID/295878/Default.aspx | archive-date= August 1, 2013 | url-status= dead}}</ref> Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion units in 2013, up 38% from 2012's 725 million, while comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in 2013, up from 42% in 2012. In 2013, smartphone sales began to decline for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/global-u-s-growth-in-smartphone-growth-starts-to-decline.html|title=We're No Longer in Smartphone Plateau. We're in the Smartphone Decline.|first=Jake|last=Swearingen|date=December 4, 2018|website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Worldwide Smartphone Shipments Top One Billion Units for the First Time, According to IDC |publisher=IDC |date=January 2014 |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131071943/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24645514 |archive-date=January 31, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2016 for the first time the shipments dropped by 3 percent [[:wikt:year-over-year|year on year]]. The situation was caused by the maturing China market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnet.com/news/its-not-just-apple-global-smartphone-market-shrinks-for-the-first-time-ever/ |title=It's not just Apple: Global smartphone market shrinks for the first time ever |author=Daniel van Boom |date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> A report by NPD shows that fewer than 10% of US citizens have spent $1,000 or more on smartphones, as they are too expensive for most people, without introducing particularly innovative features, and amid [[Huawei]], [[Oppo]] and [[Xiaomi]] introducing products with similar feature sets for lower prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/as-smartphone-sales-decline-again-apple-may-have-a-few-lessons-to-learn-from-samsung-and-huawei/|title=As smartphone sales decline again, Apple may have a few lessons to learn from Samsung and Huawei|first=Daphne|last=Leprince-Ringuet|date=November 26, 2019|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/12/fewer-than-10-of-americans-are-buying-1000-smartphones-report-says/|title=Fewer than 10% of Americans are buying $1,000 smartphones, report says|first=Samuel|last=Axon|date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/smartphone-cost-expensive-1000-apple-samsung-google-5g-change-2019-12|title=Evidence is mounting that people are fed up with the sky-high cost of smartphones, and it's sparking a massive change in the industry|first=Lisa|last=Eadicicco|date=December 12, 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> In 2019, smartphone sales declined by 3.2%, the largest in smartphone history, while China and India were credited with driving most smartphone sales worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/counterpoint_global_smartphone_market_is_alive_thanks_to_china_and_india-news-39917.php|title=Counterpoint: Global smartphone market is alive thanks to China and India|website=GSMArena.com}}</ref> It is predicted that widespread adoption of 5G will help drive new smartphone sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techblog.comsoc.org/2019/11/08/counterpoint-research-smartphone-market-decline-halts-what-might-help-it-grow/|title=Counterpoint Research: Smartphone Market Decline Ends, What Might Help it Grow?|first=Alan|last=Weissberger|date=November 8, 2019|website=[[IEEE Communications Society]] Technology Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/smartphone-market-set-for-biggest-ever-decline|title=Smartphone market set for 'biggest ever decline'|first=Steve|last=McCaskill|date=September 26, 2019|website=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref> It is also predicted that prices of smartphones may go higher due to global [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Chip shortage which may effect the sales also.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Chip Shortage Causes Sharp Rise in Smartphone Prices, May Increase by Nearly 7% by 2026 |url=https://news.aibase.com/news/23987}}</ref> ===By manufacturer=== {{see also|List of best-selling mobile phones}} In 2011, [[Samsung]] had the highest shipment [[market share]] worldwide, followed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share, a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at 15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. [[Huawei]], [[LG Corporation|LG]] and [[Lenovo]] were at about 5% each, significantly better than 2012 figures, while others had about 40%, the same as the previous years figure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9%; the rest had significant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/01/28/smartphone-sales-may-have-topped-1-billion-in-2013/ |title=Smartphone sales may have topped 1 billion in 2013, depending on who you ask |work=[[Engadget]] |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=January 28, 2014}}</ref> In Q1 2014, Samsung had a 31% share and Apple had 16%.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.techinasia.com/xiaomi-global-top-10-smartphone-shipments-q1-2014|title= Xiaomi breaks into global top 10 for smartphone shipments, kicks out HTC|first= Steven|last= Millward|date= May 13, 2014|access-date= September 9, 2014|work= Tech In Asia}}</ref> In Q4 2014, Apple had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.<ref name="brett">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/03/03/apple-samsung-smartphones/24320385/|title=Apple beats Samsung in Q4 smartphone sales|author=Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY|date=March 3, 2015|work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In Q2 2016, Samsung had a 22.3% share and Apple had 12.9%.<ref>{{cite press release | url = https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-08-19-gartner-says-five-of-top-10-worldwide-mobile-phone-vendors-increased-sales-in-second-quarter-of-2016 | title = Gartner Says Five of Top 10 Worldwide Mobile Phone Vendors Increased Sales in Second Quarter of 2016 | publisher = Gartner | date = August 19, 2016 | access-date = May 28, 2022}}</ref> In Q1 2017, IDC reported that Samsung was first placed, with 80 million units, followed by Apple with 50.8 million, Huawei with 34.6 million, [[Oppo]] with 25.5 million and [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]] with 22.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://technode.com/2017/07/04/6-of-the-worlds-top-10-smartphone-brands-are-chinese/|title= 6 of the world's top 10 smartphone brands are Chinese|first= Frank|last= Hersey|date=2017-07-04|access-date= 2017-07-07|work= technode}}</ref> Samsung's mobile business is half the size of Apple's, by revenue. Apple business increased very rapidly in the years 2013 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Jeff|date=2017-02-28|title=Samsung introduced 10 times as many phones as Apple last year, but its mobile division made half as much revenue|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/samsung-vs-apple-galaxy-iphone-smartphone-revenue-chart-2017-2|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> [[Realme]], a brand owned by Oppo, is the fastest-growing phone brand worldwide since Q2 2019. In China, Huawei and [[Honor (brand)|Honor]], a brand owned by Huawei, have 46% of market share combined and posted 66% annual growth {{as of|2019|lc=on}}, amid growing Chinese nationalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizchina.com/2019/12/12/huawei-and-honor-account-for-half-of-chinese-smartphone-market/|title= Huawei And Honor Account For Half Of Chinese Smartphone Market|author=‌Argam Artashyan|date=December 12, 2019|website=GizChina}}</ref> In 2019, Samsung had a 74% market share of 5G smartphones in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-dominates-early-market-for-5g-smartphones|title=Samsung dominates early market for 5G smartphones &#124; TechRadar|website=www.techradar.com|date=December 11, 2019}}</ref> In the first quarter of 2024, global smartphone shipments rose by 7.8% to 289.4 million units. Samsung, with a 20.8% market share, overtook Apple to become the leading smartphone manufacturer. Apple's smartphone shipments dropped 10%. Xiaomi secured the third spot with a 14.1% market share.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-15 |title=Apple loses top phonemaker spot to Samsung as iPhone shipments drop, IDC says |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/retail/apple-loses-top-phonemaker-spot-to-samsung-as-iphone-shipments-drop-idc-says-1.1713152284439 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref> ===By operating system=== {{Further|Mobile operating system#By operating system}} ==Use== {{See also|Mobile phone#Use|Technological convergence}} ===Contemporary use and convergence=== {{multiple image|width=150|perrow=2|image1=A2 & Zen (307730569).jpg|image2=Sony Cybershot DSC W210.jpg|image3=Mobiles Navigationsgeraet Navigon im Einsatz.JPG|image4=PDA Mapping.jpg|footer=Some technologic devices whose markets have declined by the popularity of smartphones: ''(from top-left)'' [[portable media player]]s (inc. "MP3 players"); [[Point-and-shoot camera|compact digital camera]]s; [[Satellite navigation device|in-car satellite navigation systems]]; [[personal digital assistant]]s (inc. [[electronic organizer]]s)|alt1=sdas}} The rise in popularity of touchscreen smartphones and mobile apps distributed via app stores along with rapidly advancing [[Cellular network|network]], [[mobile processor]], and [[Computer data storage|storage]] technologies led to a [[Technological convergence|convergence]] where separate [[mobile phone]]s, [[Personal organizer|organizer]]s, and [[portable media player]]s were replaced by a smartphone as the single device most people carried.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Smartphones Sales Finally Overtake Feature Phones: 10 Reasons Why |url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/smartphones-sales-finally-overtake-feature-phones-10-reasons-why/ |magazine=[[eWeek]] |date=2013-08-15 |first=Don |last=Reisinger }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816183428/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2573415 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2013 |title=Gartner Says Smartphone Sales Grew 46.5 Percent in Second Quarter of 2013 and Exceeded Feature Phone Sales for First Time |author=Rob van der Meulen & Janessa Rivera |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/2013/08/smartphones-outsell-feature-phones-for-the-first-time-worldwide/ |title=Smartphones Outsell Feature Phones, for the First Time |first=Cyrus |last=Farivar |date=14 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=CompTIA Strata Study Guide |author=Andrew Smith, Faithe Wempen |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-97742-2 |page=140 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXyJVotz2QC&q=%22Personal+digital+assistant%22+obsolete&pg=PA140}}</ref><ref name="Tom's Hardware"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|title=PMP needs to merge with cellphone, says Smartwork exec|last=Yu|first=Emily|publisher=EE Times Asia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423223723/http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800411138_499495_NT_d0c02d8d.HTM|archive-date=23 April 2008|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref> Advances in [[Image sensor|digital camera sensor]]s and on-device [[Digital image processing|image processing]] software more gradually led to smartphones replacing simpler [[Point-and-shoot camera|camera]]s for photographs and video recording.<ref name="SmartphonesKillingPoint-and-shoots">{{cite web |last=Ogg |first=Erica |title=Smartphones killing point-and-shoots, now take almost 1/3 of photos |url=https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |website=Gigaom |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065702/https://gigaom.com/2011/12/22/smartphones-killing-point-and-shoots-now-take-almost-13-of-photos/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The built-in [[Global navigation satellite systems|GPS]] capabilities and [[List of online map services|mapping]] apps on smartphones largely replaced stand-alone [[satellite navigation]] [[Personal navigation assistant#Market developments|devices]], and paper [[Road map|map]]s became less common.<ref name="SmartphonesTollonGPS">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Kevin J. |title=Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 2010}}</ref> [[Mobile gaming]] on smartphones greatly grew in popularity,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wijman |first1=Tom |title=Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/|website=newzoo.com|publisher=Newzoo|date=30 April 2018|access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> allowing many people to use them in place of [[handheld game consoles]], and some companies tried creating game console/phone hybrids based on phone hardware and software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en#view=features_specifications |title=Xperia Play {{!}} PlayStation certified Android mobile |access-date=February 14, 2011 |publisher=Sony Ericsson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808220843/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/mobilephones/overview/xperia-play-verizon?cc=us&lc=en |archive-date=August 8, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.ign.com/articles/2013/07/31/nvidia-shield-review|title=Android handheld of the future. Not today.|last=Lowe|first=Scott|website=IGN|date=July 30, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> People frequently have chosen not to get [[Landline|fixed-line telephone service]] in favor of smartphones.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|title=Milestone for cellphones vs. landline phones|work=[[CBS News]]|date=4 May 2017|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616002951/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/milestone-for-cellphones-vs-landline-phones/|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|title=The Daily — Residential Telephone Service Survey, 2013|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023181115/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/140623/dq140623a-eng.htm|archive-date=2014-10-23}}</ref> [[Streaming media#Music streaming platforms|Music streaming]] apps and services have grown rapidly in popularity, serving the same use as listening to music stations on a terrestrial or satellite [[Radio receiver|radio]]. [[Streaming media|Streaming video]] services are easily accessed via smartphone apps and can be used in place of watching [[television]]. People have often stopped wearing [[wristwatch]]es in favor of checking the time on their smartphones, and many use the clock features on their phones in place of [[alarm clock]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Are Alarm Clocks Still a Thing? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/why-are-alarm-clocks-still-a-thing/ |website=Motherboard.vice.com |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=16 August 2018 |language=en-us |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Mobile phones can also be used as a digital [[note taking]], [[text editing]] and [[memorandum]] device whose [[computer]]ization facilitates searching of entries. Additionally, [[Global Internet usage#Broadband usage|in many lesser technologically developed regions]] smartphones are people's first and only means of [[mobile broadband|Internet access]] due to their portability,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx|title=ICT Facts and Figures 2005, 2010, 2016|publisher=Telecommunication Development Bureau, [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)|access-date=2015-05-24}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=Which documents say that, and where?|date=June 2022}} with [[personal computer]]s being relatively uncommon outside of business use. The cameras on smartphones can be used to photograph documents and send them via email or [[Text messaging|messaging]] in place of using [[fax]] (facsimile) machines. [[Mobile payment|Payment apps and services]] on smartphones allow people to make less use of wallets, purses, credit and debit cards, and cash. [[Mobile banking]] apps can allow people to deposit checks simply by photographing them, eliminating the need to take the physical check to an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] or teller. [[Guide book]] apps can take the place of paper travel and restaurant/business guides, museum brochures, and dedicated [[Audio tour#Smartphone tours|audio guide]] equipment. ===Mobile banking and payment=== {{main|Mobile banking|Mobile payment}} {{see also|Branchless banking|Contactless payment}} [[File:Mobile payment 03.JPG|thumb|Mobile payment system]] In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide [[mobile banking]] services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's [[M-PESA]] mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator [[Safaricom]] to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies. [[Branchless banking]] has been successful in South Africa and the [[Philippines]]. A pilot project in [[Bali]] was launched in 2011 by the [[International Finance Corporation]] and an [[Indonesia]]n bank, [[Bank Mandiri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/03/01/branchless-banking-start-bali.html |title=Branchless banking to start in Bali |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> Another application of mobile banking technology is [[Zidisha]], a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ |title="Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 |publisher=Microfinancefocus.com |date=7 February 2010 |access-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921054251/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in [[Espoo]] were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators [[Globe Telecom|Globe]] and [[Smart Communications|Smart]]. Some mobile phones can make [[mobile payment]]s via direct mobile billing schemes, or through [[contactless payment]]s if the phone and the [[point of sale]] support [[near-field communication]] (NFC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |title=Mobile Payments: Look to Korea |author=Feig, Nancy |publisher=banktech.com |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326155917/http://www.banktech.com/blog/archives/2007/06/mobile_payments.html |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124001632/http://connectedplanetonline.com/mobile-apps/news/nfc-mobile-phone-explode-1110/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2010 |title=NFC mobile phone set to explode |author=Ready, Sarah |publisher=connectedplanetonline.com |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=29 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |title=VISA Testing NFC Memory Cards for Wireless Payments |author=Tofel, Kevin C. |publisher=gigaom.com |date=20 August 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621023021/http://gigaom.com/mobile/visa-testing-nfc-memory-cards-for-wireless-payments/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Facsimile=== Some [[mobile app|apps]] allows for sending and receiving [[fax|facsimile (fax)]], over a smartphone, including facsimile data (composed of raster [[binary image|bi-level]] graphics) generated directly and digitally from [[document file format|document]] and [[image file formats|image]] file formats. ===Films=== {{also|List of films shot on mobile phones}} Films are increasingly made using smartphones and tablets, leading to the rise of dedicated film festivals for such films, including the [[SmartFone Flick Fest]] in [[Sydney]], Australia;<ref name=ff>{{cite web |title=SF3 |website=FilmFreeway |date=7 October 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SF3 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=kornits2024>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=The rise and rise of smartphone films – Australia leads the way |website=FilmInk |date=26 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/public-notice/the-rise-and-rise-of-smartphone-films-australia-leads-the-way-2/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Dublin Smartphone Film Festival; the International Mobil Film Festival based in [[San Diego]]; the Spanish festival Cinephone – Festival Internacional de Cine con Smartphone; the African Smartphone International Film Festival;<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Fletcher |title=Darcy Yuille: One Punch Man |website=FilmInk |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/darcy-yuille-one-punch-man/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Toronto Smartphone Film Festival; New York Mobile Film Festival; and others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kornits |first=Dov |title=Short Film of the Week: Idiot-Proof |website=FilmInk |date=13 October 2024 |url=https://www.filmink.com.au/short-film-of-the-week-idiot-proof/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> ==Criticism and issues== ===Social impacts=== ====Manufacture==== [[Cobalt]] and [[lithium]] are needed in order to manufacture smartphones' rechargeable batteries. Workers in cobalt and lithium mining, including children, suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during [[Cobalt#Democratic Republic of the Congo|artisanal mining of cobalt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gross |first=Terry |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |website=NPR |date=1 February 2023 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The lithium rush in Africa |author= |work=Global Witness |date=14 November 2023 |access-date=2 June 2025 |url= https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/a-rush-for-lithium-in-africa-risks-fuelling-corruption-and-failing-citizens/}}</ref> Reports indicate that thousands of artisanal lithium diggers are working in unsafe conditions, with reports of child labour and miners being buried by a mine collapse, also in [[Zimbabwe]]; and suspected corruption cases in [[Namibia]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2019 [[International Rights Advocates v. Apple, Microsoft, Dell, Tesla|a lawsuit]] was filed against Apple and other tech companies for the use of [[child labor]] in mining cobalt;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=U.S. cobalt lawsuit puts spotlight on 'sustainable' tech|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/sustainable-business/u-s-cobalt-lawsuit-puts-spotlight-on-sustainable-tech/|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Sustainability Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Apple, Google Fight Blame For Child Labor In Cobalt Mines - Law360|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1304511/apple-google-fight-blame-for-child-labor-in-cobalt-mines|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.law360.com|language=en}}</ref> in 2024 the court ruled that the companies were not liable.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-06|title=Buying cobalt doesn't make US firms liable for abuses in DR Congo | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/03/apple-and-other-firms-dont-have-to-compensate-victims-of-forced-child-labor/ }}</ref> Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web| year=2023 | title=Apple to use only recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025 | website=[[Reuters]] | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-use-100-recycled-cobalt-batteries-by-2025-2023-04-13/ | access-date=9 November 2024}}</ref> ====Use==== {{main|Problematic smartphone use}} In 2012, [[University of Southern California]] study found that [[safe sex|unprotected]] [[adolescent sexuality|adolescent sexual]] activity was more common among owners of smartphones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/11/01/smartphones_more_sexually_active/|title=SMARTPHONES make TEENS have SEX with STRANGERS|work=theregister.co.uk|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> A study conducted by the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]'s (RPI) Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smartphones, or any backlit devices, can seriously affect [[stages of sleep|sleep cycles]].<ref name=Colaner>{{cite news|last=Colaner|first=Seth|title=Your Tablet and Smartphone Could Be Ruining Your Sleep|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Your-Tablet-and-Smartphone-are-Ruining-Your-Sleep-/|access-date=January 22, 2014|date=August 27, 2012}}</ref> Some persons might become psychologically attached to smartphones, resulting in anxiety when separated from the devices.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheever | first1 = N. A. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = L. D. | last3 = Carrier | first3 = L. M. | last4 = Chavez | first4 = A. | year = 2014 | title = Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users | journal = Computers in Human Behavior | volume = 37 | pages = 290–297 |doi = 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002| s2cid = 9196376 }}</ref> A "[[smombie]]" (a combination of "smartphone" and "[[zombie]]") is a walking person using a smartphone and not paying attention as they walk, possibly risking an accident in the process, an increasing social phenomenon.<ref name="sunday-times">{{cite news| url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222100235/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article1670471.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 22, 2016 | title=Walkers hit by curse of the smombie | newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] | location=UK | first1=Mark | last1=Hookham | first2=Isabel | last2=Togoh | first3=Alex | last3=Yeates | date=21 February 2016 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of slow-moving smartphone users led to the temporary creation of a "mobile lane" for walking in [[Chongqing]], China.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-china-blog-29201934 | title=Chongqing's 'mobile lane' | first=Celia | last=Hatton | publisher=[[BBC]] | work=[[BBC News]] | location=UK | date=15 September 2014 | access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref> The issue of distracted smartphone users led the city of [[Augsburg]], Germany, to embed pedestrian traffic lights in the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rick Noack |date=April 25, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/25/this-city-embedded-traffic-lights-in-the-sidewalks-so-that-smartphone-users-dont-have-to-look-up/ |title=This city embedded traffic lights in the sidewalks so that smartphone users don't have to look up |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> ===While driving=== {{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Texting while driving}} [[File:Hand held phones.JPG|thumb|right|A [[New York City]] driver holding two phones]] [[File:Range Rover mapping app.jpg|thumb|A user consulting a mapping app on a phone]] Mobile phone use while driving—including [[Telephone call|call]]ing, [[text messaging]], playing media, [[web browsing]], [[Video game|gaming]], using mapping apps or operating other phone features—is common but controversial, since it is widely considered dangerous due to what is known as [[distracted driving]]. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of [[accident]]s. In September 2010, the US [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by phones. In March 2011 a US insurance company, [[State Farm Insurance]], announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Quit Googling yourself and drive: About 20% of drivers using Web behind the wheel, study says |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/honk-if-youre-googling-20-of-drivers-using-web-behind-the-wheel-says-study.html/ }}</ref> Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free [[telephone call|calling]] on a mobile phone (which uses a [[speakerphone]]) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France, and in many US states, calling is only banned on handheld phones, while hands-free calling is permitted. A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Choice to Text and Drive in Younger Drivers: Behaviour May Shape Attitude|last1 = Atchley|first1 = Paul|date = January 2011|journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention|doi = 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.003|pmid = 21094307|first2 = Stephanie|last2 = Atwood|last3 = Boulton|first3 = Aaron|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=134–142}}</ref> The [[scientific literature]] on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or [[texting while driving]], is limited. A simulation study at the [[University of Utah]] found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070714/NEWS01/707140333&template=printart|title=Text messaging not illegal but data clear on its peril|newspaper=Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-date=February 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041811/http://www.democratandchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20070714%2FNEWS01%2F707140333&template=printart|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, [[GPS]] or [[satnav]]. [[File:NocellphonesSouthsidePlaceTX.JPG|thumb|A sign along [[Bellaire Boulevard]]<!--Wikified, as it is a notable east-west artery in Houston--> in [[Southside Place, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]) states that using mobile phones while driving is prohibited from 7:30 am to 9:00 am and from 2:00 pm to 4:15 pm.]] A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of phone use while [[cycling]] and its effects on behavior and safety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Waard|first1=Dick|last2=Schepers|first2=Paul|last3=Ormel|first3=Wieke|last4=Brookhuis|first4=Karel|title=Mobile phone use while cycling: Incidence and effects on behaviour and safety|journal=Ergonomics|volume=53|issue=1|date=January 2010|pages=30–42|doi=10.1080/00140130903381180|pmid=20069479|hdl=11370/1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456|s2cid=205403680|url=https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/en/publications/mobile-phone-use-while-cycling(1ad6e9a1-37c9-44fb-8978-65dbdce42456).html|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2013 a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their phones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/12/distracted-driving-accessing-internet/3497721/|title=Drivers still Web surfing while driving, survey finds|first=Larry|last=Copeland|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using phones while driving.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf | title = Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group | journal = Social Science Computer Review | doi = 10.1177/0894439309353099 | volume = 28 | year = 2010 | pages = 336–349 | last1 = Burger | first1 = Christoph | last2 = Riemer | first2 = Valentin | last3 = Grafeneder | first3 = Jürgen | last4 = Woisetschläger | first4 = Bianca | last5 = Vidovic | first5 = Dragana | last6 = Hergovich | first6 = Andreas | s2cid = 61640965 | archive-date = March 30, 2024 | access-date = January 24, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240330091657/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/andreas.hergovich/php/reaching_the_mobile_respondent_soc.sci.comp.rev.pdf/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Accidents involving a driver being distracted by being in a [[Telephone call|call]] on a phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the [[United Kingdom]], from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a handheld phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6287005.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - UK Politics - Drivers face new phone penalties|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=January 22, 2007}}</ref> This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6382077.stm|title=BBC NEWS - UK - Magazine - Careless talk|website=news.bbc.co.uk|date=February 22, 2007}}</ref> [[Japan]] prohibits all use of phones while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned handheld phone use since 1 November 2009. In the United States, as of May 2025, 31 states had banned handheld phone use while driving, and 49 states had banned text messaging while driving.<ref name="NHTSA2025DistractedLaws">{{cite web |title=Distracted Driving Laws by State |url=https://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/sites/tsm.gov/files/2025-10/distracted-distracted-driving-law-maps-graphic-en-2025-16302-v4-tag.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 27, 2025 |access-date=May 31, 2026 |format=PDF}}</ref> Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the [[United States]]. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld calls, web browsing, gaming), targeted populations, and exemptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/distracted-driving-laws-map |title=Distracted Driving Laws |publisher=Public Health Law Research |date=2011-07-15 |access-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> ===Legal=== {{Main|Smartphone wars}} A "patent war" between Samsung and Apple started when the latter claimed that the original [[Samsung Galaxy S (2010 smartphone)|Galaxy S]] Android phone copied the interface{{nsmdns}}and possibly the hardware{{nsmdns}}of Apple's iOS for the [[iPhone 3GS]]. There was also smartphone patents licensing and litigation involving [[Sony Mobile]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], [[Motorola]], [[HTC]], [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], among others. The conflict is part of the [[Technology patent wars|wider "patent wars"]] between multinational technology and software corporations. To secure and increase [[market share]], companies granted a [[patent]] can sue to prevent competitors from using the methods the patent covers. Since the 2010s the number of lawsuits, counter-suits, and trade complaints based on patents and [[Industrial design right|designs]] in the market for smartphones, and devices based on smartphone operating systems such as Android and iOS, has increased significantly. Initial suits, countersuits, rulings, license agreements, and other major events began in 2009 as the smartphone market stated to grow more rapidly by 2012. ===Security=== {{Main|Mobile security|Malware|Mobile virus|Media Transfer Protocol}} Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.<ref name="Juniper-malware">{{cite web |url=http://globalthreatcenter.com/?p=2492 |title=Mobile Malware Development Continues To Rise, Android Leads The Way}}</ref><ref name=trustbus11>{{cite book|title=8th International Conference on Trust, Privacy & Security in Digital Business (TRUSTBUS-2011)|year=2011|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|pages=49–61|first1=Mylonas |last1=Alexios |first2=Tsoumas |last2=Bill |first3=Dritsas |last3=Stelios |first4=Gritzalis |last4=Dimitris }}</ref> Often, malware is hidden in [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2011/03/01/the-mother-of-all-android-malware-has-arrived-stolen-apps-released-to-the-market-that-root-your-phone-steal-your-data-and-open-backdoor/ |title = The Mother Of All Android Malware Has Arrived |work=Android Police |date=March 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |title=Android Vulnerability So Dangerous, Owners Warned Not to Use Phone's Web Browser |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=August 8, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074456/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/android_vulnerability_so_dangerous_shouldnt_use_web_browser.php |archive-date=August 10, 2011}}</ref> Malware risk also comes from what is known as an "update attack", where a legitimate application is later changed to include a malware component, which users then install when they are notified that the app has been updated.<ref name="Lookout-malware">{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/08/03/lookout_retrevio_warn_of_growing_android_malware_epidemic_note_apples_ios_is_far_safer.html |title=Lookout, Retrevo warn of growing Android malware epidemic, note Apple's iOS is far safer |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> As well, one out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition has urged smartphone makers to install [[kill switch]]es in their devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|title=Plea urges anti-theft phone tech|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016082504/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/plea-urges-anti-theft-phone-tech/Content?oid=2447711|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Apple's "Find my iPhone" and Google's "Android Device Manager" can locate, disable, and wipe the data from phones that have been lost or stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerry's own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from their account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://helpblog.blackberry.com/2015/06/getting-started-with-anti-theft-protection-in-blackberry-10-os-version-10-3-2/|title=Getting started with Anti-Theft Protection in BlackBerry 10 OS version 10. - Inside BlackBerry Help Blog|work=blackberry.com|access-date=2016-01-18}}</ref> Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed [[Vault 7]] detail the capabilities of the [[United States]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including iOS and Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307194849/http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|archive-date=2017-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=2017-03-07|magazine=[[WIRED]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often{{Em dash}}partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]]{{Em dash}}without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=13 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Packet analysis|Analysis of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=16 November 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=6 October 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Guidelines for mobile device security were issued by NIST<ref>{{cite tech report|url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise|title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise|date=June 21, 2013|first1=Murugiah P.|last1=Souppaya|first2=Karen A.|last2=Scarfone|series=Special Publication (NIST SP)|id=800-124 Rev 1|doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|doi-access=free}}</ref> and many other organizations. For conducting a private, in-person meeting, at least one site recommends that the user switch the smartphone off and disconnect the battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://securityinabox.org/en/guide/smartphones/|title=Use Your Smartphone As Securely As Possible|website=Security in-a-box}}</ref> == Health effects == === General effects on health === According to the findings of these medical experts in recent years, excessive smartphone use in society may lead to headaches, sleep disorders and insufficient sleep, while severe smartphone addiction may lead to physical health problems, such as hunchback, muscle relaxation and uneven nutrition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=S Barani|last2=Rani|first2=S Leslie|last3=Brundha|first3=M P|date=July 2020|title=Comparison study of factors associated with smartphone addiction among college students|journal=Drug Invention Today|volume=14|issue=7|pages=1165–1168|issn=0975-7619|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> ===Impacts on cognition and mental health=== {{Main|Digital media use and mental health}} There is a debate about beneficial and detrimental impacts of smartphones or smartphone-uses on cognition and mental health. === Hemorrhoids risk === Use of a smartphone while sitting on the toilet has been associated with a higher prevalence of hemorrhoids. A study found that individuals who use a smartphone while sitting on the toilet spend, on average, more time there, and that the likelihood of developing hemorrhoids increases by approximately 46% compared to those who do not use a smartphone while on the toilet (after adjustment for age, sex, and other medical factors).<ref name="Ramprasad2025">{{cite journal| last1 = Ramprasad | first1 = Chethan| last2 = Wu | first2 = Colin| last3 = Chang | first3 = Jocelyn| last4 = Rangan | first4 = Vikram| last5 = Iturrino | first5 = Johanna| last6 = Ballou | first6 = Sarah| last7 = Singh | first7 = Prashant| last8 = Lembo | first8 = Anthony| last9 = Nee | first9 = Judy| last10 = Pasricha | first10 = Trisha| title = Smartphone use on the toilet and the risk of hemorrhoids| journal = PLOS One| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = e0329983| date = 2025}}</ref> === Regulation of mobile health applications === With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in the market place, government regulatory agencies raised concerns on the safety of the use of such applications. These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives worldwide with the aim of safeguarding users from untrusted medical advice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yetisen | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Martinez-Hurtado | first2 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = The regulation of mobile medical applications | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 833–840 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC51235E | pmid = 24425070 | s2cid = 16910239 }}</ref> ===Sleep=== {{Main|Electronic media and sleep}} Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects [[melatonin]] levels and [[sleep cycles]]. In an effort to alleviate these issues, "Night Mode" functionality to change the [[color temperature]] of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated became available through several apps for Android and the [[f.lux]] software for [[Jailbreak (iPhone OS)|jailbroken]] iPhones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/|title=Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer|last1=Hoffman|first1=Chris|date=October 23, 2014|website=How-To Geek|access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> [[iOS 9|iOS 9.3]] integrated a similar, system-level feature known as "[[Night Shift (software)|Night Shift]]". Several Android device manufacturers bypassed Google's initial reluctance to make Night Mode a standard feature in Android and included software for it on their hardware under varying names, before [[Android Oreo]] added it to the OS for compatible devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blichert |first=Frederick |title=How to enable Night Mode on Android to reduce eye strain |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/night-mode-on-android-886864/ |date=July 17, 2019 |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref> It has also been theorized that for some users, addiction to use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in "[[ego depletion]]". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.<ref name="cnet-bluelight">{{cite web|title=Stop your gadgets from keeping you awake at night|url=http://www.cnet.com/how-to/stop-your-gadgets-from-keeping-you-awake-at-night/|website=CNET|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalsbeek |first=Andries |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53Jxsj5ZZ98C |title=The Neurobiology of Circadian Timing |publisher=Elsevier |page=382 |isbn=978-0-444-59427-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Luisa |last=Dillner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/jun/09/smartphones-tablets-in-bedroom-sleep |title=Should I keep my smartphone and tablet out of my bedroom? |work=The Guardian |date=June 9, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130603163610.htm |title=Are smartphones disrupting your sleep? |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mahesh |last=Sharma |url=http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/switching-off-your-smartphone-at-night-makes-you-more-productive-20140403-zqpc4.html |title=Switching off your smartphone at night makes you more productive |newspaper=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> == Restrictions and bans == {{Further|Digital detox}} In some countries authorities make efforts to reduce digital device use, including smartphones among students. * [[South Korea]] passed nationwide classroom phone ban. The law will come to effect in March 2026. Exceptions allowed for students with disabilities, emergencies and educational purposes. * [[France]] and [[Finland]] made partial bans, generally for younger students. * [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[China]] created stronger restrictions. The policy improved the situation in Dutch schools. * In [[Australia]] there are state-level bans. [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] and [[New South Wales]] are introducing policies that prohibit phone use during school hours. "There is significant scientific and medical proof that smartphone addiction has extremely harmful effects on students' brain development and emotional growth," [[Cho Jung-hun]], who introduced the bill in South Korea told the BBC. Not all students agree this will solve the problem. "Rather than simply taking phones away, I think the first step should be teaching students what they can do without them," said Seo Min-joon, an 18-year-old high schooler. Another student, aged 13, said that he does not have time to be addicted to his phone due to an overloaded schedule.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea passes nationwide classroom phone ban to combat youth smartphone addiction |url=https://www.trtworld.com/article/32c9667fafd6 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=27 August 2025}}</ref> In 2024–2025 Australia and France began to advance legislation which prohibits entirely the use of social media by children under the age of 15–16.<ref>{{cite news |title=France mulls total ban on social media for under 15, digital curfew for teens |url=https://trt.global/world/article/366d24cfd490 |access-date=11 September 2025 |agency=TRT World |date=11 September 2025}}</ref> In Australia the law came into effect on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Can you ban kids from social media? Australia is about to, but some teens are a step ahead |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crk7xgzj8y8o |access-date=7 December 2025 |agency=BBC |date=6 December 2026}}</ref> ==Replacement of dedicated digital cameras== As the 2010s decade commenced, the sale figures of dedicated compact cameras decreased sharply since mobile phone cameras were increasingly perceived as serving as a sufficient surrogate camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-06 |title=As iPhone Turns 15, Smartphones Continue to Hurt Camera Sales |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/as-iphone-turns-15-smartphones-continue-to-hurt-camera-sales/6647692.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Increases in computing power in mobile phones enabled fast image processing and high-resolution filming, with 1080p Full HD being achieved in 2011 and the barrier to 2160p 4K being breached in 2013. However, due to design and space limitations, smartphones lack several features found even on low-budget compact cameras, including a [[Hot swapping|hot-swappable]] memory card and battery for nearly uninterrupted operation, physical buttons and knobs for focusing and capturing and zooming, a [[Tripod (photography)#Bolt threads|bolt thread tripod mount]], a [[capacitor]]-charged [[xenon flash]] that exceeds the brightness of smartphones' LED flashlights, and an ergonomic grip for steadier holding during handheld shooting, which enables longer exposure times. Since dedicated cameras can be more spacious, they can house larger image sensors and feature [[optical zoom]]ing. Since the late 2010s, smartphone manufacturers have bypassed the lack of optical zoom to a limited extent by incorporating additional rear cameras with fixed magnification levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Photography vs. the DSLR {{!}} B&H eXplora |url=https://www.bhphotovideo.com/explora/photography/hands-review/mobile-photography-vs-dslr |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=www.bhphotovideo.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brad |date=2017-08-16 |title=DSLRs vs. Smartphone Cameras, Compared: The Pros and Cons |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/dslr-vs-smartphone-cameras-comparison/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MUO |language=en}}</ref> ==Lifespan== {{Further|Lithium-ion battery#Lifespan|Planned obsolescence#Batteries}} [[File:Day_4_Agbogloshie_(25891029818).jpg|thumb|[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]]]] In mobile phones released since the second half of the 2010s, operational life span commonly is limited by built-in batteries which are not designed to be interchangeable. The life expectancy of batteries depends on usage intensity of the powered device, where activity (longer usage) and tasks demanding more energy expire the battery earlier. [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium-ion]] and [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer]] batteries, those commonly powering [[Mobile computing#Portable computing devices|portable electronics]], additionally wear down more from fuller charge and deeper discharge cycles, and when unused for an extended amount of time while depleted, where self-discharging may lead to a harmful depth of discharge.<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers related to lithium - ion rechargeable b attery care |url=https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |publisher=PLARAD Torque & Tension Systems |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235201/https://www.plarad.de/fileadmin/downloads/FAQ_related%20to%20lithium%20ion%20rechargeable%20battery%20care_DA1_en_0216.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Manufacturers have prevented some smartphones from operating after repairs, by associating components' unique serial numbers to the device so it will refuse to operate or disable some functionality in case of a mismatch that would occur after a replacement. Locking of the serial number was first documented in 2015 on the [[iPhone 6]], which would become inoperable from a detected replacement of the "home" button. Later, some functionality was restricted on Apple and Samsung smartphones when a battery replacement not authorized by the vendor was detected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Furqan |date=2021-01-18 |title=Samsung Secretly Restricts 3rd Party Hardware Repairs |url=https://wccftech.com/samsung-secretly-restricts-3rd-party-hardware-repairs/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Wccftech |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-26 |title=Apple apologises, releases fix for iPhones bricked by Error 53 |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/671975/what-is-iphone-error-53-and-how-do-i-avoid-it.html |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Telephones|Internet|Modern history}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Lists of mobile computers]] * [[List of mobile app distribution platforms]] * [[Media Transfer Protocol]] * [[Mobile Internet device]] * [[Portable media player]] * [[Second screen]] * [[Smartphone kill switch]] * [[Smartphone zombie]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{commons-inline}} {{Computer sizes}} {{Mobile phones}} {{Table Mobile operating systems}} {{Telecommunications}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Smartphones| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Cloud clients]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Information appliances]] [[Category:Personal digital assistants]] jjum53aj32tqtmm5f3kb5feoncd144k زمرو:ايس ايم ايس 14 100396 394771 2026-07-16T09:04:07Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [زمرو:اطلاع]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] 394771 wikitext text/x-wiki [زمرو:اطلاع]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] k1fosmfh0pp5bp4xmopobbwyqkd1tz7 394772 394771 2026-07-16T09:04:23Z Memon2025 21315 /* */ 394772 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:اطلاع]] [[زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون]] m7pe6xd3rzqhjwz9k7evkpjnqvi9pre زمرو:موبائل ربط جون خدمتون 14 100397 394773 2026-07-16T09:05:01Z Memon2025 21315 نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] 394773 wikitext text/x-wiki [[زمرو:ربطيات]] [[زمرو:موبائل فون]] 1x949gajse9b5wrgc0fo23x4rl74kun